IET TRANSPORTATION SERIES 39

Electric Vehicle
Components and
Charging Technologies
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Electric Vehicle
Components and
Charging Technologies
Design, modeling, simulation and control

Edited by
Sanjeev Singh, Sanjay Gairola and Sanjeet Dwivedi

The Institution of Engineering and Technology

Published by The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United Kingdom
The Institution of Engineering and Technology is registered as a Charity in England &
Wales (no. 211014) and Scotland (no. SC038698).
† The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2024
First published 2023

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this product is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-83953-671-7 (hardback)

ISBN 978-1-83953-672-4 (PDF)

Typeset in India by MPS Limited

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Cover image: Peter Dazeley/The Image Bank via Getty Images
 Contents

About the editors xiii

Preface xv

1 Electric vehicles and its components 1

Sanjeet Dwivedi, Sanjay Gairola and Sanjeev Singh
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 History of EVs 2
1.3 Conventional vehicles and hybrid EVs 3
1.4 EV and major components 3
1.4.1 Drive motor 4
1.4.2 Battery 4
1.4.3 Battery charging circuit 4
1.4.4 Power electronic converters 4
1.4.5 Supercapacitors 4
1.4.6 Flywheels 4
1.4.7 Energy management system 5
1.4.8 Regenerative braking system 5
1.5 Economics and impact of EVs 5
1.6 Important aspects of EV technologies 5
1.6.1 Motor drive technology 5
1.6.2 Energy source technology 6
1.6.3 Battery charging technology 6
1.6.4 Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology 6
1.7 Main configurations of EVs 6
1.7.1 All EV (AEV) 6
1.7.2 Hybrid EV (HEV) 6
1.7.3 Plug-in hybrid EV (PHEV) 7
1.7.4 Gridable EV 7
1.7.5 Fuel cell EV 7
1.8 Summary 7
References 8

2 Electric vehicle fundamentals 9

Sanjay Gairola, Sanjeev Singh, Sanjeet Dwivedi and Rahul Dubey
2.1 Evolution of Electric Vehicles 9
2.2 General vehicle dynamics 11
vi Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

2.3 Economic and environmental impact of conventional vehicle

leading to selection of EV 13
2.3.1 Environmental impact that is handled by EVs 14
2.4 Types of EVs 14
2.4.1 BEVs 14
2.4.2 HEVs 16
2.4.3 PHEV 16
2.4.4 FCEV 16
2.5 Configurations of EVs 16
2.6 General EV setup 17
2.7 Energy sources 18
2.8 Electric motors 18
2.9 High-voltage system in EV 20
2.10 EV automakers legacy 20
2.11 Market and technology trends for EVs 21
2.11.1 Market and energy usage 21
2.11.2 Technology trends 23
2.12 Summary 26
References 28

3 Electric energy sources and storage device 31

R. Kalpana, Kenguru Manjunath, Vinod R. Chiliveri and R. Kiran
3.1 Introduction 31
3.1.1 Electric energy sources 31
3.1.2 Storage devices 32
3.2 Electric batteries 34
3.2.1 Preliminaries 35
3.2.2 Working of a cell 37
3.2.3 Different types of batteries 39
3.3 Fuel cell 45
3.3.1 Introduction 45
3.3.2 Working of fuel cell 46
3.3.3 Applications of fuel cell 49
3.4 Ultracapacitors 50
3.5 Fundamentals of electric battery 51
3.5.1 Battery cell structure 51
3.5.2 Battery parameters 52
3.6 Modeling of electric battery 55
3.6.1 Equivalent circuit model 56
3.7 Various electric battery technologies 59
3.8 Selection of electric battery 62
3.9 Battery management system 64
3.9.1 Cell balancing 64
3.9.2 Types of cell balancing techniques 64
3.10 Summary 68
References 70
 Contents vii

4 Power electronic essentials in electric vehicle 73

Siddhant Gudhe and Sanjeev Singh
4.1 Power electronic circuits in electric vehicles 73
4.2 MCU 74
4.2.1 VSC 75
4.2.2 Condition monitoring and control of electric motor 76
4.2.3 Regenerative braking of traction motor 76
4.3 DC–DC converter 76
4.3.1 Multi-output DC–DC converter 76
4.3.2 Multi-source converter 77
4.4 BMS 78
4.4.1 Power factor correction (PFC) 78
4.4.2 Cell balancing system 79
4.5 Other applications 79
4.6 Summary 80
References 80

5 Design, modeling, simulation, and control of electric vehicle 83

Peng Guan
5.1 Introduction 83
5.2 EV modeling 84
5.3 Critical aspects of EV design 91
5.4 Tools and techniques for modeling and simulation of EVs 93
5.4.1 Aerodynamics 94
5.4.2 Finite element 95
5.4.3 MBD 97
5.4.4 EV control simulation and verification 97
5.5 EV motor control 98
5.5.1 Control modules 98
5.5.2 Classic motor control model 100
5.6 EV control optimization and condition monitoring 101
5.6.1 EV control optimization 101
5.6.2 EV condition monitoring 102
5.7 Summary 103
References 103

6 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines and

drives used in electric vehicle 105
Faz Rahman
6.1 Introduction to motor drives for electric vehicles 105
6.2 Torque–speed capability requirements for EVs 105
6.3 The evolution of IPM machines for EV application 109
6.3.1 The IPM rotor 110
6.3.2 The fractional-slot concentrated winding (FSCW) stator
winding of the IPM machine 110
viii Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

6.3.3 IPM machine performance from FE analysis 112

6.3.4 Steady-state performance from measured stator parameters 113
6.4 The dynamic model and control of IPMSMs 117
6.4.1 dq Current controls below base speed and above with
field weakening 118
6.4.2 Power converters for EVs 119
6.4.3 Torque control 119
6.5 Optimum control trajectories 120
6.5.1 The condition for maximum torque per ampere (MTPA)
characteristic 120
6.5.2 Operation under current and voltage limits 122
6.5.3 The crossover speed wc 122
6.5.4 Operation with MTPA and field-weakening under
maximum current and voltage limits 124
6.5.5 The characteristic current and flux-weakening control
conditions 124
6.6 Selection of control modes 125
6.6.1 Operation with MTPA below base speed 125
6.6.2 Operation between base and crossover speeds 126
6.6.3 Operation with field-wakening above the crossover speed 126
6.6.4 MTPV trajectory control 127
6.7 Controller implementation issues 128
6.7.1 Voltage compensation for avoiding current controller
saturation 128
6.7.2 Prevention of controller saturation during field-weakening 129
6.8 Current controller gains for FOC IPMSM drives 131
6.9 Dynamic responses and trajectory following 133
6.10 Variation of machine parameters and impacts 137
6.11 Summary 138
References 140

7 Battery management system for electric vehicle 147

Khare Mangesh, Mandhana Abhishek, Gudhe Siddhant, Singh Sanjeev
and D Giribabu
7.1 Introduction 147
7.2 BMS overview 148
7.2.1 Common concepts in BMS 149
7.3 Measured parameters 151
7.3.1 Voltage, current, and temperature measurement 151
7.3.2 Gas sensors 153
7.3.3 Inferred parameters 153
7.4 BMS system architecture 157
7.4.1 Centralized architecture 157
7.4.2 Distributed architecture 157
7.4.3 Factors influencing choice of architecture 159
 Contents ix

7.5 BMS functionalities 159

7.5.1 Protections 159
7.5.2 Cell balancing 160
7.5.3 Battery-inferred parameter estimation 162
7.6 BMS hardware 162
7.6.1 BMS hardware architecture 162
7.6.2 HW design considerations BMS performance parameters 170
7.6.3 BMS software 171
7.7 Future trends in BMS 179
7.7.1 Wireless BMS 179
7.7.2 Cloud-connected BMS 179
7.7.3 Switchable architecture 179
7.7.4 Battery swapping 179
7.8 Summary 180
References 181

8 Fault–tolerant operation of electric vehicles 183

Paramjeet Singh Jamwal, Vinay Kumar and Sanjeev Singh
8.1 Introduction 183
8.2 Types of faults in a VSC and their detection 184
8.2.1 OC fault in VSC 184
8.2.2 SC fault in VSC 186
8.3 Identification of faulty phase in VSCs 187
8.4 Removal of fault in VSCs 188
8.4.1 Isolation of faulty phase switches of VSCs 188
8.4.2 Activation of additional phase switches of VSCs 188
8.5 Fault–tolerant VSC topologies for EVs 189
8.5.1 Two-level VSC topologies 189
8.5.2 Three-level VSC topologies 190
8.6 Results and discussion 190
8.7 Summary 196
References 198

9 Design, simulation, and control of battery charger for

electric vehicle 201
Anjanee Kumar Mishra and Ankit Kumar Singh
9.1 Introduction 201
9.2 Classifications of chargers 202
9.3 Integrated charging system 204
9.4 Assessment of existing integrated charging circuits 208
9.5 Modified zeta-based integrated converter for battery charging 209
9.6 Working of integrated converter 209
9.6.1 PIC mode of operation 210
9.6.2 Charging through solar power 211
9.6.3 Driving mode of vehicle 211
x Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

9.6.4 Regenerative braking mode 212

9.7 Design of the battery-charging converter 212
9.7.1 Design of switching devices 213
9.7.2 Aspects of passive component selection 213
9.7.3 Size of capacitor (Cm) 215
9.7.4 Size of capacitor (Cb) 215
9.8 Control strategy 216
9.8.1 Control for the modes of propulsion and
regenerative braking 217
9.9 Result and analysis 218
9.10 Summary 222
References 224

10 Power quality control of battery charging system 229

Shailendra Kumar, Rheesabh Dwivedi, Sanjay Gairola
and Miloud Rezkallah
10.1 Introduction 229
10.2 PQ control for battery charger 231
10.2.1 Passive methods 232
10.2.2 Active methods 233
10.2.3 PQ standards 234
10.3 Topologies for PQ control of battery charger 234
10.3.1 Uncontrolled rectifier topologies 234
10.3.2 Controlled rectifier topologies 236
10.3.3 Bidirectional converter topologies 236
10.3.4 BL converter topologies 239
10.3.5 Dual active bridge converter topology 245
10.4 Multi-pulse and multi-level topologies 248
10.4.1 Multi-pulse converters 248
10.4.2 Multi-level converters 256
10.4.3 Design of single-phase multilevel EV charger 260
10.4.4 Modeling, simulation, and performance of single-phase
multilevel EV charger 262
10.4.5 Operation of three-phase multilevel EV charger 263
10.4.6 Hardware parameter design 264
10.4.7 Performance simulation of three-phase multilevel
EV charger 264
10.5 Summary 266
References 267

11 Wireless power transfer for electric vehicle 269

Sumit Pramanick and Anandarup Das
11.1 Introduction 269
11.1.1 Wired charging and its challenges 270
 Contents xi

11.1.2 Potential gain with wireless charging 270

11.1.3 Challenges with WPT 270
11.1.4 Capacitive wireless charging 271
11.2 Inductive wireless power transfer 271
11.2.1 Modeling of coils 272
11.2.2 Compensation networks 277
11.2.3 Power transfer and efficiency 279
11.2.4 Converter control and MATLAB simulation of
IWPT system 283
11.3 Standards of wireless power charging 291
11.3.1 IEC standard 291
11.3.2 SAE J2954 standard 292
11.3.3 ISO 19363 standard 292
11.4 Summary 293
References 295

12 Grid integration of electric vehicles 297

Bindeshwar Singh, Pankaj Kumar Dubey, Varun Kumar
and Mukesh Kumar
12.1 Introduction 297
12.1.1 Categorization of EVs 299
12.1.2 Charging station 300
12.1.3 Grid integration of EVs 303
12.2 Case study of analysis of EVs planning in 16 bus systems
for ZIP-LDMs 311
12.2.1 Mathematical modeling of EVs planning 311
12.3 Result and discussion 317
12.3.1 Equations relying on several objectives functions 317
12.4 Future aspects of grid integration EVs 325
12.4.1 EVs scenario in India 326
12.5 Summary 327
12.5.1 Conclusions 327
12.5.2 Future scope 328
References 330

13 Regulations and standards of electric vehicles 333

Rahul Arora, Paramjeet Singh Jamwal and Ujjwal K. Kalla
13.1 Introduction 333
13.2 EV batteries standards 334
13.3 Grid interface standards 335
13.4 Charging standards 336
13.4.1 IEC standards 336
13.4.2 SAE standards 336
xii Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

13.5 Safety standards for charging infrastructure 337

13.6 International test standards for chargers 338
13.6.1 Standards and codes for connectors 339
13.6.2 Standards and codes for communications 340
13.7 Summary 340
References 342

Index 347
 About the editors

Sanjeev Singh is a professor in the Electrical Engineering Department at Maulana

Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India. He has 23 years’ experience
in teaching and research. His research interests are focused on energy management,
renewable energy integration, electric vehicles, power electronics, and drives. He is
a senior member of the IEEE, fellow of Institution of Engineers (IE) India, The
Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers (IETE) India, and
System Society of India (SSI) and a life member of the Indian Society for Technical
Education (ISTE).

Sanjay Gairola is a professor in the Electrical Engineering Department at Govind

Ballabh Pant Institute of Engineering and Technology (GBPIET), Uttarakhand,
India. His fields of interest include power quality, power electronics, electric
machines, drives, electric vehicles, and renewable energy. He is a senior member of
the IEEE and a life member of the Indian Society for Technical Education
(ISTE), India.

Sanjeet Dwivedi is a senior technology leader at green hydrogen based Danish

MNC Everfuel A/S. Previously, he worked as a technology leader in Danfoss
Global R&D in Denmark. His research interests include control methods of PM
motors, induction motors, and synchronous reluctance motors, sensor-less control
of AC drives, energy efficient control of drive, and power quality. He is a senior
member of the IEEE and fellow of IET (UK).
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

The last decade of the 21st century has witnessed a profound shift in the way we
perceive and interact with transportation. Electric Vehicles (EVs), once considered
a niche concept, have now firmly established themselves as a transformative force
in the automotive industry. As we stand on the cusp of a greener and more sus-
tainable future, the need for a comprehensive understanding of the intricate com-
ponents and advanced charging technologies that power this electric revolution has
never been more critical.
“Electric Vehicles: Components and Charging Technologies” is an exploration
into the heart and soul of the EV revolution. This book is a result of an extensive
collaboration among experts and researchers who have dedicated their knowledge,
skills, and passion to decipher the intricate working of electric vehicles and the
infrastructure that supports them.
In this ever-evolving landscape, it is crucial for industry professionals, engi-
neers, students, and enthusiasts to grasp the fundamental building blocks of electric
vehicles. This book offers a comprehensive journey through the various compo-
nents that make up an electric vehicle, including the battery technology, electric
motors, power electronics, and control systems. Each chapter delves into the prin-
ciples and innovations behind these components, offering insights into the tech-
nological advancements that have made EVs not only viable but also superior in
many aspects to their internal combustion engine counterparts.
Moreover, we recognize the pivotal role that charging infrastructure plays in
the widespread adoption of electric vehicles. This book also extensively covers the
myriad charging technologies, from home charging solutions to fast chargers and
the emerging field of wireless charging. Understanding these technologies is
imperative to address the practical challenges of range anxiety and facilitate the
seamless integration of electric vehicles into our daily lives.
As we embark on this educational journey, our aim is to provide readers with
the knowledge and tools necessary to navigate the rapidly changing landscape of
electric vehicles. We hope to inspire innovation, foster sustainable transportation
solutions, and contribute to a cleaner, more environmentally responsible world.
This book is designed to serve as a valuable resource, providing both a solid
foundation for newcomers to the field and a wealth of insights for seasoned
professionals.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the authors and contributors
who have poured their expertise into this work, as well as the readers who are
joining us on this enlightening journey. It is our hope that “Electric Vehicles:
xvi Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Components and Charging Technologies” will become an essential reference in the

ongoing electrification of the automotive industry, paving the way for a brighter,
more sustainable future.
Let us embark on this enlightening journey into the world of electric vehicles,
with the belief that by understanding their components and charging technologies,
we can contribute to a cleaner, more sustainable world for generations to come.
Last but not the least, we are grateful to our colleagues around the world for
their hard work in writing the chapters and for going through many stages of
checking the final versions of their chapters and for their perseverance through
these processes. The team at the IET, authors and editors have done a tremendous
job in keeping the authors meet certain deadlines and in proofreading the chapters
thoroughly. We would also like to thank our respective families (Mrs Pravina
Singh, Mrs Poonam Gairola and Mrs Alka Dwivedi) for their patience and support
throughout our involvement with the book over the past three years.

Editors

Sanjeev Singh, Bhopal India

Sanjay Gairola, Paudi, India
Sanjeet Dwivedi, Graasten, Denmark
 Chapter 1
Electric vehicles and its components
Sanjeet Dwivedi1, Sanjay Gairola2 and Sanjeev Singh3

1.1 Introduction
After the revolution in the field of communication through smartphones and newer
generation of mobile communication technology in last decade, the research around the
globe is focused on the improvement and commercialization of the latest technologies
along with a new mode of transportation, i.e., electric vehicles. Although the mobile
communication technology has improved as an extension of previous technology, the
electric vehicle (EV)-based transportation is entirely a new market. Suddenly everyone
has started talking about EVs and the din of EVs is fast reaching its crescendo. With the
success of electric cars from TESLA, the initial skepticism has started fading, leading to
sure-footed march towards routing of the transportation system that is based on petro-
leum fuel employing an internal combustion engine (ICE). Hyundai, Chevrolet,
Volkswagen, Nissan, Toyota, BMW, Mitsubishi, GM, and Audi along with Tesla are
some car manufacturers who are already competing to improve these vehicles.
In fact, EVs are not a recent occurrence as the first EV was developed before the
ICE that came into the picture in 1885 [1–5]. However, the last century witnessed the
dominance and maturity of ICE-based vehicles due to the availability of crude oil in
abundance, lower cost, efficacy, and reliability of the technology. The major electric
transport that was surviving is one that used rails or ropes/belts such as electric trains,
elevators lifts, and ropeways. With time, the depletion of petroleum fuel started while
electrical and electronics for power control algorithms improved drastically and so the
ICE-based vehicles started losing attraction. Moreover, the pollution due to fossil fuel
has increased to levels dangerous for human life itself and, therefore, the committees
dealing with environmental concerns are regularly demanding to check the use.
The need for EVs was worldwide felt in 1970s when the demand for gasoline
went up and prices also started soaring high. The fear of fast depletion of crude oil
fueled the thought and, since 1990s, serious efforts have been made by researchers,
scientists, industrialists, and governments. The protocols for EVs were discussed in

1
Technology Management, Everfuel A/S, Denmark
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, Govind Ballabh Pant Institute of Engineering & Technology, India
3
Electrical Engineering Department, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology (MANIT) Bhopal,
India
2 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Pollution from vehicles Accidents on roads Traffic congestion and

management

Figure 1.1 Problems with vehicles

different platforms and strategies for safety, reliability, and cost were analyzed. The
motivation for EVs is such that the industrialists are focusing on grabbing this
opportunity in every domain of transportation through the adoption of smart tech-
nologies and the manufacturing revolution. The competition to claim the future
market of electric one/two-wheelers, three-wheelers, cars, trucks, buses, airplanes
(small and big), and ships has reached a level where the companies have already
chalked out long-term design, testing, and manufacturing plans.
It is the right time not only for the researchers to look deeper into the techno-
logical aspects of pure EVs but also for the engineering students who are having
some interest in this field. The knowledge of power electronics, motor drives, bat-
teries, fast charging circuits, microcontrollers, programming, optimization, and con-
trol are desired along with mechanical and managerial aspects to prosper by working
in this sector. The pollution, accidents, and traffic congestion on roads are the pro-
blems with the vehicles as shown in Figure 1.1 which need resolution for the safety
and healthy life of any society that can be done through smart EVs and management.

1.2 History of EVs

The first EV was a small toy car that employed a primitive electric motor, built in
1828 by a Hungarian named Anyos Jedlik [1]. After that, some better working
models of electric car, driven mainly by primary cells, was built in Scotland,
Vermont (USA) and Netherlands by individuals. Gaston Plante invented recharge-
able lead–acid battery in 1859, making EVs viable for commercial purposes. The
first electric car production was started in London by inventor Thomas Parker in
1884. In Germany, first electric car was made by Andreas Flocken in 1888. In the
United States, William Morrison built the first car in 1891 that was powered by lead–
acid storage cells, having steering and a top speed of 20 miles/h [5].
EVs powered by lead–acid cells became popular in the late 1890s and early
1900s. Some of the popular names associated with EVs during this period are Karl
Benz of Germany, Walter Bersey of Britain, Dr Ferdinand Porsche of Austria,
Walter Baker of Ohio, and many more.
The decline in the popularity of EVs started by the 1920s when the discovery of
large petroleum reserves all over the world led to the availability of cheap gasoline.
This led to the acceptance of ICE for vehicles. In the year 1912, the electric starter
 Electric vehicles and its components 3

was invented by Charles Kettering to eliminate the difficult hand crank needed for
cars with ICE. Moreover, the mass production of ICE cars was started by Henry Ford
in 1913, making them much cheaper than EVs which was another major blow to
EVs. By the end of 1935, almost all EVs had disappeared from roads [1].

1.3 Conventional vehicles and hybrid EVs

The ICE is considered conventional while EVs are modern vehicles as per the new
needs of society. The transition from conventional to EV is happening through a middle
path chosen by a number of vehicle manufacturers like Hyundai, Honda, etc. The phi-
losophy for hybrid vehicles is to take benefit of both modes, reducing the weaknesses
existing in electrical vehicle technology. The main drawback is the capacity of battery
and its charging time and the related infrastructure. EVs are much expensive than their
gasoline counterparts, and that is the main barrier for its adoption as pure EVs at present.
The economics of these vehicles have forced the car manufacturer to adopt the hybrid
approach. The day cost of gasoline reaches sufficiently high and the cost of battery and
its charging cost reduce sufficiently low that the pure EVs shall dominate the vehicle
market. At present, the hybrid EV is the preferred choice.
The four types of hybrid vehicles are possible—series hybrid, parallel hybrid,
series–parallel, and complex hybrid.

1.4 EV and major components

A pure EV essentially has a motor, a battery, and power electronic circuitry for
efficient control. An electric motor is used for propulsion that receives power from
an onboard source of electricity which is a rechargeable battery or fuel cell [2]. The
increase of efficiency in some EVs is done by additionally employing ultra-
capacitors or flywheels. It may or may not have the gear mechanism in it for power
transmission. Even differential axles may also be absent in some designs. The
layout of a typical EV is shown in Figure 1.2 with its components.
Important components of the EV and their basic functions are discussed below.

Accelerator
Braking controller pedal

Motor
controller
Wheel speed
sensor
Differential Reducer Drive
motor

Battery

Figure 1.2 Layout of an EV

4 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

1.4.1 Drive motor

The drive motor employed for an EV may be any motor among induction motor,
permanent magnet brushless (PMBL) motor, switched reluctance motor (SRM),
synchronous reluctance motor (SyRM), and other axial flux and magnet less
motors. The motor to be employed must have high efficiency and power density;
therefore, brushless motors employing rare earth material-based permanent mag-
nets like NdFeB are used.

1.4.2 Battery
The popular types of the batteries in the market are Lead–acid battery, Ni–Cd
battery, Li–ion battery, metal–air batteries, etc. The desired features of a battery
are low cost, high specific energy, pollution free without carbon footprints, low
specific weight, easy constituent chemical availability in abundance, fast char-
ging, and long life. The researchers are trying a number of alternatives and the
features determining acceptance of a battery are compared with the corre-
sponding characteristics of ICE fuel for it to be acceptable. It seems at present
the Li–ion batteries are the most preferred source for electric cars. It is desired
that the battery should be able to power an EV for about 620 km continuously on
one charge; however, at present, this is a distant reality.

1.4.3 Battery charging circuit

Charging of vehicle battery should be possible at home during the night; however,
charging stations are needed during long-distance drives. Alternatively, the power
source for charging the battery may be PV supply or wind power. Some wireless
battery charging techniques are also proposed by the researchers through which
batteries can be charged on roads at traffic lights.

1.4.4 Power electronic converters

Mainly efficient DC to DC or DC to AC or AC to DC converter topologies are
needed. Converters based on vector control, direct torque control, etc. may be
needed [3]. Regenerative braking must be employed.

1.4.5 Supercapacitors
The dynamic power supplies and sudden transient disturbance recovery should be
possible by using suitable value supercapacitors having capacity values in the range
of kilo Farads. These can be charged at much higher rates than a battery. This has
led to their suitability in power circuit configurations for EVs.

1.4.6 Flywheels
Flywheels may store kinetic energy in the form of their moment of inertia and return
power back for charging a battery or driving wheel through suitable circuitry.
 Electric vehicles and its components 5

1.4.7 Energy management system

The energy management system (EMS) monitors control of required functions in
an EV thereby acting as its brain. It is a computer-based system that dynamically
optimizes the charge of batteries to maximize the operating range and improve
performance.

1.4.8 Regenerative braking system

If a battery has to have a better powering distance range, it must be efficiently used
and, therefore, the regenerative braking is a necessary component of EVs.

1.5 Economics and impact of EVs

It is important to understand the problems of EVs for its realization. There are two
major concerns of EVs, namely, cost and range. The cost of an EV depends on the
motor and its controller; battery, its charging, and battery management system; in
addition to the safety and luxury aspects of the vehicle. To compete with the pre-
sent ICE-based vehicles, EV manufacturers have the following concerns as chal-
lenges for researchers.
● Initial cost.
● Vehicle range on full-battery charge.
● Battery charging infrastructure.
● Battery charging time.
● Performance to accelerate, cruise, and climb.
● Fear of running out of power in the middle of drive.
● Safety and reliability.
● Recurring battery cost for EV.
With an increase in EVs, the load on the conventional grid shall also increase
because the primary source of power is still the conventional grid. The use of
renewable energy sources specifically solar and wind are being employed either in
islanded mode or for supporting the grid. The technologies employed to overcome
these difficulties shall decide the economic viability of the EVs based on EVs
individual performance and cost; and, hence, their acceptance by customers.

1.6 Important aspects of EV technologies

The important aspects of EV technologies that must be discussed are as follows.

1.6.1 Motor drive technology

The motor drive technology depends on the type of electric motor employed for the
EV. At present, induction motor drive and PMBL motor drive technologies are
being preferred for most of the EVs [3].
6 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

1.6.2 Energy source technology

The researchers around the globe are rigorously searching energy source technologies
that are feasible for EVs in terms of high energy storage with less volume and weight.
As of date, batteries are the most preferred energy source for EVs. Other sources may
be fuel cells, ultracapacitors, and renewable energy if found suitable and economical.

1.6.3 Battery charging technology

The batteries can store a fixed amount of charge, which will deplete after running
the EVs; therefore, the charging of batteries is an essential part. The battery char-
ging takes longer time in conventional mode and needs infrastructure for faster
charging, if wants to compete with ICE-based vehicles. Wireless charging tech-
nology can be used while the vehicle is moving or standing. The conventional
source for charging the EV battery shall be a grid only and this charging method is
called as grid-to-vehicle (G2V) mode.

1.6.4 Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology

The conventional charging of the EV battery from the grid imposes additional load
on the grid, if it happens during the peak load hours. Therefore, the EVs can be
used as a storage of power if they can be used to feed the grid using inverters during
peak load hours. This mode of operation is called V2G mode and the technology
used for this is known as V2G technology.

1.7 Main configurations of EVs

The EVs run solely on electric propulsion or it may also have ICE working
alongside it. The EVs can be classified based on source of power employed in it
and the charging method employed.

1.7.1 All EV (AEV)

The EV that gets it power from battery only is known as all EV (AEV) and
sometimes battery EV (BEV). It can also be called as pure EV. Typically, these
vehicles can cover a range of 100–250 km on one charge. The recharging time for
vehicle batteries may be as high as 8–11 hours to completely replenish the battery.

1.7.2 Hybrid EV (HEV)

To overcome the fear of running out of power in the middle of the drive, some of
the manufacturers have used an ICE additionally with the EV. Such vehicles are
known as hybrid EVs (HEVs) and lead to huge initial costs [4]. HEVs are further
classified based on their arrangement configuration, as (1) series hybrid, (2) parallel
hybrid, (3) series–parallel hybrid, and (4) complex hybrid. In HEVs, the electric
propulsion is used to reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and fuel con-
sumption, especially at low speeds.
 Electric vehicles and its components 7

1.7.3 Plug-in hybrid EV (PHEV)

PHEVs mainly employ electric propulsion and, therefore, have bigger capacity
battery compared to HEVs [4]. It has the ability to run solely on electricity for most
of the time thereby reducing the carbon footprint drastically.

1.7.4 Gridable EV
The AEVs and PHEVs, having vehicle-to-grid capability, are known as gridable
EVs. These vehicles must have bidirectional converters and can be used as energy
storage devices during the off-peak hours of the grid.

1.7.5 Fuel cell EV

Fuel cell has been used as one of the energy sources for providing electric power. In
the place of batteries, fuel cell can be used and it avoids long charging hours, but
the safety and voluminous space requirements are constraints of such vehicles.
These vehicles may be a game changer in the future, as they have high-energy
density and no pollution at all.

1.8 Summary
The EVs were around us even before the turn of the twentieth century and it has
taken sufficient time to come up to the present stage. The government policies to
reduce pollution and dependence on the petroleum products coupled with the
enhanced use of renewable energy sources for preserving the nature are the boosting
factors for the EVs acceptance. The modern EV is a completely new machine with
special features, even then, its acceptance in the society shall be based on many
factors including its cost, ease of operation, and other convenience features. Based on
the discussions presented in the chapter, the following can be summarized.
● EV is an electric propulsion vehicle that consists of the electric motor, power
converter, and energy source, with its own distinct characteristics.
● It is not just a vehicle but a new system for our society, realizing clean and
efficient road transportation.
● It must have an intelligent system that can be easily integrated with modern
transportation and electrical networks.
● Future designs must involve the integration of art and engineering to fulfill EV
user’s expectations.

Symbols

Ni Nickel
Cd Cadmium
Li Lithium
NdFeB Neodymium iron boron
8 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Glossary
Bayerische Motoren Werke A popular German motor manufacture, producing
GmBH (BMW) elegant cars since 1917 from Munich.
Permanent Magnet These are special motors having permanent mag-
Brushless (PMBL) motors nets on rotor arranged to produce trapezoidal or
sinusoidal flux. The motor is brushless and
requires a power electronics controller along with
information of rotor position/speed.
Direct Torque Control A type of control technique employed in efficient
(DTC) motors like induction motors, controlled through
power electronic controllers.
Photo Voltaic (PV) Photo voltaic cells convert solar irradiation into
electrical energy employing photoelectric effect.
Grid to Vehicle (G2V) The fast charging strategies have been developed
for supplying power to battery from grid. The
protocols and standards have been decided
internationally.
Vehicle to Grid (V2G) The parked electric vehicles can supply power
from their battery back to power grid to meet
demand during peak loads.

References

[1] History of Electric Vehicles – en.wikipidea.org

[2] How Electric Cars Work – auto.howstuffworks.com
[3] C. C. Chan and K. T. Chau, An overview of power electronics in electric
vehicles, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 3–13, 1997.
[4] M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S. E. Gay, and A. Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid
Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles: Fundamentals, Theory, and Design, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2005.
[5] A. C. Madrigal, All the promises automakers have made about the future of
cars, The Atlantic, July 7, 2017.
 Chapter 2
Electric vehicle fundamentals
Sanjay Gairola1, Sanjeev Singh2, Sanjeet Dwivedi3
and Rahul Dubey4

Conventional vehicles use an internal combustion engine (ICE) which burns one of the
petroleum-based fuels, petrol, or diesel mainly, inside a cylinder with a moving piston in
it. The burning of fuel thereby produced motion of piston (and, hence, tires connected to
the piston through some transmission arrangement rotate) and burnt fuel was exhausted in
the form of gases causing pollution. Because of the fast depletion of petroleum and rising
concern for pollution, conventional vehicles are in the process of evolution by slowly
discarding the ICE and adopting its electric counterpart. This has led to newer vehicle
configurations marching towards full electric versions which have better efficiency, con-
trollability with challenges of battery energy storage, and associated difficulties.
In the current scenario, a number of opportunities are available for the transpor-
tation due to drastic improvements in the technology in the field of electrical machines,
control through power electronics, high-speed computers, Internet connectivity for
remote access/poling/driverless trips, high-speed and wireless communication systems,
etc. It is important to glance through the history of electric vehicles (EVs) to under-
stand their initial fall and now rise again due to advancements and social needs.

2.1 Evolution of Electric Vehicles

An EV essentially comprises of a battery as a source of electric power for the motor that
generates the propulsion torque. At times, ICE may also be working alongside it, aptly
called a hybrid EV (HEV). Moreover, fuel cells can also be employed as a power source.
In actual practice, the EVs came into the picture before the ICE vehicles (ICEVs)
became popular, as shown by the timeline in Figure 2.1. It is said that the first crude
EV was developed in the 1830s while an ICEV was in 1885. The early days of EVs
employing lead–acid batteries started mainly from the 1890s [1–5]. By the year 1920,
its popularity started declining due to ICEV that was mass produced by Henry Ford. At

1
Department of Electrical Engineering, Govind Ballabh Pant Institute of Engineering & Technology, India
2
Electrical Engineering Department, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology (MANIT) Bhopal, India
3
Technology Management, Everfuel A/S, Denmark
4
Edge-AI, Doulos, USA
10 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Rechargeable lead acid battery invented by

1859
Plante

Electric car production started in London by

1884 Thomas Parker

1885 Karl Benz designed first practical

ICE car

1891 Electric car build by William Morrison

1898 Porche build his first car with hub-motor

Baker motor vehicle company was

1899 established at Ohio

1908 Petrol powered Ford Model T was introduced

Invention of electric starter for ICE by Charles

1912 Kettering

1920 Ford Model T having ICE becomes popular, cheap

Texas Crude oil found

EVs peak popularity period passed, production

1921 declined

1925 EVs lost their popularity

1935 Almost all initial Evs disappeared

Figure 2.1 Timeline showing the rise and fall of early EV development between
1859 and 1935

the same time, huge reserves of petroleum were found all over the world. The ICEV
had better mileage, speed, low capital, and running cost. These advantages led to the
initial death of EVs and, by the year 1935, they almost disappeared from the market.
Once again, the oil crisis upsurge of the 1970s generated fluctuations in gasoline in
the market, and this led to the renewed interest in EVs [5–8]. By the year 1995, the
digital systems, microprocessors, power electronic circuits, motors, control, and battery
technology had also improved which created a pathway for high-performing EVs. The
international oil shortage and pollution due to ICEV (in the form of air pollutants and
greenhouse effect) also dictated the demand for EVs once again. Tesla, Toyota, Honda,
Nissan, and GM were among the first few manufacturers who make HEV or pure battery
EV (BEV). Some important developments are benchmarked in Figure 2.2. It is predicted
that the gasoline vehicles will be completely wiped out of the market by the year 2042.
 Electric vehicle fundamentals 11

GM displayed initial prototype of EV for urban

1973
use

New regulation related to environment made

1991 by US govt.

1996 GM mass produced EV1

1997 Hybrid car Prius was released by Toyota

1998 Hybrid car insight launched by Honda

2008 Roadster EV launched by Tesla

2010 All EV launched by Nissan

2016 Chevy Bolt, an All-EV released by GM

Figure 2.2 Some important events of modern EV development

The vehicle dynamics and various types of arrangements and components are
discussed in the following text.

2.2 General vehicle dynamics

It is well known that the smooth movement of any vehicle requires a smooth road
or track so that the machinery developing tractive effort in it (an ICE or electric
motor) can be accommodated easily at a cheaper cost. The road may take vehicles
uphill or downhill with some gradient, generally limited to 15
. To analyze general
vehicle dynamics, a vehicle going uphill with some gradient is shown in Figure 2.3,
with various forces marked on it [9,10].
For analysis, let us assume the following:
v is the climbing vehicle speed going, in m/s
M is the vehicle mass, in kg
g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
L is the distance between the front and rear wheels
LA and LB are distance of front and rear tires from point C, in m
Hcg is the height of center of gravity of vehicle mass above the ground level, in m
a is the gradient of the road, in degrees
vw is the wind speed in the direction opposite to motion
AF is the vehicle’s frontal area
12 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

AF vW
Raero

v
hW

CG Mg
sin α
Rgrad
Rdrag hcg
Rrol α
Wf C

M g cos α
Mg W
α
R

L
A

L L
B

Figure 2.3 Various forces on a climbing vehicle

The dynamics can be analyzed by employing the force balance of various

forces marked in the figure. The developed engine tractive force which is in access
to the forces opposing it shall cause the acceleration of vehicles.
The forces that are opposing the motion can be put in four parts: rolling
resistance, aerodynamic resistance, gradient resistance, and acceleration resistance.
The value of these four resistances can be determined from the following equations:
Rolling resistance, Rrol: The component of force in the vertical direction due to
the mass of vehicle is the cause for frictional opposition at the point of contact with
the ground, given as
Rrol ¼ C rol M g cos a (2.1)
where Crol is the coefficient of rolling.
Aerodynamic resistance, Raero: The air in front of the vehicle opposes the
motion of vehicle and it increases with air density, frontal area, and effective
velocity of vehicles:
1
Raero ¼ r C drag AF ðv þ vw Þ2 (2.2)
2
where Cdrag is the coefficient of drag by wind and is the density of air, in kg/m3.
Gradient resistance, Rgrad: The component of force due to the mass of vehicles
in the inclined direction of the road always acts in the downward direction, which is
given as
Rgrad ¼ M g sin a (2.3)
 Electric vehicle fundamentals 13

Acceleration resistance Racc: When the vehicle is accelerating, there is

opposition to movement which is proportional to the rotor inertia constant and total
force in the forward direction
dv
Racc ¼ C rotInt M (2.4)
dt
where CrotInt is the coefficient rotor inertia.
Road resistance Rroad is the addition of rolling resistance and gradient
resistance:
Rroad ¼ Rrol þ Rgrad (2.5)
Therefore, the total resistive force offered to the vehicle going upward is
expressed as the sum of four resistances, given as:
Rdriving ¼ Rrol þ Raero þ Rgrad þ Racc (2.6)
Rdriving ¼ C rol M g cos a

1 dv
þ r C drag AF ðv þ vw Þ2 þ M g sin a þ C rotInt M
2 dt
Vehicle performance parameters
The capacity of a vehicle to speed up or down on a road with varying gradients
characterizes its performance. These characteristics are governed by its type, size,
mass, aerodynamics, and the engine driving it. The performance parameters of a
vehicle are the following: (i) maximum speed, (ii) gradeability, and (iii) accel-
erating performance.

2.3 Economic and environmental impact of conventional

vehicle leading to selection of EV
● The modern world is employing technology in every aspect of life, and the use
of chemicals, composites, and plastics is helping in newer developments. This
is cause for newer challenges, global warming, and irreversible climate change
draws [11,12]. It has only been recently acknowledged that some regulations
have been decided internationally for stopping the global warming.
● The petroleum fuel-based cars and trucks are responsible for almost 25% of
CO2 emissions and other such vehicles account for about 12%.
● A hybrid vehicle essentially combines petrol/diesel fuel along with one dif-
ferent power (energy) sources. The possible second source is generally one of
the following: battery, flywheel, and fuel cell (FC) (sometimes CNG is also
considered by the people).
● The major economic parameters for a customer to purchase any vehicle are the
following: (i) vehicle price, (ii) fuel cost, (iii) maintenance costs and service
station availability, (iv) driving range, (v) availability of the fueling station,
(vi) time required for the fueling, and (vii) battery replacement cost.
14 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

2.3.1 Environmental impact that is handled by EVs

During the manufacturing process of a vehicle, the involved harmful gases con-
tribute to the environmental impact through the pollution associated with mainly
three stages: (i) the extraction and processing of material resources, (ii) industrial
manufacturing of vehicles, and (iii) the disposal of vehicles.
Two elements are accounted for deciding the impact on the environment due to
conventional petroleum-based vehicles: (i) air pollution (AP) and (ii) greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions.
● CO, NOx, SOx, and VOCs fall under the category of APs. The weighting
coefficients for these APs are 0.017, 1, 1.3, and 0.64, respectively.
● CO2, SF6 (sulfur hexafluoride), N2O, and CH4 fall under the category of GHGs
which have different GHGs impact weighting coefficients. These coefficients
relative to CO2 are 1, 24,900, 310, and 21 in sequence.
Additional sources of environmental impact are also associated with the fossil–fuel
production and consumption. These stages of various environmental impacts are known
to cause numerous health hazards such as birth defects and infections in the lungs,
kidneys, nervous system, etc. Additionally, the PM10 emission from exhaust pipes and
non-exhaust emissions (from tire, brake, and road surface wear) also led to premature
death due to respiratory problems, breathing diseases, cancer, and lung-associated issues.
Global warming due to GHG emissions has led to record high temperatures,
severe floods, droughts, and rising sea levels. The seashore cities are among the
prime endangered human habitats.

2.4 Types of EVs

An EV essentially comprises of a battery as a source of electric power for the motor
that generates the propulsion torque. At times, ICE may also be working alongside
the motor to make it a HEV. An HEV may have better efficiency, depending on the
prices of battery, battery charging, and petroleum fuel. Therefore, the EVs are
broadly classified as HEVs and pure EVs as shown in Figure 2.4.
The categorization of EVs based on the power source is:
● BEV
● HEV
● Plug-in HEV (PHEV)
● Fuel-cell electric vehicle (FCEV)
The salient features of these different types of EVs are given in the
following text.

2.4.1 BEVs
– BEVs rely solely on power from rechargeable battery packs like Li–ion battery
or metal–air battery.
 Electric vehicle fundamentals 15

Transmission
Electric system
Gasoline/ Batteries ICE
motor /regenerative
diesel
braking

(a)

Front wheel Rear wheel

Steering

Differential Transmission

Motor

(b)
Figure 2.4 Two configurations of EVs: (a) HEV and (b) pure EV

– The presence of regenerative braking in BEVs improves its performance

significantly.
– Battery charging takes a significant amount of time.
– Fast battery-charging stations are required, as a substitute or in parallel to
existing gasoline fuel stations.
– BEVs technology is yet to mature and at present range anxiety is associated
with it.
– The BEVs are fast replacing the existing ICE-based vehicles due to the fast
depletion of gasoline and the steep rise in its prices.
16 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

2.4.2 HEVs
– HEVs employ ICE along with the electric power train.
– The main power for vehicle propulsion is from ICE and the battery is employed
to improve the vehicle performance by suitable switching of power source.
– Electric propulsion is used when power demand is low.
– HEVs have reduced fuel consumption and GHG emission compared to a
pure ICEV.

2.4.3 PHEV
– In a PHEV, electric propulsion is the main driving force.
– It has bigger batteries compared to an HEV.
– The batteries are required to be charged at regular intervals.
– Batteries can be charged directly from grids.

2.4.4 FCEV
– FCEVs employ fuel cells to generate electric power for the propulsion of
vehicles.
– Fuel cells mainly employ hydrogen as the fuel for the chemical reaction to
produce electricity.
– High-pressure tanks are required in FCEVs to store hydrogen which is
inflammable.
– The hydrogen tank is a substitute for the gasoline tank of ICEV.
– The by-product from a fuel cell is water and, therefore, it has no pollution.
– A FCEV has the advantages of BEV as well as ICEV; however, the technology is
yet to mature.
– Moreover, the cost of hydrogen production is high and the most efficient and
viable process for it is being researched.

2.5 Configurations of EVs

The main components involved in a power train inside an EV besides the battery
are the clutch, differential, gearbox or fixed gearing, and electric motor. The clutch,
gearbox, and differential may be absent depending on the configuration employed
in the architecture of an EV. These vehicles may be front-wheel driven or rear-
wheel driven and, generally, the front engine or rear engine is accordingly installed.
In some designs, in-wheel motors with fixed gearing may be employed thereby
eliminating the need for differential. Based on these choices, the configuration of
an EV may be one of the following:
1. Front (or rear) engine-front (or rear) wheel drive with a single motor drive:
Motor–clutch–gearbox–differential
 Electric vehicle fundamentals 17

2. Front (or rear) engine-front (or rear) wheel with a single motor drive:
Motor–gearbox–differential (clutch absent)
3. Front (or rear) engine-front (or rear) wheel with single motor drive:
Motor–fixed gearing–differential (clutch and gearbox are absent)
4. Front (or rear) engine-front (or rear) wheel drive with two motors:
Motor1–fixed gearing–left wheel
Motor 2–fixed gearing–right wheel
(clutch, gearbox, and differential are absent)
5. Front (or rear) engine-front (or rear) wheel drive EV with two motors (the same
as 4 without fixed gearing):
(Clutch, gearbox/fixed gearing, and differential are absent)
6. All-wheel drive (AWD) configuration having in-wheel motors.
7. Wireless in-wheel drive configuration having two/four in-wheel motors.

2.6 General EV setup

As seen from Section 2.3, an EV essentially has a battery, a motor or motors,
transmission system having the clutch/gearbox/fixed gearing/differential car-
rying propulsion power to the wheels. Additionally, control and management of
various components are done with the help of an electronic controller, a driver
circuit, and a suitable power electronic converter. The electronic controller and
driver shall also require power that is generated by an auxiliary supply fed from
the batteries. Moreover, the controller requires feedback through sensors from
the motor, transmission system and wheel about speed/torque, temperature,
pressure, and battery status. Accordingly, the general setup is shown in
Figure 2.5.

Auxiliary
power Batteries
supply

Transmission unit
Driver Power Motor
/ (clutch, gearbox/fixed gearing,
circuit converter generator differential)

Electronic controller & EMS

Wheel

General electric vehicle setup

Figure 2.5 Important components of an EV

18 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

2.7 Energy sources

The energy required to power the drive motor in an EV [13] can be obtained from
one or a combination of the following:
1. Battery
2. Ultra-capacitors
3. Flywheels
4. Fuel cells
The important characteristics of any energy source for an EV are as follows:
– It must have high specific energy and high energy density.
– Moreover, high values of specific power and power density are essential.
– Time required to recharge the battery must be small.
– The battery must have the capability to overcome the deep discharge.
– It must have a long life and a high value of the charging/discharging cycle.
– It must be safe for humans, less susceptible to temperature variations, free from
fire, gas emissions, and radiation hazards. The material used in it should be
environmentally sound and recyclable.
– The capital cost, maintenance cost, recharging cost, and replacement cost must
be small.
– The raw material used in its production must be abundant and locally available.
The historic EVs of the nineteenth century (1880–1924) employed batteries like
lead–acid battery, Ni–Cd battery, Ni–iron battery, etc. But these had poor energy density
and power density and therefore could not compete with the advantages offered by ICEV
at that time. Therefore, the modern EVs are employing newer batteries such as Li–ion
battery, metal–air batteries, etc., which have higher life cycle and energy density.
The battery-operated vehicles are expected to provide the propulsion power
and range similar to the well-developed ICEV counterpart. This implies that the
batteries in an EV on single charge should be able to run continuously for more
than 500 km. Moreover, the maximum speed and acceleration should also match.
The EV like Rivian R1T will do 0–60 mph in 3 s.

2.8 Electric motors

The requirements of the EV motor are similar to that of the energy source. These
are listed as follows:
– The motor must have high instant power and a high value of power density. This
means that compact motors with smaller weights shall be preferred. Generally,
brushless permanent magnet (PM) motors have high-power density.
– It should be capable of high torque and wide speed range. The conventional AC
motors with conventional controls are not suitable.
– High efficiency of the motor is very important for long-distance driving on a
single charge.
 Electric vehicle fundamentals 19

– High efficiency of regenerative braking is also desired.

– The motor must have a long life and high reliability. This implies that the rugged
motors in which the commutator, slip rings, and carbon brushes are absent shall
be preferred. Synchronous reluctance motor and squirrel cage induction motor
have these features.
– Low capital cost and maintenance-free operation are very important. The con-
ventional DC motors do not suit this requirement.
– The raw material used in it must be abundantly available and recyclable.
– The motor component must not be affected by temperature variation. The motors
having magnets in them may suffer from this problem.
The main motors that are found suitable for EVs are the following: squirrel
cage induction motor (SCIM), permanent magnet brushless motor (PMBLDC or
PMSM), synchronous reluctance motor (SyRM), and switched reluctance motor
(SRM). All these motors are having a rugged structure and employ some
suitable power electronic controlled converter configuration [14], digital processors
generating control signals dynamically based on feedback from position/speed
sensors. However, motors combining the features of these motors are being
investigated and a lot of optimizations are being carried out by researchers in terms
of cost, size, efficiency, and power density.
These motors that have tailored characteristics in general operate in constant
torque mode below the base value of its velocity and in constant power mode above
the base value, as shown in Figure 2.6.

Constant
torque
region

Constant power region

Power curve

Torque curve

0
Speed
Base speed

Figure 2.6 Operation ranges of EV motor

20 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

2.9 High-voltage system in EV

The EV batteries are charged at level 1 or 2 or 3 depending on the manufacturer’s
specification or charging available. For fast charging, level 3 is employed. Three-
phase AC voltage is converted by the state-of-the-art fast EV chargers to about 480
V DC for high-voltage battery charging. The conversion stages are made up of two
power electronic circuits. The rectification stage having power factor correction
(PFC) provision changes the input voltage to an intermediate DC, and the second
DC/DC stage changes the intermediate DC voltage into regulated output for char-
ging a battery.
The grid and EV battery generally have a galvanic isolation to protect it from
spurious transients in power systems leading to instability and unwanted dis-
turbances near the point of common coupling. The first option for isolation is to
employ a line-frequency transformer before the rectification and another option for
isolation is to put a high-frequency transformer suitably in the DC/DC converter. A
DC fast charger system of higher power rating can be met by employing multiple
modules in parallel.

2.10 EV automakers legacy

The governments of the developed countries have declared restrictions on the use
of petroleum-based vehicles and this has led to the awakening of global auto
manufacturers. The United Kingdom plans to have 100% ban on petrol and diesel
car sales by year 2040 [5]. These manufacturers work for profit, and therefore, the
innovation is focused not only on technology but also on the economic factors,
market trends, customer behavior, and geo-politics. The threat to ICE from oil price
rise, government restrictions, and the rise of Tesla has initiated a new struggle for
existence among automakers. The legendary automakers have now brainstormed to
overcome these new challenges to retain their market share.
A number of carmakers have announced to release all-EV by certain target
date, if not already done. Volkswagen Group started Roadmap E drive in 2017 and
already spent more than $40 billion (by the end of 2022) on electric cars. It envi-
sages to roll out 80 new electric cars by the end of the year 2025.
The iconic brand Tesla has already crossed 1 million annual EV sales, with its
Model 3 production to about 10,000 per week. The other projects of Tesla include
the solar roof, “Model Y,” and driverless cars which are setting a benchmark for
other automakers. T has also planned to develop more giant Gigafactory for bat-
teries in Nevada with a capacity of 35 GWh production.
Toyota started with the Hybrid Prius and wants its cars to be emission free by
the year 2050. It has planned big for fuel cell-based technology.
Other car manufacturers who have fallen in line are the following: Renault-
Nissan-Mitsubishi, General Motors, Ford, BMW, Audi, Hyundai & Kia motors,
Volvo, Daimer, etc. All the car manufacturers have planned their projects with
challenges to meet battery supply, high-performance motors with their controllers,
 Electric vehicle fundamentals 21

charging stations, maintenance teams and strategies, government regulations,

soaring high prices, market trends, and customer behavior.

2.11 Market and technology trends for EVs

Mature technology and large-scale production of EVs are one of the early
achievements of the twenty-first century. The number of EVs is poised to grow in
the coming years. This section discusses the market potential of EVs along with the
technology trends of different subsystems inside an EV. Our reference to EVs in
this chapter is for BEVs.

2.11.1 Market and energy usage

The energy consumption by different modes of transport gives us an indirect esti-
mate of the market size for EVs. In the USA, about 53% of energy consumed by
different modes of transport is by light trucks, cars, and motorcycles. This is seen
by the bar graph in Figure 2.7. The number of EVs sold and used across the world is
growing rapidly and has the potential to capture the existing market of cars,
motorcycles, light trucks, other trucks, and buses. Once we add up the vehicle
categories mentioned above, the EV market size in the USA consists of vehicles
that can use about 80% of transportation energy.

2.11.1.1 The case for electric vehicles

Before the arrival of EVs, improved fuel economy of light vehicles has kept in
check the consumption of gasoline [15]. Daily gasoline consumption in the USA is
close to 400 million gallons per day (Figure 2.8). Due to gasoline price volatility
and environmental concerns from gasoline vehicle emissions, there is a move
towards EVs.
Three categories of EVs are becoming popular across the world – electric cars,
buses, and two wheelers.

Estimated share of US transportation energy

use by mode and type in 2021

Lubricants
Military (all modes)
Boats and ships
Other trucks
Light trucks
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Figure 2.7 Light trucks, cars, and motorcycles account for more than 50% energy
usage. Viable electric options are now available for this group of
vehicles [16].
22 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Million gallons per day Miles per gallon

800 40

600 30

400 20

200 10

0 0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Gasoline consumption Light-duty vehicle fuel economy
Data source: Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, Tables 1.8 and 3.7c, May 2022

Figure 2.8 Improved fuel economy of light-duty vehicles has limited the usage of
gasoline to 400 million gallons per day [16]

Cars: Electric cars are becoming popular in China, Europe, and the USA. In the
USA, the number of electric cars on the road increased with the introduction of Tesla
Model 3 in 2017. In the broad category of EVs, electric car is the most popular EV.
There are several reasons for this. Contemporary battery storage capacity provides a
similar driving range for a car as a full tank of petrol/diesel. The location and weight
of the battery provide a low center of gravity for the car and increases its stability.
Buses: In most parts of the world, buses are used for public transport and
school. These buses have a diesel engine, which emits pollutants. Battery-powered
electric buses use similar approach of an electric car. China has taken the lead in
adopting electric buses.
Two wheelers: Electric two wheelers are growing at a good pace (upwards of
100%) in developing countries [15]. Even though the charging infrastructure and
robustness of electric two wheelers are not as mature as electric cars, it is likely to
be in place within a few years.
EVs such as cars, light trucks, and buses are seeing the maximum growth. The
increased energy density offered by battery, higher efficiency drive train, and
lightweight aluminum body have made EVs at par with their conventional coun-
terparts. Let us evaluate the efficiency of electric cars.

2.11.1.2 Efficiency of EVs

Fuel efficiency of an EV is much higher than gasoline engines [15–17]. In a con-
ventional gasoline-powered vehicle, only about 12%–30% energy is available for
motion, while in an EV up to 87%–91% energy is available for movement.
Table 2.1 tabulates energy losses for a conventional gasoline car, hybrid, and
electric car as shown in Figure 2.9.
 Electric vehicle fundamentals 23

Table 2.1 Energy usage of different types of cars [19]

Car type Engine Parasitic Drivetrain Auxiliary Idle Energy to

losses losses losses electrical losses wheels
losses
Gasoline 68%–72% 4%–6% 3%–5% 0%–2% 3% 16%–25%
Hybrid* 65%–69% 4%–6% 3%–5% 0%–3% 0% 24%–38%
Electric** 18% 0%–4% 0% 87%–91%

*Hybrid vehicles recover 5%–9% energy by regenerative braking.

**EVs recover up to 22% energy using regenerative braking.

Engine Losses: 68% – 72%

thermal, such as radiator,
exhaust heat, etc. (58% – 62%)
combustion (3%)
pumping (4%)
friction (3%)

Auxiliary Electrical Losses:

0% – 2%
(e.g., climate control fans,
seat and steering wheel
warmers, headlights, etc.)

Parasitic Losses: 4% – 6%
(e.g., water, fuel and oil
pumps, ignition systems,
engine control systems, etc.)

Energy to Wheels: 16% – 25%

Drivetrain Losses: 3% – 5% dissipated as
wind resistance (8% – 12%)
rolling resistance (4% – 7%)
braking (4% – 7%)
Idle Losses: 3%
In this figure, they are accounted for as part of the engine and parasitic losses.

Figure 2.9 Energy consumption by different parts of gasoline car. The bulk of the
energy goes to meet engine losses. Only a quarter of the energy is used
for locomotion [19].

The data in Table 2.2 clearly show how hybrid and electric cars provide larger
percentage of energy to wheels. Improved efficiency and less pollution on streets
make EVs, the future of road transportation.

2.11.2 Technology trends

Before we get into details of technology trends in the EV space, let us understand
the building blocks of the drive system in an EV. As seen in Figure 2.10, the left
side consists of a circuit that is used to charge the battery. The charging circuit is
24 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Table 2.2 Technology status for EV components

Subsystem Existing technology Existing applications Improvements made

for EV
Three-phase Stable motor Industry workhorse for Light weight, more
electric technology for pumps, servo control, efficient
motor synchronous and and variety of
asynchronous AC motor applications
Power Inverter, convertible Uninterruptible power Robust packaging –
electronics used for rectification supply (UPS), variable compact, vibration, and
converter/ as well as inversion frequency AC motor temperature tolerant
inverter drives (VFD) design
Battery Lead-acid battery Used for UPS, car Modified lithium-ion
battery for starting with larger energy
storage and longer
battery life retention

Regenerative
braking
+

–
DC charger 3 Phase converter
AC–DC

DC bus
M

AC charger Battery
Converter 3 Phase inverter
AC–DC DC–AC

Figure 2.10 Block diagram of electric drive system

active when the vehicle is at a standstill. The right side of the circuit is used to
power the EV’s motor and to recollect energy when the car brakes. Recovered
energy in a conventional vehicle is lost as heat in the wheel’s brake pads. In an
electric or hybrid vehicle, braking energy is fed back to the battery. This is done by
the regenerative braking module.
Location of all subsystems of an electric drive system can be seen in a trans-
parent picture of an electric car (Figure 2.11). The traction battery pack is the
battery that runs the EV. The power electronics controller consists of the inverter
and the regenerative braking modules.
 Electric vehicle fundamentals 25

Electric traction motor

Power electronics controller

DC/DC converter

Thermal system (cooling)

Traction battery pack

Charge port

Transmission

Onboard charger

Battery (auxiliary)
afdc.energy.gov

Figure 2.11 Location of electric drive system parts inside an electric car [18]

2.11.2.1 Electric drive technology

Even though EVs have become popular since the start of the twenty-first century,
most of the technology powering has been around for quite some time. The electric
motor and the power electronics to control the speed of the electric motor have
been battle tested in industries throughout the world. Table 2.2 mentions the
improvements carried out to make existing technology suitable for EVs. The most
prominent on-going improvement is the battery technology and its charging.
Recent advances in real-time telemetry have made it possible to analyze battery
performance. Data from laboratory and fleet of EVs has shown that heat and rate of
charge play an important role in life of battery. Higher heat and fast charging accelerate
Li-ion battery degradation. Contemporary EV battery retains 90% of charge storage
capacity after 7 years of service. Research for low-cost, high-density battery storage
technology is ongoing. Lithium-ion is a stable but expensive battery technology [17–19].
Standardization of battery charging connector is converging (see Table 2.3).
High voltage direct current chargers provide fast charging for larger distances. In
the USA, electric car companies have set up large numbers of fast charging stations
in parking lots. It remains to be seen how this is replicated in developing countries.

2.11.2.2 Auxiliary technology trends in telemetry and

autonomous driving
Electric cars have been bought in new auxiliary technology such as vehicle tele-
metry (remote connectivity) and basic level of freeway autonomous driving.
Vehicle telemetry provides over-the-air update of software along with real-time
monitoring of vehicle parameters. New technology such as battery, power elec-
tronics, and motor are remotely monitored and tuned for better performance.
26 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Table 2.3 Electric car battery charging technology [17]

Charging Connector type Charging voltage and charging rate

level
1 J1772 AC charger (120 V). Approximately 5 miles of range
per 1 h of charging
2 J1772, Tesla AC charger (240 V). Approximately 25 miles of range
connector per 1 h of charging
3 CCS, CHAdeMO, High voltage (480 V) direct current fast charging.
Tesla connectors Approximately 100–200+ miles of range per 30 min of
charging

Multiple camera sensors mounted at different locations in the car provide it with
the ability to follow lane markings and have the car maintain its path on a freeway.
Even though auxiliary technology trends such as autonomous driving are not
unique to EVs, they provide an incentive for many customers to switch from
gasoline run vehicles to electric ones.

2.12 Summary

The electrical vehicle market is the focus of the researchers who are working to over-
come the difficulties associated with the aging of ICE-based vehicles. The challenge is
manifold, struggling not only with the prices of petroleum fuels that are depleting fast
but also the environmental and economic impact to meet the social demand and safety
of life on earth. The history of EVs and their modern development has been addressed,
which clearly highlights the focus needed on vehicle dynamics, energy sources, char-
ging technology, EV motors, controllers, engine management, optimal configuration,
battery management systems, connectivity with utility, and power quality. These
aspects shall be discussed in the following chapters in greater depth.

Symbols
M Vehicle mass, (kg)
g Acceleration due to gravity, (m/s2)
L Distance between the front and rear wheels
LA, LB Distance of front and rear tyres from point C, (m)
v Climbing vehicle speed, (m/s)
Hcg Height of centre of gravity of vehicle mass above the ground level, (m)
a Gradient of the road, (degrees)
vw Wind speed in the direction opposite to motion
AF Vehicle’s frontal area
r Density of air, (kg/m3)
 Electric vehicle fundamentals 27

Rrol Rolling resistance

Raero Aerodynamic resistance
Rgrad Gradient resistance
Racc Acceleration resistance
Rroad Road resistance
Cdrag Coefficient of drag by wind
Crol Coefficient of rolling
GWh Giga Watt hour

Glossary
Internal Combustion Engine The conventional vehicles used everywhere have
(ICE) internal combustion engine in which mainly
petrol or diesel is used as fuel.
Compressed natural gas This gas is being used in many vehicles as a
(CNG) cheaper substitute of petrol and diesel for about
last two decades.
All-Wheel Drive (AWD) The vehicles in which propulsion power is pro-
vided to all its wheels is an all-wheel drive. Such
vehicles may have separate electric motor inde-
pendently controlled for each wheel.
Squirrel Cage Induction This type of Induction motor has a copper cage
Motor (SCIM) on its rotor rather than windings. This enables it
to become free of brushes, slip-rings and there-
fore making it robust.
Permanent magnet brushless These are special motors having permanent
DC (PMBLDC) magnets on rotor arranged to produce trapezoidal
flux. The motor is brushless and require power
electronics controller along with information of
rotor position/speed
Permanent Magnet These are high power density motors having per-
Synchronous Motor manent magnets on rotor arranged to produce
(PMSM) sinusoidal flux and emf. The motor is brushless and
require power electronics controller along with
information of rotor position/speed at all speeds.
Synchronous reluctance A motor in which winding is absent and rotor
motor (SyRM) construction is such that reluctance variation
provides the fixed high and low reluctance paths
to flux thereby causing field to vary sinusoidal.
Switched reluctance motor A motor having salient rotor in which windings
(SRM) or magnets are absent and capable to run at much
higher speeds. It works on principle of reluctance
torque.
28 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

References
[1] The History of Electric Vehicles – www.electricvehicles.com
[2] History of Electric Vehicles – en.wikipidea.org
[3] Basics of Electric Vehicles – Service Training, Self-Study Program,
Volkswagen
[4] How Electric Cars Work – auto.howstuffworks.com
[5] A. Singh, Electric Vehicles and the End of ICE Age, Adhyyan Books, New
Delhi, 2019.
[6] M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S. E. Gay, and A. Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid
Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles – Fundamentals, Theory, and Design, 2nd ed.,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2010.
[7] A. J. Hawkins, How Tesla Changed the Auto Industry Forever, www.the-
verge.com, July 28, 2017.
[8] A. C. Madrigal, All the promises automakers have made about the future of
cars, The Atlantic, July 7, 2017
[9] G. Lechner and H. Naunheimer, Automotive Transmissions: Fundamentals,
Selection, Design and Application, Springer, Berlin, 1999.
[10] NPTEL – Electrical Engineering, “Dynamics of electric and hybrid vehi-
cles,” Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles, Joint Initiative of IITs
and IISc – Funded by MHRD, India. Available online https://archive.nptel.
ac.in/courses/108/103/108103009/.
[11] A. Xue, M. Strabala, D. Lee, P. Lou, and A. Qiu, The Economics and Future
of Electric Powered Automobiles, University of Chicago, Chicago, BPRO
29000 – Energy and Energy Policy, 2015.
[12] A. Nordelof, M. Messagie, A.-M. Tillman, M. L. Söderman, and J. Van
Mierlo, Environmental Impacts of Hybrid, Plug-in Hybrid, and Battery
Electric Vehicles – What Can We Learn from Life Cycle Assessment,
Springerlink.com, August 2014.
[13] S. F. Tie and C. W. Tan, A review of energy sources and energy management
system in electric vehicles, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 20, pp. 82–102,
2013.
[14] C. C. Chan and K. T. Chau, An overview of power electronics in electric
vehicles, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 3–13, 1997.
[15] Auto Economic Times. (2022 January 6). Electric two wheelers. Retrieved
from https://auto.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/two-wheelers/scooters-
mopeds/electric-two-wheelers-register-a-staggering-132-growth-in-2021-but-
2022-promises-to-be-even-better/88734671
[16] EIA, US Energy Information Administration. (2022 June 28). Energy use for
transportation. Retrieved from https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/use-of-
energy/transportation-in-depth.php
 Electric vehicle fundamentals 29

[17] US Department of Energy – Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy.

(2022 August 4). Alternative Fuels Data Center. Retrieved from https://afdc.
energy.gov/fuels/electricity_infrastructure.html
[18] US. Department of Energy – Vehicle Technologies Office. (2022 August 4).
How do all electric cars work. Retrieved from https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/
how-do-all-electric-cars-work
[19] US. Department of Energy. (2022 July 5). Fuel economy. Retrieved from
https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/atv.shtml.
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 Chapter 3
Electric energy sources and storage device
R. Kalpana1, Kenguru Manjunath1, Vinod R. Chiliveri1
and R. Kiran2

3.1 Introduction

Electric energy sources are the various methods and technologies that generate
electrical energy to power our modern society. These sources play a crucial role in
meeting the increasing demand for electricity across residential, commercial, and
industrial sectors. They provide the necessary power for lighting, heating, cooling,
transportation, communication, and powering electronic devices.

3.1.1 Electric energy sources

Electric energy sources can be categorized into two main types: conventional and
renewable. Figure 3.1 shows the different types of energy sources to generate
electricity.
Conventional energy sources rely on the extraction and combustion of fossil
fuels or the use of nuclear reactions to generate electricity. These sources include
the following: fossil fuels: coal, oil, and natural gas are burned in power plants to
produce steam, which drives turbines connected to generators. This process con-
verts the chemical energy stored in fossil fuels into electrical energy [1]. In nuclear
power plants, it utilizes nuclear reactions, particularly nuclear fission, to generate
heat. This heat is used to produce steam, which drives turbines to generate
electricity.
Renewable energy sources derive power from natural resources that are con-
stantly replenished. They have gained significant attention and popularity due to
their environmental benefits and potential for long-term sustainability. Solar panels
capture sunlight and convert it into electricity through the photovoltaic effect. This
technology has seen significant advancements and cost reductions, making it one of
the fastest growing renewable energy sources. In a wind energy system, wind tur-
bines harness the kinetic energy of the wind and convert it into electrical energy

1
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka,
India
2
Buymyev Technology Pvt Ltd, Bengaluru, India
32 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Other
(0.5%)

Renewable
sources
(13%)
Coal
Nuclear (33.2%)
(19.5%)

Petroleum Natural
(0.7%) gas(32.7%)

Figure 3.1 Energy sources used to generate electricity

through the rotation of turbine blades. Wind farms are often installed in areas with
high wind speeds to maximize power generation. Whereas hydropower plants
generate electricity by utilizing the gravitational force of falling or flowing water.
Dams or other water storage systems are used to control the flow and release of
water, which drives turbines to generate power [2].
Geothermal power plants extract heat from the Earth’s internal sources, such as
hot water or steam, to generate electricity. This energy source is particularly viable
in regions with geothermal activity, and biomass energy involves using organic
materials such as wood, agricultural residues, and dedicated energy crops to gen-
erate heat or produce biogas through processes like combustion, gasification, or
anaerobic digestion. The heat or biogas is then used to generate electricity.

3.1.2 Storage devices

Energy storage is an essential process to make the most of energy resources. It
involves the conversion of different forms of energy, such as electricity, chemical,
and thermal energy, since some forms are more suitable for efficient storage than
others. There are several mechanisms that are employed to carry out this process.
Figure 3.2 presents the different types of energy storage technologies.
Electric energy storage devices play a crucial role in modern energy systems
by storing electricity generated during times of low demand or from intermittent
renewable sources and releasing it when needed. These devices help balance
energy supply and demand, enhance grid stability, improve renewable energy
integration, and provide backup power in case of outages.

3.1.2.1 Electrochemical storage

The most common form of energy storage is through electrical means. Batteries are
the most widely used example, as they can be used to store electricity for a wide
range of applications.
 Electric energy sources and storage device 33

Hydrogen
Mechanical Electro chemical Thermal Electrical
based storage

Pumped hydro Lead acid, Sensible-molten salt, Super Power-to-power

energy storage Advanced lead acid Chilled water capacitors (Fuel cells, etc.)

Li-ion (LCO,
Gravity storage Latent-ice storage, Superconducting
LMO, LPF, Power-to-gas
technologies Phase change magnetic energy
NMC, NCA)
materials (PCM) storage (SMES)

Compressed air Flow batteries (Zinc- Thermochemical

energy storage bromine, vanadium) storage

High temperature
Flywheels
(NaS, NaNiCl2)

Zinc batteries-
Zn-Air, ZnMnO2

Figure 3.2 Classification of energy storage technologies

Electrochemical storage is a form of energy storage that uses batteries to

convert chemical energy into electricity and vice versa. These batteries are avail-
able in a wide range of power capacities, from a few watts to hundreds of kilowatts,
depending on the specific requirements of the application. Rechargeable batteries
are a great way to store energy in a cost-effective manner. They are not only
reusable, meaning they can be used multiple times, but they come in a variety of
different types. Lead–acid, lithium-ion, nickel–cadmium (Ni–Cd), and nickel–
metal hydride are just a few examples of the many types of rechargeable batteries
available.
1. Lead–acid batteries have been used for decades and are known for their low
cost, wide availability, and robustness. They are commonly used in automotive
starting batteries, uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems, and off-grid
applications.
2. Lithium-ion batteries are the most widely used rechargeable batteries due to
their high energy density, long cycle life, and relatively low self-discharge rate.
They are commonly found in portable electronics, electric vehicles, and grid-
scale energy storage systems.
3. Ni–Cd batteries: Ni–Cd batteries have a long cycle life, high discharge rate
capability, and good performance in extreme temperatures. However, they are
less commonly used today due to environmental concerns related to cadmium
content.
4. Flow batteries: Flow batteries store energy in liquid electrolytes contained in
external tanks. They offer scalability and long cycle life, making them
suitable for grid-scale energy storage applications.

3.1.2.2 Pumped hydro storage

Pumped hydro storage is currently the most extensive energy storage method
available. It operates by using excess electricity to transfer water from a lower-level
reservoir to a higher-level reservoir, effectively converting the electricity into
34 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

potential energy [3]. When electricity is in demand, the water is released from the
higher reservoir to the lower one, thereby releasing the stored potential energy as
electricity. This method is highly efficient and cost-effective, making it the most
popular option for storing energy. It is also capable of providing energy in a short
span of time, making it an ideal choice for emergency situations. With the
increasing demand for energy, the use of pumped hydro storage is likely to increase
in the near future.

3.1.2.3 Compressed air energy storage

In power plants, excess energy can be stored using a technique called compressed air
energy storage. This method involves storing the surplus energy in an underground
chamber. When electricity is required, the stored air is heated, and the resulting hot
air is directed through turbines. The rotation of the turbines converts the heat into
electricity, providing a reliable source of energy. This method of converting surplus
energy into electricity is efficient and cost-effective for power plants.

3.1.2.4 Flywheel energy storage

Flywheel technology is increasingly being used for quick backup power in the
event of a power outage. It is a system that involves a rotor in a vacuum enclosure.
During periods of excess electricity, the flywheel is accelerated to high speeds, thus
storing the energy in the form of kinetic energy. The rotor is connected to a motor/
generator setup, which allows for electricity to be extracted from the flywheel when
needed. This is done by slowing the wheel down, which causes a discharge of the
stored energy. Flywheel technology has become a reliable source of backup power
and is becoming a more popular option for those looking to ensure continuity of
energy supply [4].

3.1.2.5 Supercapacitors
Supercapacitors serve as a link between traditional capacitors and rechargeable
batteries, providing a higher energy density and faster charging and discharging
cycles. While supercapacitors are a notable form of energy storage, they are not the
sole option available. Other storage methods encompass fossil fuel storage, thermal
storage, biological storage, and chemical storage. Each has its own advantages and
disadvantages, depending on the application. For example, thermal storage is an
efficient way to store energy over long periods of time, while fossil fuel storage is
more suitable to generate short-term power. Biological and chemical storage are
more suitable for smaller-scale applications, such as those in devices or
portable energy sources.

3.2 Electric batteries

Electric batteries are a crucial energy source and storage device that has revolutionized
the way our modern world is powered. Batteries have emerged as a crucial technology
that enables the transition to a greener and more efficient energy ecosystem in response
to the growing demand for clean and sustainable energy solutions. Batteries use
 Electric energy sources and storage device 35

electrochemistry to convert chemical energy into electrical energy, making them a

portable and dependable power source for a wide range of applications.
The first practical battery, the voltaic pile, developed by Alessandro Volta in
the early nineteenth century, is the origin of the concept of electric batteries. Since
then, battery technology has made significant progress, and a variety of battery
types have been developed to meet a variety of energy requirements. Batteries have
evolved in terms of efficiency, energy density, and safety from the lead–acid bat-
teries that powered the first electric vehicles to the lithium-ion batteries that are
driving the electric mobility revolution today.
In this section, we will investigate the background of electric battery and its
structure. We will also explore the working of battery cell and its various types,
advantages and limitations. By understanding the role of electric batteries, we can
pave the way for progress in a cleaner and sustainable energy future.

3.2.1 Preliminaries
Cells are the smallest electrochemical unit that acquires, stores, and transmits the
energy that depends on the mixture of chemicals and substances used for cell
development. Battery or battery packs are made up combination of a number of
cells connected in series or parallel. In terms of IEEE Std. 446, battery is defined as
“Two or more cells electrically connected for producing electric energy.” Most
people define “cell” and “battery” interchangeably; however, this is not always
clear. The schematic diagram of the cell and the battery is shown in Figure 3.3. It
will be always confusing whether the correct term is cell or battery because bat-
teries are sometimes available in a single unit. For instance, a 12-V lead–acid
battery comprises of six “2V” cells connected in series and also for high-capacity
batteries consist of cells connected in series–parallel connection [5].
Primary cells and secondary cells are the two types of cells that are accessible.
Primary cells are those that are only accessible for one-time use, whereas secondary
cells are those that can be recharged. Cell (nominal) voltage depends on the com-
bination of active chemicals used in the cell (e.g. Ni–Cd-1.2 V, lithium-based cell
>3 V). The cell voltage also depends on various factors such as temperature and
the state of charge. The list of cell voltages for various electrochemistry is listed in

+
C1
–
+ + + + +
+
C2 C1 C2 C3
– – – – –
– +
C3
–
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 3.3 Symbol of a (a) cell, (b) battery; (c) and (d) series and parallel
connection of three cells
36 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Table 3.1 List of cell voltage with different electrochemistry

Electro-chemistry
ve Electrode +ve Electrode Electrolyte Nominal voltage (v)

Lead–acid Pb PbO2 H2SO4 2.1
Ni–Cd Cd NiOOH KOH 1.35
Dry cell Zn MnO2 ZnCl2 1.6
Alkaline Zn MnO2 KOH 1.5
Zinc air Zn O2 KOH 1.65

Table 3.1. The cell’s nominal charge capacity is usually rated in C-rate. The C-rate
is mostly related to the cell current. The current required to charge/discharge a cell
in an hour is known as the C-rate (1C). It is usually rated in ampere hour rating. For
illustration, a cell with 10 Ah rating will be able to deliver 10 A for 1 h (“1C”-rate)
or 2 A for 5 h (“C/5”-rate) before the cell is completely discharged. If the cell is
drained at a rate of 10C, it should discharge completely in 6 min. On a note, the
discharge time and C-rate are not obvious a linear relation, it varies based on
operating in different C-rate. On instance, if cell is operated at 1A (“C/10” rate)
then to reaching minimum voltage cell may take slightly more than 10 h and if it is
discharged at 10C-rate, then it may come to a minimum voltage slightly prior
to 6 min.
The energy is stored inside the cell in electrochemical form and then transmit
electrical energy whenever its required. This energy is rated in watt-hour (Wh) or
kilowatt-hour (kWh) and termed as cell’s nominal energy capacity. It can also be
defined as the cell nominal ampere-hour multiplied by cell nominal voltage. For
example, a 2-V lead–acid cell with 20 Ah will have an energy storage capacity of
roughly as 40 Wh. It can also be noted that the energy is usually measured in joules
(J) (SI unit), which is equal to watt-sec (Ws). The joule is a very small unit of
energy, compared to the energy that the battery holds. Thus, it may be the reason
that SI units are not usually used for batteries.
When cells are connected in series, as shown in Figure 3.3(c), then the sum of
all the cell voltages is equal to the battery voltage. The battery capacity is equal to
the individual cell capacity because the same current will flow through all cells. For
example, three Li-ion cells with 3.6 V and 20 Ah are connected in series as shown
in Figure 3.2. The battery voltage is equal to 10.8 V and the battery charge capacity
is 20 Ah. The energy capacity of the battery is given as 216 Wh.
When cells are connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 3.3(d), then the sum
of all cell charges is equal to the battery charge capacity since the battery current is
equal to the sum of all cell currents. The battery voltage is equal to the individual
cell voltage. For example, three Li-ion cells with 3.6 V and 20 Ah are connected in
parallel as shown in Figure 3.5. The battery voltage is equal to 3.6 V and the battery
charge capacity is 60 Ah. The energy capacity of the battery is given as 216 Wh.
The other terms of the cell to measure the approximate mass and volume for a given
energy capacity are specific energy and energy density. The specific energy of a cell is
measured in Wh/kg and is defined as the amount of energy stored per kilogram of battery
 Electric energy sources and storage device 37

mass. The energy density is defined as the amount of energy stored per cubic meter of
battery volume and is measured in Wh/m3. Additionally, a cell design with a higher
specific energy exhibits the ability to store a greater amount of energy while maintaining
a fixed weight, resulting in a reduced weight for a given storage capacity. Similarly, a
cell with a higher energy density possesses the capability to store a larger amount of
energy within a given volume, leading to a reduced size for a given storage capacity [6].

3.2.2 Working of a cell

Cells are made up of several major components. A negative electrode, a positive
electrode, an electrolyte, and a separator are among them. Some types of cells addi-
tionally contain current collectors that are separate from the electrodes. In Figure 3.4, a
Li-ion cell schematic is shown, although the essential concept is applicable in general.
In an electrochemical cell, the negative (
ve) electrode is typically an alloy, a
pure metal, or even hydrogen. In the discharge process, the
ve electrode releases
electrons to the load circuit; this process is called oxidation: the loss of electrons from
the electrode or the rise in the oxidation state of the electrode, i.e., it is more posi-
tively charged. In the charging process, the
ve electrode receives electrons from the
load circuit; this process is called reduction: the gain of electrons or the decrease of
the oxidation state, i.e. it is more negatively charged. Therefore, the process during
charging and discharging is called redox reactions or reduction–oxidation. Similarly,
the positive (+ve) electrode is typically a sulfide, metallic-oxide, or oxygen. In the
discharge process, the +ve electrode receives electrons from the load circuit, the
process in which the electrode is reduced. In the charge process, the +ve electrode
releases the electrons to the load circuit and this process is referred as oxidization [7].
Moreover, technically, the oxidized electrode is termed as an anode and the reduced
electrode is termed as a cathode. And the materials used for positive and negative
electrodes for various cells are listed in Table 3.2.
The electrolyte in a cell acts as an ionic conductor, facilitating the internal
transfer of charges between the electrodes. Typically, the electrolyte consists — of

e– Charge
Load
Discharge
–ve Electrode +ve Electrode
Separator

Charge Negative ions (if present)

Positive ions go opposite direction
Discharge

Figure 3.4 Schematic of Li-ion cell

38 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Table 3.2 Comparison of different batteries technology characteristics

Application Lead–acid Ni–Cd NiMH Li-ion

Specific energy (Wh/kg) 30–40 35–80 55–110 100–300
Cell voltage 2V 1.2 V 1.2 V 2.4–3.8 V
Energy density (Wh/l) 50–90 50–70 160–420 125–600+
Maximum discharge (rate) 6–10 C 20 C 15 C 80 C
Power density (W/kg) 100–200 100–150 100–500 500–5,000
Charge efficiency (%) 60–80 60–80 70–90 >95
Useful capacity (DOD %) 50 50 50–80 >80
Temperature range ( C)
40 to 60
20 to 70
20 to 65
30 to 70
Self-discharge (months) 3–4 15–20 15–30 2–3
Cycle life (no. of cycles) 200–400 300–1,000 500–1,000 >2,000
Memory effect No Yes Yes No
Robustness (over/under voltage) Yes Yes Yes Need BMS

a liquid solvent containing dissolved chemicals that enable ionic conductivity.

However, solid polymer electrolytes can also serve this purpose. In Table 3.2, the
listed chemistries utilize aqueous electrolytes, where water serves as the solvent,
and the ionic charge transfer occurs through the presence of an acid (H2SO4), a base
(KOH), or a salt (ZnCl2). Aqueous electrolyte cells have a voltage limitation of
approximately 2 V due to the dissociation of oxygen and hydrogen in water under
higher voltages [8]. On the other hand, Li-ion cells necessitate nonaqueous elec-
trolytes due to their overall voltages exceeding 2 V.
During the discharge process of a cell, cations (positively charged ions)
traverse the electrolyte, moving towards the +ve electrode. Simultaneously,
anions (negatively charged ions) travel through the electrolyte towards the ve
electrode. Conversely, during the charging process, the opposite occurs:
cations migrate towards the ve electrode while anions move towards the +ve
electrode.
To ensure the separation and isolation of the +ve and
ve electrodes, a
separator is employed. The separator acts as an ionic conductor but functions as
an electronic insulator. Its primary purpose is to prevent internal short circuits
between the electrodes, which would lead to rapid self-discharge and render the
cell unusable.
If current collectors are present, their role is that of electronic conductors. The
electrode materials either adhere to or mix with these current collectors. While
current collectors do not participate in the chemical reactions within the cell, they
facilitate electronic connections to materials that might otherwise pose challenges
in establishing a connection to a cell terminal [9]. Alternatively, current collectors
may be included to reduce the electronic resistance of an electrode. For instance, in
a Li-ion cell, the ve electrode current collector is typically composed of copper foil,
while the +ve electrode current collector is usually made from aluminum foil. In the
+ve electrode of a dry cell, carbon serves as the current collector.
 Electric energy sources and storage device 39

3.2.3 Different types of batteries

3.2.3.1 Lead–acid batteries
The lead–acid battery is one of the most widely used and the oldest rechargeable
battery technologies. It has been a reliable source of energy for various applica-
tions, including automotive, backup power systems, and renewable energy storage.
Lead–acid batteries employ a chemical reaction between lead, lead oxide, and
sulfuric acid to store and release electrical energy. They consist of a series of lead
plates submerged in a sulfuric acid electrolyte solution. The plates are made of a
lead-based alloy, with the positive plate coated in lead dioxide (PbO2) and the
negative plate composed of spongy lead (Pb). These plates are separated by porous
separators to prevent short circuits while allowing the flow of ions:
Pb þ PbO2 þ 2H2 SO4 $ 2PbSO4 þ 2H2 O (3.1)
During discharge, the lead–acid battery undergoes a chemical reaction that
converts the lead and lead di-oxide into lead sulfate (PbSO4) and releases electrons.
The discharge process is illustrated in Figure 3.5(a). Similarly, when the battery is
charged, the lead sulfate is converted back into lead and lead dioxide, reversing the
chemical process. Figure 3.5(b) demonstrates the charging process of lead–
acid cells.

Pb + SO42– PbSO4 + 2e–

Load
2H2SO4 4H+ + 2 SO42– (e.g. motor)

PbO2 + 4H+ + SO42– + 2e– PbSO4 + 2H2O

(a)

PbSO4 + 2e– Pb + SO42–

2H2O 4H+ + 2O2–; 4H+ + 2 SO42– 2H2SO4 External

DC supply
PbSO4 + 2O2– PbO2 + SO42– + 2e–

(b)

Figure 3.5 Lead–acid cell reaction during (a) discharging and (b) charging
40 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Lead–acid batteries are known for their robustness, ability to deliver high
currents, and cost-effectiveness. They have a relatively low-energy density com-
pared to some other battery types, but they compensate with their high-power
density. Lead–acid batteries can provide a large amount of power for short dura-
tions, making them suitable for applications that require bursts of energy [10]. One
of the notable characteristics of lead–acid batteries is their ability to withstand deep
discharges without significant damage to their overall performance. They can
recover well from deep discharge cycles, making them suitable for applications that
demand occasional deep cycling, such as automotive starting batteries. The typical
lead–acid battery parameters are listed in Table 3.2.
However, lead–acid batteries do have some limitations. They are relatively
heavy and bulky compared to other battery technologies. They also require regular
maintenance, including checking the electrolyte level, adding distilled water, and
periodic equalization charging. Additionally, lead–acid batteries contain toxic
materials such as lead and sulfuric acid, necessitating proper recycling and disposal
practices to mitigate environmental impact. Despite these limitations, lead–acid
batteries continue to be widely used due to their low cost, reliability, and well-
established infrastructure for manufacturing, recycling, and maintenance. They are
especially prevalent in automotive applications, where they are used for starting,
lighting, and ignition (SLI) systems, as well as in backup power systems and off-
grid renewable energy storage.
In summary, lead–acid batteries have a long history of reliable service in
various applications. They are known for their high-power density, robustness, and
cost-effectiveness. While they have some limitations, lead–acid batteries continue
to be a popular choice for applications that require a reliable and economical
energy storage solution.

3.2.3.2 Nickel–cadmium
The Ni–Cd battery is a type of rechargeable battery that has been widely used for
several decades. It operates based on the electrochemical reactions between nickel
oxide hydroxide (NiOOH) in the +ve electrode, metallic-cadmium (Cd) in the +ve
electrode, and an alkaline electrolyte, typically potassium hydroxide (KOH). The
overall reaction of Ni–Cd battery in the alkaline electrolyte is given below. The
discharge process is elaborated in Figure 3.6:

Cd þ 2NiOOH þ 2H2 O $ CdðOHÞ2 þ 2NiðOHÞ2 4 (3.2)

Ni–Cd batteries are known for their high energy density, good cycle life, and
ability to deliver consistent power output. They have a relatively stable voltage
output throughout discharge, making them suitable for applications where a steady
power supply is required.
One of the significant advantages of Ni–Cd batteries is their robustness and
durability. They can withstand a wide range of temperatures and environmental
conditions, making them suitable for use in harsh environments. Additionally, Ni–
Cd batteries can endure a large number of charge–discharge cycles without
 Electric energy sources and storage device 41

Cd + 2OH– Cd(OH)2 + 2e–

Load
K+ H2O OH– (e.g. motor)

2NiO(OH) + 2H2O + 2e– 2Ni(OH)2 + 2OH–

Figure 3.6 Ni–Cd battery reaction during the discharging process

significant capacity loss, making them reliable for long-term use. Ni–Cd batteries
also have a rapid charge and discharge capability, allowing for quick recharge
times and high discharge rates when needed. This characteristic makes them
suitable for applications that require high-power demands, such as electric vehicles
and power tools.
However, Ni–Cd batteries do have some limitations. They suffer from the
“memory effect,” which can reduce their usable capacity if they are not fully dis-
charged before recharging. To mitigate this effect, periodic deep discharge and full
recharge cycles are recommended. Another drawback of Ni–Cd batteries is their
cadmium content. Cadmium is a toxic heavy metal, and its presence in batteries
raises environmental concerns, particularly during disposal. Proper recycling and
disposal practices are essential to minimize the environmental impact associated
with cadmium. Over time, the use of Ni–Cd batteries has declined due to the
emergence of newer battery technologies, such as nickel–metal-hydride (Ni–MH)
and lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, which offer higher energy densities and
improved environmental characteristics. However, Ni–Cd batteries still find
application in specific industries and niches, such as aviation, telecommunications,
and emergency backup power systems. The nominal parameters of Ni–Cd battery
are listed in Table 3.2.
In summary, Ni–Cd batteries have been widely used for their high energy
density, good cycle life, and robustness. They are known for their rapid charge and
discharge capabilities and can withstand harsh environments. However, their
environmental impact and the emergence of newer battery technologies have led to
a decline in their usage. Nonetheless, Ni–Cd batteries still serve specific applica-
tions where their unique characteristics are valued [11,12].

3.2.3.3 Nickel–metal-hydride battery

The Ni–MH battery is a type of rechargeable battery that has gained popularity as a
replacement for older battery technologies, such as Ni–Cd batteries. Ni–MH batteries
operate based on the electrochemical reactions between a nickel oxyhydroxide
42 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Metal alloy acts as a “sponge” that holds and

returns back hydrogen

H2 + M MH2

H2 + 2OH– 2H2O + 2e–

Load
K+ H2O OH–

2NiOOH + 2H2O + 2e– 2Ni(OH)2 + 2OH–

Figure 3.7 Reaction during discharge of Ni–MH battery

(NiOOH) positive electrode, a hydrogen-absorbing alloy negative electrode, and an

alkaline electrolyte, typically KOH. The overall reaction is given as follows:
MH þ NiOOH $ M þ NiðOHÞ2 (3.3)
The reaction at the +ve electrode is the same as for the Ni–Cd cell; the NiOOH
becomes nickel hydroxide during discharge. At the ve electrode, hydrogen is
released from the metal to which it was temporarily attached, and reacts, producing
water and electrons. Figure 3.7 shows the discharge process of Ni–MH battery.
Ni–MH batteries offer several advantages over Ni–Cd batteries. They have a
higher energy density, meaning they can store more energy in a given volume or
weight. This increased energy density allows Ni–MH batteries to provide longer
runtimes and higher capacities, making them suitable for applications that require
extended periods of use [13]. One of the key benefits of Ni–MH batteries is their
reduced environmental impact compared to Ni–Cd batteries. Ni–MH batteries do
not contain toxic cadmium, eliminating concerns associated with cadmium dis-
posal. This makes Ni–MH batteries a more environmentally friendly choice. Ni–
MH batteries also exhibit a lower susceptibility to the memory effect, a phenom-
enon in which the battery’s capacity is reduced if it is not fully discharged before
recharging. While Ni–MH batteries can still experience a memory effect to some
extent, it is less pronounced compared to Ni–Cd batteries. This allows for more
flexible charging patterns and improved overall performance. The following
nominal parameters for the Ni–MH battery are listed in Table 3.2.
However, Ni–MH batteries do have some limitations. They have a slightly
lower energy density compared to Li-ion batteries, which are now the dominant
rechargeable battery technology. Ni–MH batteries are also more prone to self-
discharge, meaning they lose their charge over time even when not in use. This can
limit their suitability for applications that require long periods of battery storage.
Overall, Ni–MH batteries have found extensive use in various applications,
including hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), cordless power tools,
portable electronics, and renewable energy systems. While they have been largely
overshadowed by Li-ion batteries in recent years, Ni–MH batteries continue to be a
 Electric energy sources and storage device 43

reliable and widely available option for those seeking a rechargeable battery with a
good balance of energy density, cycle life, and environmental friendliness.

3.2.3.4 Li-ion battery

The Li-ion battery is a popular and widely used rechargeable battery technology
known for its high energy density and excellent performance. Li-ion batteries
operate based on the movement of lithium ions between the +ve and ve electrodes
during charge and discharge cycles. The chemical reactions that occur in a Li-ion
battery are responsible for the storage and release of electrical energy. These
reactions take place at the positive and negative electrodes, involving the move-
ment of lithium ions (Li+) and electrons (e
) during the charge and discharge cycles
of the battery.
Li-ion batteries avoid the use of metallic lithium by employing lithium-
intercalated carbons (LixC), such as graphite or coke, as the ve electrode. These
materials have the ability to absorb lithium ions. As for the +ve electrode, lithium
metallic-oxides are utilized. The most commonly used +ve electrode material in Li-
ion batteries is cobalt oxide, despite its high cost. It has been proven to provide
satisfactory performance. An alternative +ve electrode option is nickel oxide,
specifically LiNiO2, which is structurally more complex but more cost-effective.
The performance of nickel oxide electrodes is comparable to that of cobalt oxide
electrodes. Another area of research involves +ve electrodes based on manganese
oxides, such as LiMn2O4 or LiMnO2. Manganese is a cheaper and more readily
available material compared to cobalt or nickel, and it is also less toxic. These
manganese-oxide-based electrodes show promise and are being actively studied.
During the charging process, an external power source applies a higher voltage
to the battery, causing the lithium ions to move from the +ve electrode (cathode) to
the ve electrode (anode) through the electrolyte. At the cathode, a transition metal-
oxide material, such as lithium cobalt-oxide (LiCoO2), is commonly used. The Li-
ions intercalate into the crystal structure of the cathode material, which is accom-
panied by a reduction reaction. This reduction involves the transition metal ions in
the cathode material accepting electrons and undergoing a change in oxidation
state. At the anode, typically made of graphite, the Li-ions are deintercalated from
the graphite structure and enter the electrolyte. This process is accompanied by an
oxidation reaction, where the graphite releases electrons to the anode.
During the discharging process, when the battery is being used to power a device,
the reverse reactions occur. The Li-ions move back from the ve electrode to the +ve
electrode, while the electrons flow through an external circuit to provide the desired
electrical current. The overall chemical reaction of the Li-ion battery is obtained as:
At negative electrode:

Lix C6 $ 6C þ xLiþ þ xe
where 0 < x < 1 (3.4)

At positive electrode:

xLiþ þ xe
þ Lið1
xÞ CoO2 $ LiCoO2 (3.5)

44 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Overall, the movement of lithium ions and the associated reduction and oxi-
dation reactions at the electrodes are the fundamental chemical processes that allow
a Li-ion battery to store and release electrical energy. The reversible nature of these
reactions enables the repeated charge and discharge cycles of the battery. A Li-ion
battery’s nominal cell voltage is 3.6 V, which is the same as the voltage of three
Ni–MH or Ni–Cd battery cells. Figure 3.8 shows the Li-ion cell structure.
Li-ion batteries offer several advantages that have made them the preferred
choice for numerous applications. They have a significantly higher energy density
compared to other rechargeable battery types, allowing them to store more energy
in a smaller and lighter package [14]. This high-energy density makes Li-ion bat-
teries well-suited for electric vehicles, portable electronics, and energy storage
systems where maximizing energy capacity is crucial. Another key advantage of
Li-ion batteries is their low self-discharge rate. They can retain their charge for
longer periods when not in use, which is particularly beneficial for devices that
require occasional use or backup power. Li-ion batteries are known for their high
efficiency and excellent voltage stability throughout the discharge cycle. They
deliver a consistent and stable power output, ensuring reliable performance for a
wide range of applications. Additionally, Li-ion batteries have a long cycle life,
allowing them to endure hundreds to thousands of charge–discharge cycles before
experiencing a noticeable capacity loss. This durability contributes to their overall
cost-effectiveness and longevity. In Table 3.2, the nominal parameters of Li-ion
batteries are listed.
Despite their many advantages, Li-ion batteries have some limitations. They
are sensitive to high temperatures, and exposure to extreme heat can degrade their
performance and reduce their lifespan. Overcharging or deep discharging Li-ion
batteries can also lead to performance degradation or irreversible damage. Proper
charging and discharging practices are essential to ensure their optimal perfor-
mance and longevity. Modern Li-ion battery designs incorporate various safety
mechanisms to prevent overcharging, overheating, and short circuits. These safety

Load

Flow of electron
during discharge

Li+
e– Li Li+ e–
Carbon

e– Li+ e–
Li Li+

LiCoO2
Li+
e– Li Li+ e–
Electrolyte

Figure 3.8 Structure of a Li-ion cell

 Electric energy sources and storage device 45

features help mitigate the risk of thermal runaway or fire hazards, making Li-ion
batteries relatively safe for everyday use.

3.3 Fuel cell

3.3.1 Introduction
A fuel cell is a device that utilizes a chemical reaction between a fuel and an
oxidizing agent to convert their energy into electrical energy. Unlike energy storage
devices that store energy for later use, a fuel cell continuously converts energy from
a fuel source into electricity. Fuel cells are highly efficient, typically achieving an
energy efficiency of 40%–60%. Additionally, the fuel itself holds the energy, as it
is chemically bound to it. As such, fuel cells are a great option for a sustainable
energy source.
Fuel cells are renowned for their ability to generate electricity through the use
of a variety of different fuels, including the commonly referred hydrogen and
oxygen (H2O) fuel cell. In addition to hydrogen, fuel cells can utilize a diverse
range of fuels, including methanol, butane, and natural gas. This wide array of fuel
options offers a variety of technological possibilities, which can be further cate-
gorized based on the type of electrolyte used. These different types of fuel cells
offer different operating temperatures and pressures, meaning that there are a range
of options available to those looking to create energy through fuel cells.
Fuel cells have been used in many industries, ranging from residential and
commercial applications to automotive and aerospace applications. They are also
used in remote locations where grid power is not available. With the increasing
availability of renewable energy sources, fuel cells are becoming an increasingly
attractive option due to their ability to store energy and provide backup power.
With the right type of fuel cell, they can provide a reliable and cost-effective source
of energy. Furthermore, the use of renewable fuels has the potential to reduce their
environmental impact and make them even more attractive.
Fuel cells possess a distinct advantage over thermal engines in that they
directly convert chemical energy into electrical energy, whereas thermal engines
necessitate the combustion of fuel to convert chemical energy into thermal and
mechanical energy. Subsequently, the mechanical energy is utilized for electricity
generation, while the thermal energy is often wasted in numerous applications.
This means that fuel cells can be more efficient in terms of energy conversion, as
all of the chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. In addition, fuel
cells produce no emissions of combustion-related pollutants, whereas thermal
engines can produce significant amounts of emissions. This makes fuel cells a
much cleaner and more sustainable energy source. Fuel cells offer significantly
higher theoretical efficiency compared to thermal engines, as the useful work
they can generate is not constrained by Carnot efficiency but rather by the free
enthalpy of the chemical reaction, which can exceed the potential efficiency of a
thermal engine. This is because a thermal engine needs to be coupled with a
generator to generate power, which reduces its efficiency. This improvement in
46 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

efficiency has a huge impact on the environment, making fuel cells a more
desirable option for power generation.
The use of thermal engines powered by fossil fuels has many advantages, one
of which is the avoidance of undesirable emissions. Moreover, the chemical fuel
used by thermal engines has a much higher storage density than electric energy
storage solutions such as batteries and allows for faster refueling times and reduced
self-discharge. This makes thermal engines ideal for applications where fast
refueling and higher energy densities are needed. In applications that demand
extended operation durations with minimal downtime between intervals, fuel cells
are the preferred option [15]. Not only are they more reliable and efficient but they
also require less maintenance and have a longer lifespan. The primary drawbacks of
using hydrogen as a fuel source are its difficulty in storage, the costly production
from renewables such as electrolysis, and the current investment costs in fuel cells
which are significantly higher compared to that of batteries and thermal engines.

3.3.2 Working of fuel cell

A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device that utilizes the reaction
between hydrogen and oxygen or air to produce electrical energy. This is done by two
electrodes the cathode and anode being placed in an electrolyte. During the process, an
electrochemical reaction occurs when hydrogen (H2) is broken down into its compo-
nents: hydrogen ions (H+) and electrons (e
). These ions then travel through the elec-
trolyte, and the electrons travel through an external circuit from the anode to the cathode,
creating an electric current. The electrons then combine with oxygen at the cathode, and
the hydrogen ions and oxygen combine to form water or steam. This process occurs in a
continuous loop, making fuel cells an effective and efficient way of producing electrical
energy. The following equations show the electrochemical reactions:

H2 Ð 2Hþ þ 2e
(3.6)

1
O2 þ 2Hþ þ 2e
Ð H2 O (3.7)
2
Electrolytes are substances that allow ions to pass through them but not elec-
trons. This means that electron transfer between two electrodes is possible only by
way of an electric connection. As electrons transfer from one electrode to another
in a fuel cell, it creates an electric current and generates heat as a by-product. This
electric current and heat can be harnessed for various applications (Figure 3.9).

3.3.2.1 Types of fuel cells

There are three main types of fuel cells that are currently being developed.
The basic scheme of fuel cell is shown in Figure 3.9.
(a) Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell
A proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is a type of fuel cell that uses
a semi-permeable membrane as an electrolyte. Within the fuel cell, there exists
a membrane situated between two electrodes. This membrane is constructed
 Electric energy sources and storage device 47

Electric current/load

e–
Fuel in e– Air in
H2O
e–
H+
H2
Heat
H+ O2

H 2O

Excess Unused
fuel gases out
Anode Cathode
Electrolyte

Figure 3.9 The basic scheme of fuel cell

from carbon paper coated with a hydrophobic polymer and embedded with
platinum particles.
The platinum particles act as catalysts, enabling the electrochemical reaction
to take place between the electrodes. The reaction produces electricity and is
typically carried out at temperatures below 80  C:

Anode : 2H2 ! 4Hþ þ 4e
(3.8)

Cathode : 4Hþ þ O2 þ 4e
! 2H2 O (3.9)
The electrodes within a fuel cell can be categorized into two separate zones.
The gas diffusion layer is specifically designed with porosity, enabling the
diffusion of oxygen and hydrogen feed streams towards the catalytically active
material found in the second zone. The gas diffusion layer is an important
component of the fuel cell and plays a key role in the electrochemical reaction.
It should provide good electrical conductivity to allow efficient electron
transport to the bipolar plates. Furthermore, it is also crucial to maximize the
catalytic active surface in the catalytic active zone, which is where the elec-
trochemical reaction takes place.
The proton exchange membrane (PEM) plays a crucial role in the operation
of fuel cells. It acts as a separator between the two electrodes, providing an
electrical isolation while still allowing for ionic conduction. Additionally, the
membrane also acts as an electrolyte, allowing for the transfer of protons from
one side of the cell to the other. To ensure efficient operation, the membrane
must be highly conductive to protons. Nafion is a membrane material com-
monly used in PEM cells, and it is well known for its desirable properties. Its
conductivity is better when the membrane is kept thin, thus making a thickness
of less than 200 mm preferable [16].
Bipolar plates have a crucial role in fuel cell stacks, serving as a structural
support and separating the feed streams. In addition, they must exhibit excellent
48 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

electrical and thermal conductivity to facilitate electron transfer between

electrodes and assist in system cooling.
(b) Phosphoric acid fuel cell
Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) are a specific type of fuel cell that employs
phosphoric acid as its electrolyte. These cells typically operate at approxi-
mately 200  C and atmospheric pressure, exhibiting an electric efficiency of
approximately 40%. The electrodes in PAFCs commonly consist of a combi-
nation of Pt, Fe, or Co catalyst materials supported on carbon paper. It is
essential for the gas chamber separating electrodes to be hydrophobic to pre-
vent corrosion. Ongoing research aims to enhance system stability and lifespan
by utilizing materials that demonstrate resistance to corrosion when exposed to
phosphoric acid electrolytes.
The equation for the electrochemical reactions inside a PAFC is given as
follows:
Anode : H2 ! 2Hþ þ 2e
(3.10)
1
Cathode: O2 þ 2Hþ þ 2e
! H2 O (3.11)
2
(c) Solid oxide fuel cell
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) consist of three primary components arranged in
layers: two electrodes and a ceramic electrolyte positioned between them. What
sets SOFCs apart from other fuel cell types is their high operating temperature,
which can reach up to 1,000  C. This characteristic makes them particularly
well-suited for stationary applications. Within the SOFC, oxygen ions are
transported through the electrolyte from the cathode to the anode, where they
react with hydrogen.
The equation for the electrochemical reactions inside a (SOFC) is given as
follows:
Anode : 2H2 þ 2O2
! 2H2 O þ 4e
(3.12)


Cathode:O2 þ 4e ! O 2

(3.13)
Compared to PEMFCs, solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) stacks offer several
advantages, including the aforementioned qualities and high electric efficiency.
Another advantage is their compatibility with biogases. Unlike PEMFCs,
which primarily rely on hydrogen, SOFCs have the flexibility to utilize
methane, biogas, or carbon monoxide-rich synthesis gas derived from solid
biomass gasification as renewable alternatives to natural gas as fuel.
In addition to the primary fuel cell technologies, there are various other fuel
cell technologies available that operate at low, moderate, and high tempera-
tures. Among these, two notable ones are the molten carbonate fuel cell
(MCFC) and the alkaline fuel cell (AFC). The MCFC is classified as a high-
temperature fuel cell that utilizes natural gas and hydrogen as fuel, while the
AFC is categorized as a low-temperature fuel cell that relies on hydrogen as its
fuel source.
 Electric energy sources and storage device 49

3.3.3 Applications of fuel cell

The two main applications of the fuel cell are the following.

3.3.3.1 Power technologies

1. Fuel cells are increasingly being used to generate power and to store energy in
various applications. The choice of fuel cell technology and fuel, as well as the
heating and cooling of the stacks, are the main differences between fuel cell
systems. In addition, stationary fuel cells can be used as a primary source of
power. They are often used to provide electricity for remote locations that are
not connected to the grid, as well as to provide additional energy when the
main power source is insufficient.
2. The SOFC has demonstrated a high level of efficiency and reliability, making
it an attractive choice for power generation. Additionally, its high-temperature
waste heat production capability allows for further integration into existing
power systems, providing even greater efficiency benefits. The SOFC’s
potential for high efficiency, combined with its compatibility for mobility,
makes it an ideal choice for power systems.
3. An alternative application of fuel cells involves integrating an SOFC with a gas
turbine. This integration holds the promise of enhancing the overall efficiency
of the gas turbine process by capturing energy losses caused by irreversi-
bilities. It is estimated that the gas turbine–SOFC system could achieve an
efficiency of up to 60%.
4. Unlike batteries, fuel cells do not store energy in the same manner. Instead, fuel
cells store energy in the form of hydrogen. This characteristic makes fuel cells
particularly appealing for applications involving energy storage, such as stan-
dalone power plants that rely on intermittent sources like solar or wind power. In
such scenarios, fuel cells can be integrated with electrolyzers and storage sys-
tems to create a more efficient and comprehensive energy storage system [17].

3.3.3.2 Fuel cell vehicles

1. Hydrogen fuel cells have made significant progress in the transportation sector,
and there are already several vehicles, including cars and buses, that utilize this
technology for operation. Fuel cells offer several advantages for transportation
applications, such as zero-emission operation, longer range compared to bat-
teries, and quick refueling times.
2. Fuel cells are particularly well-suited for certain sectors of mobility where long-
range capabilities and refueling challenges are significant factors. Transit vehicles
such as ships, trucks, and non-electric trains, as well as cars requiring extended
ranges without frequent refueling, can benefit from fuel cell technology.
3. Fuel cell vehicles predominantly rely on hydrogen as their fuel source, which
powers an electric engine either by charging a battery or directly. PEMFCs offer
numerous benefits, including quick start-up times, high power density, and efficient
operation at low temperatures. The hydrogen is stored in a pressurized tank within
the vehicle, with standard pressures of 70 megapascals (MPa) or 700 bar for cars,
50 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

and 35 MPa or 350 bar for buses. The choice of pressure tank significantly impacts
the vehicle’s range. The fuel cell system in a motor vehicle typically operates
within a temperature range of 60  C–80  C, as the use of a polymer membrane in
the fuel cell stack restricts the operating temperature to below 100  C.

3.4 Ultracapacitors

Ultracapacitors, also known as supercapacitors or electrochemical capacitors, are

energy storage devices that fill the void between normal capacitors and batteries.
Unlike traditional capacitors that store energy electrostatically, ultracapacitors store
energy through a combination of electrostatic and electrochemical processes,
allowing them to deliver high power density and exhibit remarkable charge–
discharge characteristics.
The structure of the ultracapacitor is similar to Li-ion cell structure. It also
consists of +ve electrode, ve electrode, separator, and current collector. Figure 3.10
shows the structure of the ultracapacitor. The core component of an ultracapacitor
is the electrode material, which is typically composed of porous carbon with a large
surface area. This high surface area enables the adsorption and desorption of ions,
facilitating rapid charge and discharge cycles. The electrodes are separated by an
electrolyte solution, which acts as the ion conductor. Commonly used electrolytes
include organic solvents with dissolved salts or ionic liquids.
Ultracapacitors excel in providing bursts of power for short durations, making
them suitable for applications that require rapid energy delivery and high-power
density. They exhibit an excellent power-to-weight ratio, allowing for quick char-
ging and discharging cycles. However, their energy density, or the amount of
energy stored per unit mass or volume, is lower compared to batteries. This lim-
itation restricts their ability to store large amounts of energy for extended periods.
Ultracapacitors exhibit power density and energy density in the range of 106 W/m3
and 104 Wh/m3, respectively. While their energy density is lower compared to

i
+ Charge –
Discharge
Current collector

Current collector
Carbon electrode

Carbon electrode
Porous separator

Figure 3.10 Structure of ultracapacitor

 Electric energy sources and storage device 51

batteries, which typically range from around 5 to 25  104 Wh/m3, ultracapacitors

have significantly faster discharge times (around 110 s) compared to batteries
(approximately 5  103 s). Moreover, ultracapacitors boast a much longer cycle
life, with a durability of approximately 105 cycles, whereas batteries typically have
a cycle life of 100–1,000 cycles.
Ultracapacitors find numerous applications across various industries. They are
commonly used in hybrid and electric vehicles to provide quick bursts of power
during acceleration and absorb energy during braking, improving overall energy
efficiency. They also find applications in renewable energy systems, grid stabili-
zation, and power quality enhancement by compensating for rapid load changes
and providing short-term power backup.
Ongoing research and development efforts focus on enhancing the energy
density of ultracapacitors, exploring new electrode materials, and improving their
overall performance. As ultracapacitors continue to evolve, they hold the potential
to play a vital role in shaping the future of energy storage, complementing and even
replacing certain applications currently dominated by batteries.
In summary, ultracapacitors offer unique advantages such as high-power den-
sity, rapid charge–discharge capabilities, and exceptional cycle life. While their
energy density is lower compared to batteries, their ability to deliver bursts of power
quickly makes them valuable in various applications where high-power demands are
critical. Continued advancements in ultracapacitor technology will unlock their full
potential and expand their applications in a wide range of industries [18].

3.5 Fundamentals of electric battery

Batteries are an essential component of many electronic devices, providing the
stored energy necessary to power them. They are composed of one or more cells,
each of which is an electrochemical unit that stores the chemical energy that can be
converted to electrical energy upon demand. Cells are often connected in series to
form a battery module, with the entire module being enclosed in a protective cas-
ing. A battery pack is an assembly of multiple individual battery modules con-
nected in various series and parallel combinations to provide the necessary voltage
and energy to a power electronic drive system.

3.5.1 Battery cell structure

Battery structure refers to the physical components and arrangement of a battery.
The cell symbol and cross section of a cell are shown in Figure 3.11. While the
exact structure can vary depending on the type and design of the battery.
1. Electrochemical cells: The fundamental building blocks of a battery are the electro-
chemical cells. Each cell consists of two electrodes: an anode (negative electrode) and
a cathode (positive electrode) immersed in an electrolyte solution. These electrodes
and the electrolytes facilitate the chemical reactions that generate electrical energy.
2. Separator: The electrodes within an electrochemical cell are separated by a
permeable barrier called a separator. The separator prevents direct contact
52 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

A K

V cell
Positive Negative
electrode electrode

A K
Separator
+ –
Electrolyte
Cell
container
(a) (b)

Figure 3.11 (a) Cell symbol and (b) cross-section of a cell

between the electrodes while allowing the movement of ions between them. It
helps maintain the integrity of the cell and prevents short circuits.
3. Electrode materials: The anode and the cathode are typically made from dif-
ferent materials to enable the desired electrochemical reactions. Common
anode materials include graphite, lithium metal, or various metal alloys, while
cathode materials can range from lithium cobalt oxide to lithium iron phos-
phate, depending on the battery type.
4. Electrolyte: The electrolyte serves as a medium for ion transport between the
electrodes. It is usually a liquid or gel substance containing ions that facilitate
the flow of charge during the battery’s operation. The electrolyte can be aqu-
eous (water-based) or non-aqueous (organic solvent-based) depending on the
battery chemistry.
5. Current collectors: To extract electrical energy from the battery, current collectors
are connected to each electrode. These collectors act as conductive pathways,
allowing the flow of electrons between the electrodes and the external circuit.

3.5.2 Battery parameters

Battery parameters refer to the characteristics or properties of a battery that are
used to describe its performance, capacity, and behavior. These parameters provide
important information for selecting, using, and evaluating batteries.
Battery capacity:
Capacity refers to the amount of electrical energy a battery can store and deliver. It
is usually measured in Ah or mAh and represents the total charge a battery can
provide over a specified period. Higher capacity values indicate that a battery can
store more energy and provide longer runtime.
Open circuit voltage (OCV):
1. OCV refers to the voltage across the terminals of a battery when no load or
external circuit is connected to it. In other words, it is the voltage output of a
battery when there is no current flowing through it. The OCV versus SoC
characteristics for new versus aged batteries are shown in Figure 3.12.
 Electric energy sources and storage device 53
4,400 4,500
4,200
4,000
4,000

Voltage (mV)
Voltage (mV)

3,800
3,600
3,500
3,400
3,200
3,000 3,000
2,800
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000
SOC% Capacity (mAH)
(a) (b)

Figure 3.12 (a) OCV versus SoC characterization curves of new versus aged
batteries and (b) battery terminal voltage characteristics in relation
to capacity

2. OCV of a battery is influenced by various factors, including the chemistry and

state of charge (SoC) of the battery. Different battery chemistries have different
voltage characteristics. For example, a Li-ion battery typically has an OCV range
of around 3.0–4.2 V per cell, depending on the specific chemistry and SoC.
3. The OCV is often used to estimate the state of charge of a battery. By com-
paring the OCV to a reference voltage or using voltage measurements over
time, it is possible to estimate the remaining capacity or charge level of a
battery. However, it is important to note that the relationship between OCV
and SoC is not linear, and other factors like temperature and battery history can
also affect the accuracy of this estimation.
Terminal voltage:
1. The terminal voltage of a battery refers to the voltage measured at the battery’s
terminals when a load or external circuit is connected to it. It represents the
electrical potential difference between the positive and negative terminals of
the battery.
2. The terminal voltage of a battery depends on various factors, including the
battery’s chemistry, SoC, and the current being drawn from it. Different battery
chemistries have different voltage characteristics. For example, a fully charged
Li-ion battery typically has a terminal voltage of around 3.6–4.2 V per cell,
while a lead–acid battery may have a terminal voltage of around 2 V per cell
when fully charged.
3. As the battery discharges and its stored energy is depleted, the terminal voltage
gradually decreases. The rate at which the voltage drops can vary depending on
the battery chemistry and the load being applied.
Energy density: Energy density describes the amount of energy stored per unit
volume or mass of a battery. It is typically measured in Watt–hours per liter (Wh/L)
or Watt–hours per kilogram (Wh/kg). Higher energy density means that a battery
can store more energy in a given volume or weight, which is crucial for applica-
tions that require high energy storage in a compact space.
54 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Power density: Power density relates to the amount of power a battery can deliver
per unit volume or mass. It is measured in Watts per liter (W/L) or Watts per
kilogram (W/kg). Higher power density indicates that a battery can supply more
power quickly, which is important for applications that demand high power output
or rapid charging.
Internal resistance: Internal resistance refers to the opposition to the flow of current
within a battery. It arises from the resistance of the battery’s components, including
the electrolyte, electrodes, and current collectors. Higher internal resistance results in
energy losses and voltage drops during discharge or charging processes.
Cycle life: Cycle life represents the number of charge and discharge cycles a bat-
tery can undergo before its capacity significantly degrades. It is a measure of a
battery’s durability and longevity. Batteries with higher cycle life can sustain more
charge–discharge cycles, making them suitable for long-term and frequent use.
Self-discharge rate: Self-discharge rate refers to the loss of battery capacity over time
when not in use. It is typically expressed as a percentage per month or year. Batteries
with low self-discharge rates retain their charge for longer periods, making them
suitable for applications where infrequent use or long storage periods are common.
C rate:
1. The C rate of a battery refers to the rate at which it is charged or discharged
relative to its rated capacity. It is a measure of the current flow in relation to the
capacity of the battery.
2. The C rate is defined as the ratio of the current (in amperes) to the battery’s
rated capacity (in ampere-hours).
3. For example, if a battery has a rated capacity of 1,000 mAh (1 Ah) and a
discharge current of 500 mA (0.5 A), the discharge rate would be expressed as
0.5C (500 mA/1 Ah). Similarly, if the battery is discharged at 2 A, the dis-
charge rate would be 2C (2A/1 Ah).
SoC:
The SoC of a battery refers to the amount of electrical energy that remains in the
battery compared to its maximum capacity. It is expressed as a percentage, indi-
cating the level of charge remaining in the battery.
Methods used to estimate SoC for certain battery chemistries:
1. Coulomb counting:
Ð
SoC = (Qr
i dt)/Qr, where SoC is the state Ðof charge in percentage, Q is the
rated capacity of the battery in ampere-hours, i dt is the integral of the current
over time, representing the cumulative charge or discharge.
2. Voltage based:
SoC = (V
Vmin)/(Vmax
Vmin)  100, where SoC is the state of charge in
percentage, V is the measured battery voltage, Vmin is the minimum voltage
observed at a known low SoC, and Vmax is the maximum voltage observed at a
known high SoC.
 Electric energy sources and storage device 55

3. OCV method:
SoC = f(OCV), where SoC is the state of charge in percentage, and f(OCV)
represents a lookup table or mathematical model that relates the OCV of the
battery to the corresponding SoC.
Remaining useful life:
The remaining useful life (RUL) of a battery refers to the estimated time or capa-
city that remains before the battery reaches the end of its useful lifespan. There are
multiple approaches and algorithms used to estimate the RUL of a battery,
including empirical models, data-driven models, and physics-based models.
RUL = (capacity new
capacity present)/rate of capacity loss capacity new is
the original capacity of the battery when new, capacity present is the current
capacity of the battery, and rate of capacity loss is the rate at which the battery
capacity is decreasing over time.
Depth of discharge (DoD):
DoD refers to the amount of a battery’s capacity that has been discharged relative
to its total capacity. It is expressed as a percentage and indicates the extent to which
the battery’s energy has been used:
QT
SoCT ðtÞ
DoDðtÞ ¼  100 (3.14)
QT
Ð t1
t0 i ðt Þ
DoD ¼  100 (3.15)
QT
For example, if a battery with a total capacity of 100 Ah has discharged 50 Ah
of energy, the DoD would be: DoD = (50 Ah/100 Ah) 100 = 50%.

3.6 Modeling of electric battery

Battery modeling refers to the process of creating mathematical or computational
models that represent the behavior and characteristics of batteries. These models
are used to simulate and predict the performance, dynamics, and interactions of
batteries in various applications. Battery modeling serves several purposes. It
allows researchers, engineers, and manufacturers to understand and optimize bat-
tery performance, design more efficient battery management systems (BMSs), and
assess the impact of different operating conditions on battery behavior. It also aids
in the development of battery control strategies, state estimation algorithms, and
optimal battery usage. Battery models typically capture the electrical, thermal, and
electrochemical processes that occur within a battery. They consider factors such as
voltage, current, SoC, state of health (SoH), temperature, and other relevant para-
meters. Various types of battery models exist, ranging from simple empirical
models to more complex physics-based models [19,20].
Empirical models are based on experimental data and mathematical equations
that describe the voltage and capacity characteristics of batteries under different
56 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

conditions. These models are relatively simple and provide a practical representa-
tion of battery behavior but may lack accuracy for specific applications. Physics-
based models, on the other hand, take into account the fundamental electrochemical
processes occurring inside the battery. They incorporate equations that describe the
chemical reactions, ion diffusion, and heat transfer within the battery cells. Physics-
based models can provide more detailed and accurate representations of battery
behavior but require more computational resources and detailed knowledge of
battery chemistry.
In recent years, advanced modeling techniques, such as electrochemical impe-
dance spectroscopy (EIS) and equivalent circuit models (ECMs), have gained
popularity. EIS involves measuring the response of a battery to small alternating
current signals at different frequencies to extract information about its internal
impedance. ECMs use electrical components, such as resistors, capacitors, and
inductors, to represent the equivalent behavior of a battery. These techniques provide
a balance between accuracy and computational complexity. Battery modeling plays a
crucial role in the development and optimization of battery technologies for appli-
cations such as electric vehicles, renewable energy systems, portable electronics, and
grid-scale energy storage. By accurately simulating battery behavior and perfor-
mance, modeling enables better battery design, management, and control, ultimately
leading to improved efficiency, safety, and overall battery performance.

3.6.1 Equivalent circuit model

Equivalent circuit-based models are commonly used for battery modeling as they
offer the advantage of using lumped parameters, which makes them easily inte-
grated into larger system simulation models. These models utilize a combination of
circuit elements such as capacitors, inductors, resistors, and dependent sources to
represent the functionality and behavior of the electrochemical cell. The model
parameters are determined from output data obtained from the battery, eliminating
the need for detailed knowledge of the chemical processes and design specifics.
ECMs can range from simple linear-resistive models to more complex ones that
capture the chemical processes using lumped parameters. While the precision of
these models falls between empirical models and theoretical models, they are
highly useful for both system simulation and design purposes. They strike a balance
between accuracy and practicality, making them valuable tools for analyzing bat-
tery behavior and designing battery-dependent systems.
To effectively evaluate the application aspects of batteries, it is essential to gain
insights into both the device’s operation and its interaction within the system. Circuit
models that are complex will be utilized to investigate dynamic responses, and also
the characteristic features including pulse discharges in EVs. The electrochemical
activities within the battery are observed by two important relationships: The Butler–
Volmer relationship, which describes the exchange of electrons at the electrolyte–
electrode interface, and Faraday’s electrolysis law, which establishes that the current
governs the reaction. By establishing connections between these principles and the
diffusing charge and stored charge within the electrochemical cell, it becomes pos-
sible to develop an electric-circuit model. The parameters of this model can be
 Electric energy sources and storage device 57

determined through validated data. When constructing battery models, it is more

suitable to consider the charge stored and diffused near the electrode surface, rather
than focusing on surface activities or species concentration. The instantaneous stored
charge is represented as qs ðtÞ and the instantaneous diffusion charge as qd(t), both
near the electrode surface. Suppose Q denotes the total capacity of the cell, the
charge in the non-energized species can be expressed as Q
qs(t). One challenge lies
in finding the Butler–Volmer equation’s inverse to represent the terminal voltage in
terms of electrode current accurately. The Tafel and Nernst equations are approx-
imations that provide an estimation of the terminal current; however, they have
limitations. By understanding the underlying principles and relationships involved in
the electrochemical processes, battery models can be developed, allowing for ana-
lysis of the device’s behavior and its impact on the larger system. These models
provide valuable insights into battery performance, aiding in the design, optimiza-
tion, and evaluation of battery applications in various fields. An approximate repre-
sentation of battery behavior is provided by the simplified Unnewehr universal
model, expressed as

EðtÞ ¼ E0 þ RW iðtÞ þ k1 qs ðtÞ (3.16)

where E0 represents the cell’s initial voltage, RW denotes the resistance, and k1 is
the constant.
To address the solution of the Butler–Volmer equation in a generalized form,
Hartley and Jannette introduced an equation as follows:

EðtÞ ¼ E0 þ RW iðtÞ þ k1 lnð1 þ jijÞsignðiÞ þ k2 lnð1 þ jqd jÞsignðiÞ

(3.17)
þ k3 lnð1
qs Þ

The constants k1, E0, RW , k2, and k3 are determined based on the properties of
the particular electrochemical cell and can be obtained from validated data.
Although the Hartley model provides a terminal voltage in mathematical repre-
sentation, it is often more practical to find an ECM for simulating and analyzing
battery cells. This allows for easier integration into simulation platforms and
facilitates the analysis of battery performance. In the subsequent discussion, var-
ious ECMs representing electrochemical cells are explored, initially with the
Hartley model considered as the basic model. These circuit models provide a
practical approach to simulate and analyze battery behavior, offering insights into
the dynamics and characteristics of the battery under different operating conditions.
Simple battery model:
We can start by considering a straightforward electrical equivalent circuit
model, which captures the fundamental principles of battery operation and is
suitable for characterization based on the discharge data of the cell, as depicted in
Figure 3.9. Among the critical dynamics that need to be modeled is the process of
diffusion. While more intricate representations involving Constant Phase Element
or Warburg impedance can be employed, an approximate solution can be obtained
58 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

by considering the change in diffusing charge in a similar fashion to the voltage

across an RC circuit element. As a result, the impact of the diffusion charge on the
terminal voltage can be characterized by a first-order differential equation:
dvd ðtÞ 1 1
¼ iðtÞ
v d ðt Þ (3.18)
dt Cd C d Rd
where vd ðtÞ denotes the voltage drop across the Rd and Cd circuit which is pro-
portional to the diffusion charge qd(t). While for accurate measurement of the
diffusion charge, more RC circuits are added, for the sake of simplicity, our model
in Figure 3.13 retains a single RC time constant. Another important aspect to
consider is the impact of SoC on the terminal voltage of the battery cell. As shown
in Figure 3.13, as the cell is discharged, the terminal voltage drops. In the linear
region of this discharge characteristic, we can model the voltage decrease using a
capacitor Cs connected in series to denote the charge stored in the cell. Hence, the
charge stored qs t is directly proportional to the voltage across the capacitor Cs.
When the SoC of the cell decreases or increases during discharging or charging, the
voltage across that capacitor will correspondingly decrease or increase.
Additionally, an electrochemical cell naturally loses charge when at rest. To
account for this self-discharge, a parallel resistor Rsd can be added to the storage
capacitor Cs. In Figure 3.13, the Rsd, Cs circuit elements, representing the self-
discharge resistor and storage capacitor, are connected in series with the diffusion
parameters. In terms of the terminal current, this component of the circuit model
may be mathematically represented as follows:
dqs ðtÞ 1
¼ iðtÞ
q s ðt Þ (3.19)
dt Rsd
To complete the equivalent circuit model of the electrochemical cell, two
additional parameters need to be included: a resistor and voltage source in series to
represent the ohmic resistance drop. RW represents the ohmic resistance and the
voltage source is treated as the cell’s OCV, E0. These elements are depicted in
Figure 3.13, also in series with the diffusion and storage parameters. This simple
ECM provides a representation of an electrochemical cell. The values of the above-
defined elements in the circuit can be obtained experimentally by varying a battery

Cs Cd

RΩ
υs(t) υd(t)
i(t)
Rsd
Rd
E0

Figure 3.13 Electric equivalent circuit battery model

 Electric energy sources and storage device 59

Vt

I1 I2

tout,1 tout,2 Discharge

time (h)

Figure 3.14 Constant current discharge curves

R Lseries
ZAC

Vt
E0(SoC) Ibatt

Figure 3.15 Impedance-based equivalent electric circuit battery model

current in a step-change manner, allowing for the characterization and analysis of

the battery’s behavior (Figure 3.14).
Impedance-based model:
Another approach to battery equivalent circuit modeling is the impedance model,
which is based on electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. This technique is uti-
lized to construct an AC impedance-based circuit representation of battery char-
acteristics. Figure 3.15 illustrates a battery model derived from impedance
spectroscopy. Impedance-based models provide valuable insights into the electrical
behavior of batteries at different frequencies. However, these models are less
intuitive compared to other circuit-based models [21]. It is important to note that
impedance-based models are applicable only under fixed SoC and temperature
conditions. Predicting the direct current (DC) response and runtime of a battery
using impedance models can be challenging. Nonetheless, these models are
instrumental in analyzing the frequency-dependent behavior of batteries and
studying their impedance characteristics.

3.7 Various electric battery technologies

There are several different battery technologies available, each with its own char-
acteristics, advantages, and limitations.
Advanced battery technology encompasses the utilization of cutting-edge
techniques and materials to optimize the performance, efficiency, and longevity of
60 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

batteries. It involves a range of research domains dedicated to creating batteries

with improved energy density, extended lifespan, reduced cost, and the exploration
of innovative charging methods like rapid and wireless charging. Several examples
of advanced battery technologies include silicon and lithium–metal anodes, solid-
state electrolytes, advanced designs for lithium-ion batteries, lithium–sulfur (Li–S)
batteries, sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries, redox flow batteries (RFBs), as well as
zinc-ion, zinc–bromine, and zinc–air batteries.
Advanced batteries have gained significant importance in modern industries,
finding numerous applications across various sectors. These batteries, with their
enhanced capabilities and performance, have revolutionized multiple industries,
including portable electronics, electric and hybrid vehicles, energy storage systems,
medical devices, industrial equipment, and military applications.
Silicon anodes and lithium–metal anodes represent significant material
advancements in the field of Li-ion batteries, offering the potential for substantially
higher energy density. However, addressing concerns related to rate capability,
safety, and cost is crucial alongside these advancements. The commercial utiliza-
tion of silicon and lithium-metal anodes has been hindered by significant lifespan
issues. Similarly, for Li–S batteries, achieving long-term durability remains an
even greater challenge.
When considering alternatives to lithium-based chemistries, energy density
is often compromised in favor of environmental sustainability, reduced capital
or lifetime costs, enhanced rate capability, or longer cycle life. Ultimately, the
selection of technology and chemistry depends on the specific requirements of
a given application, balancing various performance characteristics [22]. There
is a growing demand for longer duration storage solutions, particularly in sta-
tionary energy storage applications. This creates opportunities for innovative
approaches such as redox flow batteries, which offer the advantage of scalable
energy capacity while utilizing cost-effective and widely available active
materials.
1. Li–S batteries:
● Li–S batteries are a type of rechargeable battery that utilizes lithium as the
positive electrode (cathode) and sulfur as the negative electrode (anode).
They are considered one of the most promising next-generation battery
technologies due to their high energy density and potential for sig-
nificantly higher capacity than traditional Li-ion batteries.
● The basic principle behind Li–S batteries involves the electrochemical
reaction between lithium ions and sulfur. During discharge, lithium ions
migrate from the positive electrode (cathode) through an electrolyte to the
negative electrode (anode), while sulfur undergoes a series of redox
reactions to form lithium sulfide. The reverse reaction occurs during the
charging process.
● However, there are several challenges associated with the practical
implementation of Li–S batteries. One significant challenge is the inherent
insulating nature of sulfur, which hampers its electrochemical utilization
 Electric energy sources and storage device 61

and causes low electrical conductivity. This leads to issues such as poor
cycling stability and limited overall battery performance.
● Overall, Li–S batteries hold great potential for revolutionizing energy
storage technologies with their high energy density and low-cost materials.
While there are technical challenges to overcome, ongoing research and
advancements are bringing us closer to realizing the practical imple-
mentation of Li–S batteries in various applications, including electric
vehicles, portable electronics, and grid energy storage.
2. Na-ion batteries:
● Na-ion batteries are a type of rechargeable battery that utilizes sodium ions
as the charge carriers instead of lithium ions, which are used in Li-ion
batteries. Sodium, being more abundant and less expensive than lithium,
makes Na-ion batteries an attractive alternative for large-scale energy
storage applications.
● During discharge, sodium ions move from the positive electrode (cathode)
to the negative electrode (anode) through an electrolyte. This process
involves the insertion and extraction of sodium ions into and from the
anode material, respectively. The reverse process occurs during the
charging phase.
● One of the primary advantages of Na-ion batteries is their cost-
effectiveness. The abundance of sodium and its lower cost compared to
lithium make Na-ion batteries more economically viable for applications
that require large-scale energy storage, such as renewable energy inte-
gration and grid-level energy storage.
● However, Na-ion batteries face several challenges that need to be
addressed for their widespread adoption. One of the main challenges is
finding suitable electrode materials. Sodium ions are larger than lithium
ions, and this size difference presents difficulties in finding materials
that can efficiently store and release sodium ions during charge and
discharge cycles.
3. Redox flow batteries:
● Redox flow batteries (RFBs) are a type of rechargeable battery that stores
energy in chemical compounds dissolved in liquid electrolytes. Unlike
conventional batteries where energy is stored within the electrodes, RFBs
store energy in external tanks containing electrolyte solutions.
● During the charge–discharge cycle, the electrolyte is circulated through
the electrochemical cell, and the electroactive species undergo oxidation
and reduction reactions at the electrodes, releasing or absorbing electrons.
The electricity generated or consumed is proportional to the flow rate and
the concentration of the electroactive species [23–25].
● One of the key advantages of RFBs is their ability to separate power and
energy. The power output of an RFB can be easily adjusted by changing
the size of the electrochemical cell and the flow rate of the electrolyte.
This makes RFBs suitable for applications that require scalable and
62 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

flexible power delivery, such as grid energy storage and renewable energy
integration.
● There are several types of RFBs, including the vanadium redox flow bat-
tery (VRFB), zinc–bromine flow battery (ZBB), and iron–chromium flow
battery (ICFB). Each type has its own unique set of electrolyte chemistries
and operating characteristics, which determine factors such as energy
efficiency, power density, and cost.

4. Zinc–air batteries:
● Zinc–air batteries are a type of electrochemical energy storage system that
utilizes the oxidation and reduction reactions of zinc and oxygen to gen-
erate electricity. These batteries are known for their high-energy density
and potential for long-duration energy storage.
● The zinc–air battery consists of two main components: a zinc anode and
an air cathode. The anode is made of zinc, which serves as the active
material. The cathode is typically a porous material saturated with
oxygen from the air, allowing the oxygen to react with the zinc during
discharge.
● During the discharge process, zinc atoms at the anode oxidize and release
electrons, forming zinc ions (Zn2+) in the electrolyte. Simultaneously, at
the cathode, oxygen from the air combines with water and the electrons to
form hydroxyl ions (OH
). The zinc ions migrate through the electrolyte,
while the hydroxyl ions migrate through a separate pathway called the
ionic conductor. The migration of ions and the flow of electrons in the
external circuit generate electrical energy.
● One of the main advantages of zinc–air batteries is their high energy
density. The energy density is primarily determined by the amount of
zinc used as the anode material, making it possible to achieve a high
energy-to-weight ratio. This makes zinc–air batteries attractive for
applications that require lightweight and long-lasting energy sources,
such as electric vehicles and portable electronic devices. However,
zinc–air batteries do have some limitations. One significant challenge is
the limited cycle life.

3.8 Selection of electric battery

The selection of an electric battery is a critical decision that depends on various
factors, including the specific application requirements, performance criteria,
safety considerations, and cost-effectiveness [26]. Here are some key aspects to
consider when choosing an electric battery:
Energy and power requirements: Determine the energy and power demands of
the application. Energy requirements relate to the amount of stored energy
needed, while power requirements refer to the rate at which energy must be
delivered. Different battery chemistries have varying energy and power
 Electric energy sources and storage device 63

densities, so selecting a battery that aligns with the specific energy and power
requirements is crucial.
Voltage and capacity: Consider the desired voltage and capacity of the battery.
The voltage requirement depends on the system or device being powered, while
capacity relates to the amount of energy the battery can store. It is essential to
choose a battery with the appropriate voltage and capacity to meet the
application’s needs.
Cycle life and durability: Evaluate the expected lifespan and durability require-
ments. Cycle life refers to the number of charge–discharge cycles a battery can
undergo before its performance starts degrading. Select a battery with a cycle life
that matches or exceeds the application’s anticipated usage to ensure longevity
and reliability.
Safety considerations: Safety is a critical factor, particularly for applications
involving transportation or sensitive environments. Assess the safety features
and considerations of the battery, such as thermal stability, overcharge and
discharge protection, and robust containment to prevent leakage or thermal
runaway [27].
Environmental impact: Consider the environmental impact of the battery chem-
istry and its disposal. Some battery chemistries may contain hazardous materials
or require specific disposal methods. opt for batteries with minimal environmental
impact and explore recycling options for end-of-life batteries.
Cost and efficiency: Evaluate the cost-effectiveness of the battery, taking into
account the initial purchase cost, operational efficiency, and maintenance
requirements. Consider the overall cost of ownership, including factors like
energy efficiency, maintenance needs, and any additional system requirements.
Temperature range: Determine the operating temperature range required for the
application. Some batteries may perform better at specific temperature ranges,
while others may require thermal management systems to maintain optimal
performance.
Integration and compatibility: Consider the compatibility and ease of integration of
the battery with the application or system. Assess factors such as physical size,
weight, and electrical interface to ensure seamless integration and efficient operation.
Available infrastructure: Assess the availability of charging or swapping infra-
structure for rechargeable batteries, especially for applications like electric vehi-
cles. Consider the accessibility and compatibility of charging stations or battery-
swapping facilities.
Future developments: Stay informed about emerging battery technologies and
advancements. Battery technology is evolving rapidly, so consider the potential
for future improvements, such as increased energy density, faster charging, or
enhanced safety features.
64 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

By carefully evaluating these factors and considering the specific requirements

of the application, one can select an electric battery that provides optimal perfor-
mance, reliability, safety, and cost-effectiveness.

3.9 Battery management system

Battery management involves utilizing various techniques, systems, and technolo-
gies to effectively monitor, control, and safeguard rechargeable batteries. It
encompasses a diverse set of functions that focus on enhancing battery perfor-
mance, ensuring safety, extending lifespan, and maximizing energy efficiency.
Effective battery management is of utmost importance across a range of applica-
tions such as electric vehicles, renewable energy storage, portable electronics, and
industrial systems [28]. It plays a critical role in ensuring reliable and efficient
operation by efficiently managing and optimizing battery systems. An essential
aspect of battery management is a well-designed BMS, which assumes a crucial
role in monitoring key battery parameters like voltage, current, temperature, and
SoC. Additionally, it implements control strategies to ensure cell balancing, pre-
vent overcharging or over-discharging, and deliver vital insights regarding battery
health and performance [29].

3.9.1 Cell balancing

Li-ion batteries are widely utilized in diverse applications ranging from electric
vehicles to smart grid systems, owing to their favorable characteristics such as
high-power density, high energy density, low self-discharge rate, compact struc-
ture, enhanced safety, and absence of memory effect. However, a single Li-ion
battery cell can only provide a voltage range between 2.5 V and 4.2 V due to its
electrochemical limitations. This voltage range falls short of meeting the high-
voltage requirements of electric vehicles. As a result, a large number of Li-ion cells
must be connected in series and parallel configurations to meet the desired battery
voltage and power specifications.
In practice, variations in manufacturing and environmental factors can lead to
discrepancies in the electrical properties of individual cells within a battery pack.
This can result in voltage mismatches between cells during charging or discharging
operations. These mismatches can lead to overcharging or depletion of specific
cells, diminishing the usable battery capacity and overall lifespan. To address this
issue and improve system performance, a reliable cell balancing system is neces-
sary for the battery pack [30].

3.9.2 Types of cell balancing techniques

There are several different techniques used for cell balancing in BMSs. These
techniques aim to equalize the voltages or SoC of individual cells within a
battery pack.
 Electric energy sources and storage device 65

(a) Passive cell balancing

Passive balancing is a technique used to equalize the voltage or SoC of cells in
a battery pack. It relies on the use of resistors or other passive components to
achieve this equalization. When a cell in the pack reaches a higher voltage or
SoC than the others, excess energy is dissipated through the resistor. This
dissipation allows the voltage or SoC of the cell to decrease, bringing it closer
to the levels of the other cells.
(b) Active cell balancing
Active cell balancing is a technique that actively transfers energy between cells
to achieve voltage or SoC equalization. It employs additional circuitry, control
algorithms, and monitoring systems to facilitate the redistribution of energy.
Compared to passive balancing, active cell balancing is more efficient as it
involves energy transfer rather than dissipation. This approach offers enhanced
flexibility and adaptability, enabling effective balancing across different
operating conditions.
(c) Active cell balancing:
Figure 3.16 illustrates the active cell balancing topology, consisting of two
stages of balancing circuits. In Figure 3.16(a), the second stage balancing cir-
cuit is depicted, which includes three cells, two inductors (L1 and L2), and four
switches (S1, S2, S3, and S4) to form a single-cell equalization unit. On the other
hand, the structure of the first stage resembles that of a buck-boost converter
topology. The complete configuration of this two-stage balancing topology,
where six cells are connected in series, comprises five inductors (L1, L2, L3, L4,
and Lm) and ten switches (S1, S2, . . . , S8, Sm1, and Sm2) along with the body
diodes, as shown in Figure 3.13(b).
(d) Operating principle:
To illustrate the operational principle of this active cell balancing topology, a
battery pack consisting of six cells is considered, where each module comprises
three cells. This cell balancing topology incorporates two stages of equalization
circuits: module balancing and cell balancing. Achieving SoC equalization is a

Sm1 Sm2
Module 1 Lm1 Module 2

S3 L2 S4 S3 S4 S7 S8
L2 L
4
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
S1 L1 S2 S1 L1 S2 S5 L3 S6
Is Is

Figure 3.16 The active cell balancing circuit: (a) cell balancing circuit and
(b) two-stage cell balancing circuit
66 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Ts
C1
C2
Sm1 (1–D)Ts
M1 Sm1 DTs
C3
iLm
Sm2
Lm
C4
C5 Sm2 VM1/Lm –VM2/Lm
C6 M2

iLm
(a)
C1
C2 Sm1
M1 iM1
C3
iLm

Lm iM2
C4
time
C5 Sm2
M2
C6
m1 m2 m3
t0 t1 t2 t3
(b) (c)

Figure 3.17 The operational principle of module balancing: (a) Sm1 operating, (b)
Sm2 operating, and (c) key waveforms in the discontinuous current
mode of operation

common technique for balancing a battery pack, but accurately determining the
exact SoC of each cell presents significant challenges. However, the SoC is
directly proportional to the battery’s OCV. Therefore, the equalizer in this cell
balancing topology determines the operating modes and switching patterns
based on the voltage differences among the cells.
1. First stage (module balancing):
The module balancing stage functions based on the operational principle of
the buck-boost converter topology. The decision regarding the source and
target modules is made by the module itself, taking into account the vol-
tage levels. In Figure 3.17, it can be observed that the switches Sm1 and Sm2
are controlled to enable the transfer of energy from the source module to
the target module. This energy transfer is achieved by monitoring the
voltage levels of two adjacent battery modules [31].
2. Second stage (cell balancing):
In contrast to module balancing, the cell balancing process occurs among
the three cells within the second stage to achieve balance. The working
principle of cell balancing is categorized into four distinct cases.
Figure 3.18 illustrates the operational principle of cell balancing for these
four cases.
 C1 S3 C1 C1 S3 C1
S1 S1 S3 S1 S1 – S3
+
iL1 iL1

L1 C2 L1 C2 L1 C2 L1 C2
L2 L2 L2 L2

C3 C3 C3 C3
S4 S4 S4 S4
S2 S2 i – S2 + S2
L1 iL1

(a) (b) (c) (d)

+ –
C1 iL2 S3 C1 S3 C1 S3 C1 iL2 S3
S1 S1 S1 S1

L1 C2 L1 C2 L1 C2 L1 C2
L2 L2 L2 L2
C3 C3 + C3
C3 iL2
S4 S4 S4 S4
S2 S2
i–
L2
S2 S2

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 3.18 The operating principle of the cell balancing circuit

68 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

3.10 Summary
Various types of electric energy storage and storage devices with a special mention
to battery types have been presented in this chapter for clarity of concepts and
understanding their basic behavior. The reader shall be having required concepts
for selection of appropriate battery which can be optimum for a particular EV
application. The concept of BMS has also been introduced at the end of the chapter
and some special techniques have been discussed for basic understanding. The
detailed concepts and methodologies for design and selection of appropriate battery
management system have been discussed in Chapter 7.

Symbols
V measured battery voltage
Li+ lithium ions
e
electrons
LixC lithium-intercalated carbons
H2 hydrogen
H
hydrogen ions
MPa Megapascals
Ah ampere-hours of a battery
mAh milli-ampere hours of a battery
OCV open circuit voltage
Ð
idt integral of the current over time
Vmax Vmax is the maximum voltage observed at a known high SoC
Vmin Vmin is the minimum voltage observed at a known low SoC
f f(OCV) represents a lookup table or mathematical model that relates the
(OCV) open circuit voltage (OCV) of the battery to the corresponding SoC
QT battery’s total capacity
E0 cell initial voltage
RW resistance the battery
k1 constant
vd denotes the voltage drop across the RC circuit
qd diffusion charge
qs stored charge
Cs voltage across the capacitor
Rsd self-discharge resistor
L inductor
S MOSFET switch
 Electric energy sources and storage device 69

Glossary
Battery capacity “Battery capacity” is a measure (typically in
Amp–h) of the charge stored by the battery, and is
determined by the mass of active material con-
tained in the battery.
C rate C rate is defined as the charge/discharge current
divided by the nominally rated battery capacity.
Depth of discharge (DoD) A battery’s DoD indicates the percentage of the
battery that has been discharged relative to the
overall capacity of the battery.
Electrochemical impedance EIS is one of the most important electrochemical
spectroscopy (EIS) techniques where the impedance in a circuit is
measured by ohms (as resistance unit).
Electrolyte It is the battery component that transfers ions
charge-carrying particles back and forth between
the battery’s two electrodes, causing the battery to
charge and discharge.
Fuel cell vehicles (FCEVs) FCEVs are powered by hydrogen. They are more
efficient than conventional internal combustion
engine vehicles.
Hybrid electric vehicles HEVs are powered by an internal combustion
(HEVs) engine and one or more electric motors, which
uses energy stored in batteries.
Open circuit voltage (OCV) OCV is the difference of electrical potential
between positive and negative terminals of a bat-
tery without any load connected.
Power density Power density is the amount of power (time rate
of energy transfer) per unit volume.
Proton exchange membrane PEM fuel cells, also called proton exchange
fuel cell (PEMFC) membrane fuel cells, use a proton-conducting
polymer membrane as the electrolyte. Hydrogen
is typically used as the fuel.
Phosphoric acid fuel cells PAFCs are a type of fuel cell that uses liquid
(PAFCs) phosphoric acid as an electrolyte.
Remaining useful life (RUL) RUL is the difference between the total number of
charge–discharge cycles when the actual capacity of
the battery drops to the threshold value and the num-
ber of charge–discharge cycles of the current battery.
Specific energy The gravimetric energy density or the specific
energy of a battery is a measure of how much
energy a battery contains in comparison to its
weight, and is typically expressed in Watt–hours/
kilogram (W–h/kg).
70 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) An electrochemical conversion device that pro-
duces electricity directly from oxidizing a fuel.
State of charge (SoC) SoC of a cell denotes the capacity that is currently
available as a function of the rated capacity.
State of health (SoH) SoH is the capability of the battery to retain
charge now compared to its rated value.
Uninterrupted power A device that allows a computer to keep running
supply (UPS) for at least a short time when incoming power is
interrupted.

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 Chapter 4
Power electronic essentials in electric vehicle
Siddhant Gudhe1 and Sanjeev Singh1

4.1 Power electronic circuits in electric vehicles

Presently available electric vehicles (EVs) such as hybrid-EVs (HEVs), plug-in
hybrid EVs (PHEV), fuel cell EVs (FCVs), and battery EVs (BEVs) require power
electronics and control systems to operate the electrical machines, i.e., the traction
motor as per need on road.
The battery EVs (BEVs) or all EVs (AEVs) have a battery as the only power
source for all needs. Since the present market is flooded by internal combustion
engine (ICE)-based vehicles, therefore, the survival of these EVs depends on two
factors. One is the initial cost of the vehicle as compared to the ICE-based vehicles
and the other is its range of running in one charge. Both these factors are dependent
on the availability, economics, and efficiency of the components used in the EV.
To drive the EV, an electric motor is used which may require the desired power
with a good quality to deliver the desired torque and speed at good efficiency.
There are a variety of electric motors available for use in EVs but all of them
require conversion and conditioning of electric power to deliver the desired output.
In this process, the role of power electronics becomes very important, and many
power-electronic components are required between the source, i.e., the battery and
the load. i.e., the electric motor [1,2].
A battery EV or all EVs essentially have a motor, a battery, and power elec-
tronic circuitry for effective and efficient control. An electric motor (usually AC
type, either induction motor or permanent magnet motor) is used for the propulsion
of the vehicle which receives power from an onboard source of electricity, typically
a rechargeable battery or fuel cell [3,4]. For obtaining better efficiency in some
EVs, ultracapacitors are employed to store the energy received during regenerative
braking. This energy is used during the acceleration of EVs for overtaking or hill
climbing. The EV may or may not have the gear mechanism in it for power
transmission. Even differential axles may also be absent in some designs.
Therefore, power electronic circuits for control of all such systems are essential in
the EV, which can be broadly categorized into three groups as machine control unit

1
Electrical Engineering Department, MANIT Bhopal, India
74 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

AC power line
DC power line
Communication lines
BMS

On-board Machine Traction

Battery control
charger unit motor

WPT Multi Output Electronic

isolated DC–DC loads and
receiver accessories
converter

Figure 4.1 Layout of a typical battery EV

(MCU), switched mode power supply (SMPS), and battery management

system (BMS).
The layout of a typical battery EV is shown in Figure 4.1 with its components.
It has an electric drive system consisting of a power electronic converter as MCU to
drive the traction motor. The traction motor (electric motor) transfers the power to
the wheels for propulsion. To operate various accessories of the vehicle (ACs, fans,
lights, power windows, audio system, power steering, horns, power braking, etc.), a
multi-voltage power supply is required which is catered by an SMPS.
To look after the cell health, charging/discharging cycles, and damaged cells in
a battery, a BMS is essentially employed in EVs. These power electronic essentials
in an EV are discussed in the following sub-sections for a basic understanding of
the required power electronic components and circuits for EVs.

4.2 MCU

Present EVs are mostly driven by induction motors, permanent magnet brushless
(PMBL) DC motors, or permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs). There
are many other motors being researched as a traction motor for EVs such as swit-
ched reluctance motor (SRM), synchronous reluctance motor (SyRM), axial flux,
and magnetless motors [5,6]. These motors require a three-phase AC supply to run
but the EV uses a DC source, i.e., the battery. Therefore, a power electronic con-
verter known as a voltage source converter (VSC) is essentially required to run
these motors.
 Power electronic essentials in electric vehicle 75

AC power line
Machine control unit DC power line
Communication lines

To motor
From/to Voltage
battery source
converter
V1
V2 Rotor position/speed
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6

Idc Digital Iac

controller
Vdc and Vac
condition ω*r
monitoring

Vuc Iuc
Regenerative From/to
braking ultracapacitor

Figure 4.2 Schematic block diagram for the MCU

Moreover, variable speed and load (number of passengers) of the vehicle

during its use require precise and efficient control of current and voltage supplied to
the motor. There are many transient modes of operation for an EV such as sudden
braking, city driving with frequent braking and acceleration, hill climbing, and
constant speed cruising on highways [6]. Therefore, the motor control unit (MCU)
is designed to have multi-functionality as per the requirement of the EV. The
schematic block diagram for the MCU is shown in Figure 4.2. Various components
of the MCU used in an EV are discussed below.

4.2.1 VSC
The EV is capable of delivering the power to the electric motor in accordance with
the driver’s accelerator pedal. To achieve this, the MCU uses a three-phase VSC,
consisting of either MOSFETs or IGBTs as power switches, operated on field-
oriented control (FOC) algorithm or some other advanced control techniques.
The MCU draws the power from the battery and converts it to the desired
three-phase AC supply for the traction motor using the feedback control algorithm.
The motor’s mechanical and electrical parameters are sensed and feedback to the
controller for modification in the switching pulses for the VSC as per the desired
speed and torque from EV.
The three-phase VSC used for EVs can have various topologies with two-level
and multi-level (more than two-level) voltage outputs [7]. The control algorithms
can also be numerous depending on the type of traction motor (induction or PM),
the requirement of control parameters, and their accuracies. There is scope for low-
cost controllers, fault–tolerant VSC topologies along with improved efficiency
76 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

converters incorporating zero voltage switching (ZVS) or zero current switching

(ZCS), and SiC or advanced material-based switches.

4.2.2 Condition monitoring and control of electric motor

The traction motor for an EV is selected to have high efficiency and power density
by design, but during operation, its effective and efficient operation depends on the
condition monitoring and preventive maintenance of the traction motor and asso-
ciated system [8]. Therefore, various parameters are sensed and monitored by the
controller to ensure the good health of the EV system. In case of any abnormalities,
the motor control is interrupted through additional power electronic circuits for the
safe operation of the EV.

4.2.3 Regenerative braking of traction motor

The EV traction motor uses regenerative control during braking to have fast brak-
ing with recovery of energy which would otherwise dissipate in the form of heat in
brakes. This regenerative braking uses a specific DC–DC converter circuit coupled
with a rectifier to store the braking energy in a fast storage device “ultracapacitor”
[9–12]. This energy is used during the time of overtaking or hill climbing as a top-
up with battery.

4.3 DC–DC converter

The EV requires an additional DC–DC converter to drive various accessories of the
EV such as lights, horns, HVAC unit, fans, power windows, audio system, power
steering, power braking, and wipers. This DC–DC converter uses battery voltage
available at 48 V (for a small low-powered EV) or 800 V (for buses or trucks) and
converts to 12 V/24 V for the accessories of the EV. The electrical connection of
these accessories is generally connected to the chassis ground which floats with
respect to the high-voltage battery pack ground. Hence, an isolated DC–DC con-
verter topology with high-frequency transformer galvanic isolation and multiple
secondary windings known as a multi-output DC–DC converter is used [13].

4.3.1 Multi-output DC–DC converter

A multi-output DC–DC converter consists of a high-frequency transformer (HFT)
with a single winding for DC–DC converter topology on the input side and multiple
windings as secondaries on the output side of the transformer. The schematic block
diagram for a multi-output DC–DC converter with galvanic isolation is shown in
Figure 4.3.
The control circuit closely tracks the voltage of only one winding and switches
the DC–DC converter on the input side for precise control of output voltages in
each winding. The accuracy of control depends on the design of the transformer as
well as the controller [14]. There are other options reported in the literature as
multi-source converters for EV applications. The multi-source converter uses the
 Power electronic essentials in electric vehicle 77

concept of various batteries combined with other types of energy storage units such
as ultracapacitors and fuel cells.

4.3.2 Multi-source converter

In an EV, the supply of power to the traction motor at high DC voltage from the
battery eliminates the use of DC–DC boost converter, while reducing conversion
stages, thereby improving efficiency. But this shall require a DC–DC converter for
supplying the auxiliary load of the EV. Therefore, the use of a single multi-source
converter where multiple sources at various voltages are connected through this
converter to support all auxiliary loads in EV from another battery or energy sto-
rage unit with low voltage. This converter also facilitates the transfer of charge
from one battery to the other [13–16]. The schematic block diagram for a dual
source converter is shown in Figure 4.4.

DC power line
Multi Output Isolated DC–DC Converter Communication lines

12 V DC
for electronic
loads and
accessories
From battery

Isolation
PWM
control
Feedback
24 V DC
for electronic
loads and
accessories

Figure 4.3 Schematic block diagram for the multi-output DC–DC converter

AC power line
Dual source converter DC power line

From battery
U1 U2 U3
To motor
W1
W2
From auxiliary W3
battery
V1 V2 V3

Figure 4.4 Schematic block diagram for the dual-source converter

78 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

The scheme presented in Figure 4.4 shows the use of two batteries which can
be charged from the single power source or from each other in either direction. The
operation of this converter is controlled for the flow of power from the source or
batteries as per the need for charge in the respective batteries. This concept is being
explored for more than two sources for power transfer in either direction for any
number of energy storage units or sources.

4.4 BMS
The battery of any EV needs charging again and again after running the EV to a
certain distance depending on the capacity of the battery and loading of the EV.
Based on the location of chargers, EVs are classified into onboard chargers, off-
board chargers, and integrated chargers. Onboard chargers are located on the
vehicle itself and the charger’s power electronic parts are included in the design of
the vehicle. The onboard charger increases the overall weight of the vehicle and
raises the overall cost of the vehicle. Due to weight and space limits on the vehicle,
the power rating is constrained. The EV with an onboard charger can be charged at
any outlet that is in residential garages or places with ground protection [12].
Off-board chargers are unique pieces of equipment that are not a part of the
vehicle; they remain outside the vehicle. The EV battery may be charged at a
specific charging station with fast charging capability, while the vehicle must travel
to the charger’s location to recharge the battery.
Usually, off-board chargers and onboard chargers are rectifiers supplied from
three-phase and single-phase AC sources, respectively, with controlled voltage and
currents. Fast chargers are off-board chargers, supplied from a three-phase AC
source as they require a higher amount of power for fast charging but controlled
voltage and current as per battery capacity.
The BMS of an onboard charger has a power management unit that consists of
a rectifier with a power factor correction (PFC), an inrush current limiter, protec-
tion devices, and a DC–DC converter for controlled DC link voltage and current
fed to the battery. The BMS essentially uses active cell voltage balancing for
efficient use of the capacity of the battery pack [17–21].

4.4.1 Power factor correction (PFC)

The onboard charger in any BMS uses a rectifier fed from a single-phase AC
supply followed by power factor (PF) correction at the AC input and control of
harmonics injected into the grid during charging [12]. These chargers also require
galvanic isolation between the grid and the battery. This is accomplished by a DC–
DC converter having isolated topology with buck or boost or buck–boost operation
as per the demand of the battery. The schematic block diagram for a PFC converter
is shown in Figure 4.5.
The power factor correction is used in the literature as a synonymous term for
power quality converter. The power quality converter is operated for the
improvement of various power quality parameters such as PF, crest factor (CF), and
 Power electronic essentials in electric vehicle 79

AC power line
Power factor correction DC power line

To battery
AC EMI
filter Bridge LC filter Buck/boost
inductor rectifier converter

Figure 4.5 Schematic block diagram for the PFC converter

total harmonic distortion (THD) of current drawn. A detailed discussion on PFC

and power quality control of battery chargers is included in Chapter 10.

4.4.2 Cell balancing system

The electrical properties of different cells in a battery pack may have variations due
to manufacturing as well as operational environment variations. This leads to
terminal voltage variations between the cells during charging and/or discharging of
the battery pack. This may lead to overcharging or depletion of specific cells,
which will reduce usable battery capacity and lifetime. Thus, the battery pack must
be provided with a cell balancing system to reduce the cell voltage variations and to
enhance the performance of the battery pack [17–21].
There are two techniques of cell balancing: passive and active. A resistance is
used in parallel to each cell in passive balancing techniques to dissipate extra
energy of the overcharged cell as heat. This is the main drawback of the passive
techniques. The passive cell balancing technique is mainly employed in low-power
applications due to its low cost and easy control.
On the other hand, the active cell balancing technique uses the transfer of
charge between cells to balance the voltage through switches (IGBTs or
MOSFETs) and a combination of inductors, transformers, and capacitors. The
details of BMS topologies, control, and implementation are discussed in Chapter 9.

4.5 Other applications

The use of power electronics in an EV is not restricted to the above-discussed

applications only. There are many other applications such as wireless charging,
MPPT converter for fuel cell vehicles, solar PV-based chargers, and bidirec-
tional charterers have come up, which require controlled voltage, current, and
power, power electronics shall be used inevitably. The detailed discussions on
wireless charging of batteries, bidirectional power flow between the battery and
the grid known as vehicle-to-grid (V2G) and grid-to-vehicle (G2V) with
extended concepts of vehicle-to-anything (V2X) are discussed in further chap-
ters of this book.
80 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

4.6 Summary
The power electronic circuits that are essentially required in an EV have been
presented in this chapter with the fundamental concept of the presently used sys-
tems. The major essential systems are MCU, battery charging unit (wireless or
onboard or off board), DC–DC converter for auxiliary equipment, and BMS. With
the technological advancements in EVs and associated systems, many applications
shall evolve in the future with a requirement of power electronic converters. The
basic concept of these applications shall remain the same as discussed in this
chapter. Therefore, all such applications may be understood or explained on the
basis of the discussions presented in this chapter.

Symbols
Vdc DC voltage
Idc DC current
Vac AC voltage
Iac AC current
w*r reference speed of motor in rad/s
V1 . . . V 6 gating voltage signals
U1, U2, U3 upper switches in different phases of dual-source converter
V1, V2, V3 lower switches in different phases of dual-source converter
W1, W2, switches in three phases for auxiliary battery of dual-source
W3 converter

Glossary

BMS battery management system

PF power factor
CF crest factor
THD total harmonic distortion
PQ power quality

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 Chapter 5
Design, modeling, simulation, and control
of electric vehicle
Peng Guan1

5.1 Introduction
The history of electric vehicles (EVs) can be traced back to the mid-nineteenth
century when EVs were first introduced, as toy-like small-scale cars. The first EV
is widely considered to be the electric carriage built by the Hungarian inventor
Ányos Jedlik in 1828. It was powered by a small electric motor and used non-
rechargeable primary cells. However, the first practical EV was likely built by the
Scottish inventor Robert Anderson in the 1830s. Anderson’s electric carriage was
powered by a rechargeable battery and could reach speeds of up to 4 mph [1].
Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, EVs were used primarily
for short-distance travel, such as commuting to work or running errands. They were
popular because they were quiet, had no emissions, and required less maintenance
than gasoline-powered vehicles. However, the development of the internal com-
bustion engine and the availability of cheap gasoline eventually led to the decline
of EVs.
During the late 1960s to early 1970s, soaring oil prices and gasoline shortages
created a growing interest in lowering the US’s dependence on foreign oil and
finding homegrown sources of fuel. Congress took note and passed the Electric and
Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1976, author-
izing the Energy Department to support research and development in electric and
hybrid vehicles.
Around this time, many automakers began exploring options for alternative
power sources for vehicles, including using electricity. However, vehicles devel-
oped and produced during this time suffered from a huge drawback compared to
gasoline-powered ones, as they have limited performance, top speeds are below
45 mph, and the range is below 50 miles. Also, the advanced internal combustion
engine technology and mass production made gasoline-powered cars more afford-
able and convenient.

1
Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering, University of Tennessee, USA
84 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

In recent years, EVs have experienced a resurgence in popularity due to con-

cerns about air pollution and climate change. The passage of the 1990 Clean Air
Act Amendment and the 1992 Energy Policy Act—plus new transportation emis-
sions regulations issued by the California Air Resources Board—helped create a
renewed interest in EVs in the United States. Many automakers are now producing
EVs, and they are becoming more affordable and available, resulting significant
increase in the number of EVs on the market, as well as a growing infrastructure of
charging stations. Today, EVs are being developed and manufactured by several
major automakers and are becoming more widely available to consumers.

5.2 EV modeling
Vehicle modeling is the process of creating a mathematical representation of
vehicle behavior and performance. By using vehicle modeling, engineers can
optimize vehicle control systems, also simulate, and predict vehicle performance in
different scenarios. Vehicle models can be categorized by fidelity levels: low-
fidelity vehicle models, which are based on vehicle properties, and high-fidelity
vehicle models, which are based on vehicle design parameters like hardpoints,
bushing rates, and spring and damper rates. Recently, most automotive OEMs are
shifting from developing internal combustion engine vehicles to electrical vehicles;
however, the modeling and simulation methods have not changed much, with only
more emphasis on aerodynamics and control due to different critical aspects
between traditional internal combustion engine vehicles and electrical vehicles.
Nowadays, computer software is widely used to create vehicle models and
simulate vehicle performance under various conditions. There are many different
aspects of EV modeling and simulation, including:
Control systems modeling: This involves modeling the control systems of a
vehicle, such as the steering and braking systems, and simulating their response to
different inputs. Here are some key aspects of control systems modeling in EVs:
● Powertrain control: Control systems modeling is used to develop and optimize the
control algorithms for the EV’s powertrain, which includes the electric motor,
battery, and power electronics. By simulating the powertrain control system,
designers can evaluate factors such as torque distribution, energy management
strategies, regenerative braking, and thermal management. This modeling
approach helps optimize powertrain efficiency, range, and performance.
● Vehicle dynamics control: Control systems modeling enables the development
of algorithms for vehicle dynamics control, including traction control, stability
control, and anti-lock braking systems (ABS). By simulating the vehicle’s
dynamic behavior, designers can evaluate control strategies that enhance
vehicle stability, improve handling characteristics, and ensure safe and
predictable performance in various driving conditions.
● Energy management system: EVs require sophisticated energy management
systems to optimize the use of electrical energy from the battery, manage
power flow, and control charging and discharging processes. Control systems
 Design, modeling, simulation, and control of electric vehicle 85

modeling helps analyze and optimize energy management algorithms, includ-

ing power allocation between the motor and other vehicle systems, charging
strategies, and energy regeneration. This modeling approach ensures efficient
utilization of energy and extends the vehicle’s range.
● Safety systems: Control systems modeling is used to develop and evaluate
safety systems in EVs, such as collision avoidance, adaptive cruise control, and
emergency braking. By simulating the behavior of these systems, designers can
assess their effectiveness, response times, and integration with other vehicle
control functions. This modeling approach helps enhance the safety and
reliability of EVs by identifying potential issues and optimizing control
algorithms.
● Cybersecurity and fault diagnosis: Control systems modeling plays a role in
assessing cybersecurity measures and developing algorithms for fault diag-
nosis and detection in EVs. By simulating potential cyber threats and system
faults, designers can evaluate the robustness of control systems, develop
countermeasures, and optimize fault diagnosis algorithms. This modeling
approach helps ensure the security and reliability of EV control systems.
● Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) testing: Control systems modeling allows for HIL
testing, where the virtual control algorithms are tested in real time using phy-
sical hardware components. HIL testing provides a realistic simulation envir-
onment to validate control algorithms, evaluate their performance, and ensure
proper integration with the actual vehicle systems.
Overall, control systems modeling in EVs enables the development and opti-
mization of control algorithms for powertrain, vehicle dynamics, energy manage-
ment, safety systems, and fault diagnosis. By leveraging these modeling
techniques, designers can optimize the efficiency, performance, range, safety, and
reliability of EVs.
Thermal modeling: This involves modeling the temperature distribution
within a vehicle and its components, as well as the heat transfer between different
parts. Here are some key aspects of thermal modeling in EVs:
● Battery thermal management: Battery temperature greatly affects the perfor-
mance, efficiency, and lifespan of EV batteries. Thermal modeling helps assess
heat generation, heat transfer, and temperature distribution within the battery
pack. By simulating different operating conditions and thermal management
strategies, designers can optimize cooling systems, assess the effectiveness of
cooling fluids, and ensure that the batteries operate within the desired
temperature range.
● Power electronics cooling: Power electronics, including inverters, motor con-
trollers, and DC–DC converters, generate significant heat during operation.
Thermal modeling enables designers to analyze the heat dissipation, tempera-
ture profiles, and cooling requirements of these components. By optimizing
cooling systems, such as heat sinks, fans, or liquid cooling, designers can
ensure efficient heat removal and prevent overheating, which can degrade the
performance and reliability of power electronics.
86 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

● Electric motor cooling: Electric motors in EVs also require effective cooling to
manage the heat generated during operation. Thermal modeling helps evaluate
the cooling airflow, temperature distribution, and heat transfer within the
motor. By optimizing motor cooling systems, such as cooling jackets or oil-
based cooling, designers can maintain optimal motor temperature, prevent
overheating, and ensure motor efficiency and longevity.
● Cabin thermal comfort: Thermal modeling is used to assess the thermal com-
fort of the vehicle cabin. By simulating the airflow, temperature distribution,
and heat transfer within the cabin, designers can optimize the heating, venti-
lation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system. This modeling approach helps
ensure efficient heating and cooling, even battery-powered heating and cooling
while maintaining passenger comfort and minimizing energy consumption.
● Thermal runaway analysis: Thermal modeling assists in analyzing the risk of
thermal runaway events in EVs. By simulating abusive conditions, such as
short circuits or extreme temperatures, designers can assess the thermal beha-
vior of the battery and identify potential safety risks. This modeling approach
helps optimize safety features, such as thermal insulation, cooling channels, or
thermal barriers, to prevent and mitigate thermal runaway events.
● Integration and co-simulation: Thermal modeling is often performed in conjunc-
tion with other simulations, such as electrical, mechanical, or control system
simulations. Integrated modeling and co-simulation enable a comprehensive
analysis of the EV’s thermal behavior, considering the interactions between var-
ious components and systems. This approach allows for more accurate predictions
and optimization of the overall thermal management system.
Overall, thermal modeling in EVs helps optimize thermal management, pre-
vent overheating, enhance performance, extend component lifespan, ensure pas-
senger comfort, and improve safety. By leveraging advanced simulation tools and
techniques, designers can make informed decisions to achieve efficient thermal
control and maximize the overall performance and reliability of EVs.
Structural modeling: This involves modeling the structural behavior of a
vehicle and its components, such as the frame and body, under different loads and
conditions. Here are some key aspects of structural modeling in EVs:
● Finite element analysis (FEA): FEA is a widely used technique for structural
modeling in EVs. It involves discretizing the vehicle structure into finite ele-
ments and analyzing the stresses, strains, and deformations under different
loading scenarios. FEA helps identify areas of high-stress concentration,
evaluate the strength and stiffness of components, and optimize the design to
meet structural requirements.
● Crashworthiness and safety: Structural modeling is crucial for evaluating the crash-
worthiness and safety of EVs. By subjecting the virtual model to crash simulations,
designers can assess the behavior of the structure during frontal, side, or rear impacts.
FEA allows for the analysis of energy absorption, deformation patterns, and occupant
safety. It helps optimize the design of crumple zones, impact-absorbing structures,
and reinforcements to enhance crashworthiness and protect occupants.
 Design, modeling, simulation, and control of electric vehicle 87

● Lightweighting and material optimization: EVs benefit from lightweight

structures to maximize energy efficiency and range. Structural modeling
enables the evaluation of different materials, such as high-strength steels,
aluminum alloys, composites, or hybrid materials. By analyzing the weight,
strength, and stiffness characteristics of various materials, designers can opti-
mize the vehicle’s structural composition to achieve a balance between weight
reduction and structural integrity.
● Durability and fatigue analysis: Structural modeling helps assess the durability
and fatigue life of EV components subjected to repeated loading cycles. By
simulating dynamic loads, such as road vibrations, pothole impacts, or driving
maneuvers, FEA can predict the fatigue life of critical components, such as
suspension parts, chassis structures, and battery mounts. This allows for opti-
mization of the design, selection of appropriate materials, and identification of
potential failure points.
● Noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) and structural resonance: Structural
modeling also plays a role in evaluating the NVH characteristics of EVs. By
analyzing the dynamic behavior of the structure and its response to various
excitation sources, designers can identify resonant frequencies, modes of
vibration, and potential NVH issues. This information helps optimize the
design, select appropriate damping materials, and minimize unwanted vibra-
tions and noise transmission.
● Virtual testing and validation: Structural modeling enables virtual testing and
validation of EV designs, reducing the need for extensive physical prototyping
and testing. By simulating real-world operating conditions and load cases,
designers can evaluate structural performance, make design improvements,
and ensure compliance with safety and regulatory requirements.
Overall, structural modeling in EVs helps optimize the design, evaluate
crashworthiness, enhance safety, reduce weight, and ensure the structural integrity
and durability of the vehicle. By leveraging advanced FEA techniques, designers
can make informed decisions, reduce development time, and improve the overall
performance and reliability of EVs.
NVH modeling: This involves modeling processing to simulate and analyze
the NVH characteristics of automotive vehicles. NVH stands for noise, vibration,
and harshness, which are important factors in vehicle design and performance.
NVH modeling helps engineers understand and predict the behavior of a vehicle’s
NVH attributes under various operating conditions in the early design stage without
a real prototype being produced. Here are some aspects of NVH modeling in
electrical vehicles:
● Electric motor noise modeling: Electric motors in EVs can generate noise due
to electromagnetic forces, mechanical vibrations, and aerodynamic effects.
Modeling techniques such as FEA and boundary element methods (BEM) can
be employed to simulate and analyze the structural dynamics and acoustic
behavior of the motor. This helps identify potential noise sources, optimize
motor design, and evaluate the effectiveness of noise mitigation measures.
88 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

● Battery system noise modeling: EV batteries can contribute to the overall noise
levels in the vehicle. Battery packs contain cooling systems, fans, and pumps,
which generate noise during operation. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
simulations can be used to analyze the airflow and acoustic behavior within the
battery system. By modeling and optimizing the design of the cooling system,
noise generated by the battery pack can be minimized.
● Structural dynamics modeling: EVs have unique structural characteristics com-
pared to internal combustion engine vehicles. The absence of a conventional
engine and the presence of heavy battery systems can affect the overall vehicle
dynamics and vibration behavior. Finite element modeling (FEM) techniques can
be utilized to simulate the structural dynamics of the vehicle and identify potential
NVH issues related to vibration, resonance, and structural integrity.
● Cabin noise modeling: Cabin noise is a critical aspect of NVH in any vehicle,
including EVs. Electric powertrains produce less noise compared to combus-
tion engines, but other noise sources, such as wind, road, and tire noise,
become more noticeable. NVH modeling techniques, such as boundary ele-
ment methods (BEM) or statistical energy analysis (SEA), can help analyze the
transmission paths of noise into the cabin and optimize insulation, damping
materials, and sealing to achieve desired noise levels.
● Virtual prototyping and testing: NVH modeling allows for virtual prototyping
and testing of EV designs, reducing the need for physical prototypes and costly
testing. By simulating different configurations and scenarios, designers can
assess the impact of various design choices on NVH performance and make
informed decisions to optimize the overall vehicle refinement.
Ultimately, NVH modeling in EVs helps engineers understand and address
NVH issues during the development stage. By leveraging advanced simulation
tools, designers can improve the overall driving experience, enhance comfort, and
meet customer expectations for quiet and refined EVs.
Multibody dynamics (MBD) modeling: This involves modeling the interac-
tions between different components of a vehicle, such as the suspension and tires,
and simulating their behavior as a system. Here’s how MBD modeling is applied in
the context of EVs:
● Suspension analysis: MBD modeling enables the analysis of the EV’s sus-
pension system, including control arms, springs, dampers, and anti-roll bars.
By simulating the motion and forces in the suspension system, designers can
assess factors such as ride comfort, handling characteristics, and stability. This
modeling approach helps optimize suspension geometry, evaluate different sus-
pension setups, and validate the performance of active suspension systems in EVs.
● Chassis and body dynamics: MBD modeling allows for the analysis of the
overall behavior of the EV’s chassis and body structure. By considering the
interaction between the chassis, body panels, and suspension system, designers
can assess factors such as structural integrity, vehicle stiffness, and vibrations.
This modeling approach helps optimize the chassis design, evaluate the impact
of weight distribution, and ensure proper rigidity and durability of the vehicle.
 Design, modeling, simulation, and control of electric vehicle 89

● Drivetrain and powertrain analysis: MBD modeling helps analyze the behavior
of the EV’s drivetrain and powertrain components, including the electric
motor, transmission, and differential. By simulating the interaction between
these components, designers can evaluate factors such as torque distribution,
power delivery, and driveline vibrations. This modeling approach helps opti-
mize the drivetrain design, assess the impact of different motor configurations,
and validate the performance of regenerative braking systems.
● Vehicle dynamics and handling: MBD modeling allows for the analysis of the
EV’s overall dynamic behavior, including vehicle handling, stability, and
maneuverability. By simulating the vehicle’s response to steering inputs, road
disturbances, and different driving conditions, designers can assess factors
such as cornering performance, stability control systems, and yaw dynamics.
This modeling approach helps optimize the vehicle’s weight distribution,
evaluate the impact of different suspension settings, and ensure safe and
predictable handling characteristics.
● Virtual prototyping and testing: MBD modeling enables virtual prototyping and
testing of EV designs, reducing the need for physical prototypes and costly testing.
By simulating different scenarios and configurations, designers can evaluate the
impact of design choices on vehicle dynamics, performance, and safety. This
approach helps identify potential issues early in the development process and
enables iterative design improvements to achieve desired dynamic characteristics.
In summary, MBD modeling in EVs helps optimize suspension systems, assess
chassis and body dynamics, analyze drivetrain behavior, and evaluate overall
vehicle dynamics and handling. By leveraging these modeling techniques, design-
ers can make informed decisions to enhance ride comfort, improve handling
characteristics, and ensure the safety and performance of EVs.
Aerodynamics modeling: This is very important for EVs, as aerodynamics
can affect range significantly, due to the cost, weight, and space limitation, the
number of battery cells that can be installed on EVs is limited, aerodynamics per-
formance of EVs can be optimized using these models to maximize the range. Here
are some key elements and techniques involved in aerodynamics modeling for EVs:
● Computational fluid dynamics (CFD): CFD is a powerful tool used to simulate
and analyze the flow of air around a vehicle. By creating a virtual model of the
EV and defining its surroundings, CFD software can calculate airflow patterns,
pressure distribution, and drag coefficients. This allows designers to optimize
the vehicle’s shape, surface contours, and aerodynamic features to minimize
drag and improve efficiency.
● Drag reduction: Drag is a significant factor affecting EV range and energy
consumption. Aerodynamic modeling helps identify areas of high drag, such as
sharp edges, turbulent flow regions, or poorly designed body features. By
analyzing CFD results, designers can make iterative improvements to the
vehicle’s shape, including smoothing body contours, optimizing front and rear-
end designs, and minimizing frontal area. These modifications help reduce
drag and improve overall efficiency.
90 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

● Underbody aerodynamics: The underbody of an EV is often complex, with

battery packs, electric motors, and other components affecting airflow. CFD
modeling assists in analyzing the underbody airflow patterns and optimizing
the design to minimize turbulence, reduce lift, and enhance overall stability.
The addition of underbody panels, diffusers, or air curtains can help manage
airflow and improve the vehicle’s aerodynamic performance.
● Cooling system optimization: Efficient thermal management is crucial in EVs
to maintain optimal operating temperatures for batteries, power electronics,
and electric motors. Aerodynamic modeling helps design effective cooling
systems by assessing the airflow through heat exchangers, radiators, and air
ducts. By optimizing the position, size, and geometry of these components,
CFD analysis can ensure proper cooling while minimizing aerodynamic losses.
● Wind noise and windshield wiper aerodynamics: In EVs, where traditional engine
noise is reduced, wind noise can become more noticeable. Aerodynamic modeling
helps analyze and reduce wind noise by optimizing the design of side mirrors, door
seals, window frames, and other components that can generate noise-inducing
turbulence. Additionally, CFD simulations can assess the aerodynamic perfor-
mance of windshield wipers, ensuring they do not create excessive drag or lift.
● Virtual wind tunnel testing: Aerodynamics modeling allows for virtual wind
tunnel testing, reducing the need for physical prototypes and expensive testing.
By simulating different driving conditions, including various speeds, yaw
angles, and crosswinds, designers can evaluate the vehicle’s stability, lift, and
drag characteristics. This enables them to make informed design decisions
early in the development process, optimizing aerodynamic performance and
improving overall efficiency.
Overall, aerodynamics modeling in EVs helps optimize vehicle efficiency,
range, and performance by reducing drag, managing airflow, and enhancing cool-
ing systems. By leveraging CFD simulations and virtual testing, designers can
achieve improved aerodynamic performance without the need for extensive phy-
sical prototyping and testing.
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) modeling: This is a very essential
aspect of electrical vehicle design and development since electrical vehicles rely on
electrical and electronic systems, including power electronics, motor controllers,
charging systems, and various communication systems. All of these systems gen-
erate electromagnetic fields that can potentially interfere with each other and
external devices, which can lead to performance degradation and safety issues. To
model EMI in EVs, several approaches and techniques can be employed. Here are
some commonly used methods:
● Circuit-level modeling: This approach involves creating detailed circuit mod-
els of the EV’s electrical and electronic systems. These models take into
account the characteristics of the components, such as resistors, capacitors,
inductors, and semiconductor devices. By simulating the interactions between
these components, designers can assess potential EMI issues and identify
measures to mitigate them.
 Design, modeling, simulation, and control of electric vehicle 91

● Electromagnetic field simulation: In this method, electromagnetic field simu-

lation software, such as FEA or finite difference time domain (FDTD), is used
to analyze the propagation of electromagnetic fields within the EV and its
surroundings. This helps identify areas where EMI could occur and allows for
optimization of the vehicle’s layout and shielding to reduce interference.
● Coupling path analysis: Coupling paths refer to the mechanisms through which
electromagnetic energy is transferred from one part of the EV to another. By
analyzing these paths, designers can identify potential sources of interference
and susceptible components or subsystems. Common coupling paths include
conducted emissions through power and signal cables, radiated emissions
through antennas or harnesses, and capacitive or inductive coupling through
common conductive structures.
● EMC standards and regulations: Compliance with electromagnetic compat-
ibility (EMC) standards and regulations is crucial for EV manufacturers. These
standards define acceptable levels of EMI and provide guidelines for testing
and measurement. Modeling EMI can help ensure that EV designs meet these
requirements and facilitate the certification process.
Overall, EMI modeling in EV development helps optimize the design, reduce
interference issues, and ensure compliance with EMC standards, leading to
improved performance, reliability, and safety of EVs.

5.3 Critical aspects of EV design

To illustrate the critical aspects of EV design, we need to step back and check the
differences between ICE vehicles and EVs. From the names, we know that ICE
vehicles ignite and combust fuel within an internal combustion engine (ICE). EVs are
powered by electricity from a rechargeable battery instead. Distinct differences are:
ICE vehicles need complex gear systems, whereas EVs only need one gear system
which makes it relatively simple. The weight of fuel is very low and the fuel tank only
takes relatively little space in ICE vehicles, whereas the weight of batteries in EVs is
very high and they take up a lot of space in EVs. Also, for ICE vehicles, there are
ample refilling infrastructures across the world and the refilling time is very quick
which is usually less than 5 min depending on the fuel tank size, whereas, for EVs,
there are not many charging infrastructures available, and the charging time is rela-
tively long, usually around 0.5 hours with fast charging technology, 8 h without it. The
noises generated from ICE vehicles are mainly from the ICE, and other noises are
immersed by the engine noises, whereas the EVs are much quieter, however, other
noises are more easily captured by the driver and passengers.
Since most of the EV customers have experience driving ICE vehicles, there-
fore, they expect EVs to have similar or better performance than ICE vehicles, for
example, EVs should have roughly 300 miles range, and NVH performance should
be comfortable for both driver and passengers. The vehicle should be safe and easy
to handle, the ride should be comfortable, and the charging time should not be too
long compared to ICE vehicles.
92 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Therefore, due to these distinct differences between EVs and ICE vehicles, and
the customers’ expectations, the critical aspects of EV design can be summarized:
1. Battery pack
● Most modern EVs use a lithium-ion battery pack to store energy and power all
accessories of the EV. However, lithium-ion batteries are expensive, and their
capacity needs to be properly designed together with vehicle curb weight, and
aerodynamic efficiency to make sure EVs can perform similarly to ICE vehicles.
● The onboard battery management is also critical since it manages the
power usage for all accessories like AC, stereo, lighting, etc. It will affect
the longevity of the battery
● Though the chances are low, batteries have the potential to overheat and
catch fires. Therefore, for the safety of drivers and passengers of EVs, the
battery needs to be designed carefully.
● Extreme temperatures affect the charging and discharging of the batteries. For
example, customers expect EVs will have consistent range performance during
the year, they do not want EVs to drop the range in winter and summer.
● All EVs sold today include a battery warranty of at least eight years and
100,000 miles, given the cost of replacing a battery pack, no OEM wants
to be stuck with the bill due to the fact they overestimated the battery’s life
span and resiliency.

2. Aerodynamics performance
● Aerodynamics is the way air moves around things, for example, as a
vehicle moves through the air, it pushes aside air molecules, the force that
prevents the vehicle from moving through is called air resistance force,
and it can be calculated as (5.1):
rCd A 2
Fair resistance ¼ v (5.1)
2
Fair resistance ¼ is the force due to air resistance drag (N); v is the
velocity of the vehicle (m/s); r is the density of the air that the vehicle is
moving through (kg=m3 ); Cd is the drag coefficient (unitless); A is the area
of the vehicle the air presses on (m2 ).
From the equation, aerodynamics is crucially important for EVs, as the
air resistance forces increase quadratically with the vehicle speed. So
getting aerodynamics right is paramount to increasing the range and
reducing weight and also cost. Also from (5.1), the Cd drag coefficient
which is determined by the shape affects air resistance. Since EVs are
commodities, therefore, they should have their looks, but from an aero-
dynamics point of view, the most efficient look is pretty much the same
look, so it would be a balancing act by designers and engineers.

3. NVH performance
● The NVH performance of an EV is a key design and development con-
sideration, as a noisy drivetrain system will be perceived as poor quality
 Design, modeling, simulation, and control of electric vehicle 93

and tonal noise is especially unwanted. In an ICE vehicle, a certain amount

of tonal noises may be masked by engine noises. Whereas in an EV, there
will be minimum masking noise due to the replacement of ICE by
e-motors. Therefore, the EV NVH design challenges may be greater than
ICE vehicles [2].
4. EV safety
● Vehicle safety is always one of the most important key factors in vehicle
performance. It refers to the measures that are taken to ensure the safety of
passengers and drivers while operating a vehicle. Besides all the active and
passive safety technology that ICE vehicles have, EVs have some special
safety considerations:
* The EV voltage is far higher than the safety voltage the human body can
take, therefore, all wirings need to be insulated securely, they should
stand for all different kinds of friction, collision, extrusion, or corrosion.
* Battery explosion danger due to mechanical shock, high temperature, or
accidents. EVs cause more damage in collisions than ICE vehicles,
partly due to their incredible acceleration ability, and also due to the
battery safety issues. A battery pack in an EV typically consists of
thousands of cells connected in parallel or series to increase the power
density requirement. This significantly increases the energy stored in the
batteries which leads to a severe safety issue when accidents happen.
Additionally, the batteries in an EV always face harsh working condi-
tions, and they may overcharge, overheat, short circuit, vibration, shock,
collision, or nail penetration conditions [3]. If not designed properly,
EVs can be very dangerous after a collision, not only to the drivers in
EVs but also to the other parties like pedestrians, for example, EVs can
be burst into blames after collisions with unsafe designed batteries.
Therefore, a battery health-monitoring system is also critical to EVs.

5.4 Tools and techniques for modeling and simulation

of EVs
There are many different tools and software packages available for vehicle modeling
and simulation, including commercial software packages like ADAMS, SIMPACK,
and CarSim, as well as open-source tools like OpenSim and VehicleSim.
Starting from the 1990s, the richer version of the simulation—digital twins con-
cept is introduced [4]. A digital twin is a virtual representation of an object or system
that spans its lifecycle, is updated from real-time data, and uses simulation, machine
learning, and reasoning to help decision-making [5]. Nowadays, more and more OEMs
are adopting or planning to implement digital twins in their development cycle, as
digital twin includes a richer virtual environment for different simulation scenarios. By
using digital twins, OEMs can be more efficient in engineering, getting a better
understanding of what happens to the product, avoiding potential problems, saving
costs, and correcting errors earlier in the development cycle [6].
94 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

To create an EV model, similar to creating ICE vehicle models, all the design
parameters of each subsystem need to be achieved. Usually for OEMs, these can be
obtained from suppliers, for example, controller suppliers can provide the con-
troller model, and tyre suppliers can provide tyre models, and so on. These models
can be exported through a functional mock-up interface (FMI). FMI is a free
standard that defines a container and an interface to exchange dynamic simulation
models using a combination of XML files, binaries, and C code, distributed as a
ZIP file. By using FMI, different models can be integrated for simulation.
Depending on the fidelity requirement of the model, model complexity will vary.
To use the modern simulation software, a detailed CAD model needs to be
created first, then if a FEM is used, the CAD needs to be properly meshed. The
FEM of each component can treat and integrated into an MBD model for system
simulation. If properly treated, they can also be used in real-time applications to
increase model accuracy.
Once the MBD model is created and verified, the controllers can be verified on
hardware in the loop system (HILS) in real-time, we will discuss these techniques
and tools in later sections in this section.

5.4.1 Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics is especially important for EVs as it directly affects the efficiency of
the EV. OEMs spend millions of dollars on wind tunnels and simulation software to
squeeze out the last bits of aerodynamic performance for EVs. EV drivetrains
feature specific packaging needs, but they are more flexible than ICE vehicles since
e-motors are much smaller than engines and batteries are often placed on the floor.
This enables new shapes that are inherently much more aerodynamic.
Before simulation is used in the automotive industry, aerodynamic perfor-
mance is evaluated by wind tunnel tests, which are large tubes with air blowing
through vehicles to replicate the interaction between air and the vehicle moving
through the air, as shown in Figure 5.1. However, wind tunnels are very expensive
to do as a high-end wind tunnel usually costs over 100 million dollars to build, or
more than 5,000 dollars per hour to rent [7], and this procedure takes a long time
since it involves building prototypes, scheduling test facilities, personnel, etc.

Figure 5.1 Typical wind tunnel diagram

 Design, modeling, simulation, and control of electric vehicle 95

To reduce development costs and facilitate the process, virtual wind tunnels
are used through using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Engineers can esti-
mate the vehicle’s aerodynamic performance via CFD simulation in the early
design stage before a prototype is built. After several iterations in simulation, the
design can be optimized, or even using optimizers, a physical prototype can be
built, and perform final tests in the wind tunnel for verification purposes.
Nowadays, some OEMs are even trying “zero prototypes” development, once
proven effective, may be physical prototypes can be reduced to zero or minimum.
Nowadays, there is a lot of commercial CFD software that can help engineers
do from modeling to simulation for aerodynamic performance:
1. PowerFLOW CFD is a solution from Dassault Systems that uses the Lattice
Boltzmann method to predict real-world conditions. PowerFLOW imports
fully complex model geometry and accurately and efficiently performs aero-
dynamic, aeroacoustics, and thermal management simulations.
2. STAR-CCM+ is a multiphysics CFD software solution from Siemens that
includes everything from CAD, automated meshing, multiphysics CFD, sophisti-
cated postprocessing, and design exploration. This allows engineers to efficiently
explore the entire design space to make better design decisions faster.
3. Ansys Fluids is a CFD solution from Ansys, it reduces simulation solve time
and power consumption using a multi-GPU solver in FLUENT and automates
processes that improve the product’s performance and safety.
4. OpenFOAM is a leading open-source software for CFD maintained by CFD
Direct, the acronym OpenFOAM stands for Open Source Field Operation and
Manipulation. OpenFOAM constitutes a C++ CFD toolbox for customized
numerical solvers (over 60 of them) that can perform simulations of basic
CFD, combustion, turbulence modeling, electromagnetics, heat transfer, mul-
tiphase flow, stress analysis, and even financial mathematics modeled by the
Black–Scholes equation [8]. Now, with the open-source libraries in
OpenFOAM, one does not have to spend one’s whole career writing CFD
codes or be forced to buy commercial software. Many other users of
OpenFOAM have developed relevant libraries and solvers that are either pos-
ted online or may be requested for free (illustration Figure 5.2).

5.4.2 Finite element

The finite element method (FEM) is a method used to simulate structurally with
strength visualizations, production and weight determination, proper management
of materials and costs, and numerical predict how a part or assembly behaves under
certain conditions FEA [10]. The FEM was first invented in 1956 for stress analysis
on airplane frames and then started to be used in all kinds of different engineering
solving. For FEA, to obtain parameters in the equation and calculation process, the
drawing geometry (CAD) needs to be done first, and then material and boundary
conditions need to be applied. Before running the calculation, the geometry needs
to be meshed, which means all the nodes are connected to some other nodes and no
nodal point is independent of each other (illustration Figure 5.3).
96 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Figure 5.2 Aerodynamics simulation in OpenFOAM [9]

Figure 5.3 Vehicle body in white (BIW) with mesh [11]

The FEM usually is used in stress analysis, durability analysis, and NVH
analysis.
● Stress analysis evaluates vehicle components under different working condi-
tions to predict whether the component will fail or not. Usually, it applied
static loads to mimic the real loads to the component.
● Durability analysis evaluates failures under repeated loads. By using fatigue
algorithms or software, like FE-safe, engineers can predict the life span of
certain parts under normal or extreme conditions.
● NVH analysis is defined as the study of the noise and vibration characteristics
of vehicles, especially in EVs, NVH is especially important since there are
fewer environmental sounds to blend noises. Interior NVH deals with noise
and vibration experienced by cabin occupants like drivers and passengers,
whereas exterior NVH is largely related to vehicle-emitted noise and vibration.
Nowadays, there is a lot of FE software to help solve complex FEMs, the most
famous software includes the following: Abaqus, Nastran, LS-DYNA, Ansys, etc.
 Design, modeling, simulation, and control of electric vehicle 97

5.4.3 MBD
MBD have grown in the past decades to become an important analysis tool in
vehicle development. MBD is the science of studying the motion of complex
mechanical systems under the application of mechanical forces. With MBD simu-
lation, engineers can judge the vehicle at the system level and reduce development
time and cost. Traditionally, MBD simulation is more to simulate the interaction
between rigid components however, with the computation power increases, MBD
simulation can now solve complex systems with flexible bodies in the system.
EVs have similar suspension designs but with different drivetrains, and
nowadays with advanced driving assist systems being used always in every EV,
MBD is used to help controller design and verification.
MBD simulation software can help engineers to create high-fidelity vehicle
models. With all the design parameters like hardpoints, mass and inertia properties,
and spring and damper rate, EV MBD models can be created in weeks in the
simulation software environment. This model then can be used in different simu-
lation scenarios, even control prototyping in the real-time environment [12]. Such
MBD software includes Simpack, Adams, VL-Motion, Dymola, etc. Since MBD
software can be run in real-time, some OEMs are using it on driver-in-loop simu-
lators (DILS) for vehicle subjective evaluation (illustration Figure 5.4) [13].

5.4.4 EV control simulation and verification

Control simulation and verification are important for EVs as these vehicles are
controlled by wire. Not many mechanical valves like ICEs have. To speed up the
verification process and reduce the physical prototyping, software in loop (SIL) and
hardware in loop (HIL) are used.

Figure 5.4 VI-grade DiM250 DYNAMIC driving simulator [14]

98 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Battery Motor
Vehicle model

PWM
inverter

Interface
board
Hardware Virtual world

Figure 5.5 HILS testing structure

SIL is a method of testing and validating code in a simulation environment to

quickly and cost-effectively catch bugs and improve the quality of the code.
Typically, SIL testing is conducted in the early stages of the software development
process, while the more complex, costlier HIL testing is done in later stages.
Each new software program has thousands of requirements, and it is not practical to
perform manual testing to make sure the software does what it is supposed to do. It is
prohibitively expensive and time-consuming to physically load software under devel-
opment into an actual vehicle and test-drive it for the potentially hundreds of thousands
of miles needed to make sure the software works in all types of driving conditions. Also,
engineers develop new codes every day, these must be continuously tested.
SIL has many features that make it advantageous for testing in the automotive
industry:
● SIL simulations can be run on any standard desktop computer without
requiring the special equipment or test benches needed for HIL testing. This
makes it cost-effective to deploy SIL testing across many instances, which
reduces testing bottlenecks and speeds up the development process.
● Because the simulation is being performed entirely in software, the testing can
go faster than it would in real time.
● Simulation programs deliver flexibility and repeatability creating a more
effective feedback loop with software developers [15].
HIL testing is a technique where real signals from a controller are connected to
a test system that simulates reality, tricking the controller into thinking it is in the
assembled product. Test and design iteration takes place as though the real-world
system is being used. You can easily run through thousands of possible scenarios to
properly exercise your controller without the cost and time associated with actual
physical tests (illustration Figure 5.5) [16].

5.5 EV motor control

5.5.1 Control modules

Electric motors in EVs are controlled through a combination of hardware and
software systems. The control system ensures the motor operates efficiently,
 Design, modeling, simulation, and control of electric vehicle 99

delivers the desired torque and power, and responds to driver inputs. Motors are
controlled by multiple control modules in EVs, including:
Motor control unit (MCU): The motor control unit, also known as the
inverter or motor controller, is a key component responsible for controlling the
operation of the electric motor. It typically consists of power electronics, such as
insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), gate drivers, and sensors. The MCU
receives input signals from various sources, including the driver’s commands,
vehicle sensors, and a battery management system.
Torque control: One of the primary objectives of motor control in EVs is to
regulate the torque output of the electric motor. The MCU adjusts the current
supplied to the motor windings based on the driver’s pedal position or other inputs.
This torque control ensures that the motor delivers the desired acceleration,
deceleration, or regenerative braking based on the driving conditions.
Field-oriented control (FOC): FOC is a common technique used in motor
control for EVs. FOC aligns the stator magnetic field with the rotor magnetic field,
allowing for precise control of torque and speed. By controlling the amplitude and
phase of the motor currents, FOC maximizes motor efficiency, minimizes losses,
and provides smooth operation.
Pulse-width modulation (PWM): To control the magnitude of the motor cur-
rents, PWM is employed. PWM involves rapidly switching the power electronics
(IGBTs) on and off to regulate the average current supplied to the motor windings. By
varying the duty cycle of the PWM signal, the motor controller adjusts the average
voltage and current, thereby controlling the torque and speed of the motor.
Regenerative braking: Electric motors in EVs can act as generators during
deceleration and braking, allowing for regenerative braking. The motor controller
detects the driver’s braking input or deceleration, and instead of dissipating the
energy as heat through the braking system, it converts the kinetic energy into
electrical energy. The motor controller adjusts the motor operation to act as a
generator, which charges the battery and provides energy recuperation.
Motor temperature and protection: The motor control system monitors the
temperature of the electric motor to ensure it operates within safe limits. Sensors
embedded in the motor or external temperature sensors provide feedback to the
controller. If the motor temperature exceeds the predetermined threshold, the
control system may reduce the torque output or adjust the cooling system to prevent
overheating and protect the motor from damage.
Communication and integration: The motor control system is integrated into the
overall vehicle control architecture and communicates with other systems, such as the
battery management system, vehicle control unit, and safety systems. This integration
ensures coordination among various vehicle functions, such as power distribution,
energy management, thermal management, and vehicle stability control.
In summary, the control of electric motors in EVs involves the use of MCUs
that receive input signals, regulate the torque output, employ FOC, utilize PWM,
and enable regenerative braking. These control systems play a critical role in
optimizing motor performance, efficiency, and integration within the overall
vehicle control architecture.
100 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

5.5.2 Classic motor control model

A classic DC motor control could help to illustrate how to model the EV system
motor control plant equation of motion, since technically, the EV is using a similar
system, but a more complex version.
In the classic control theory, as Figure 5.6, the actuator in the system is the DC
motor, with electric resistance, R, and electric inductance, L. The moment of
inertia, J, of the rotor which can be treated as the combination of wheels and motor
rotor in an EV scenario, motor viscous friction constant is also included here, as b.
Motor constant such as electromotive force constant, Ke; motor torque constant,
Kt; the battery has voltage, V.
Now, we can derive the equation of motion of the system, in general, the
torque generated by the motor is proportional to the current, i, and the strength of
the magnetic field, which is related to Kt:
T ¼ Kt i (5.2)
The back emf, e, is proportional to the rotation speed of the shaft times elec-
tromotive force constant:

e ¼ Ke q_ (5.3)
After applying Newton’s Second law and Kirchoff’s law, we can have:
€ þ bq_ ¼ Kt i
Jq (5.4)

di
L þ Ri ¼ V  Ke q_ (5.5)
dt
Applying Laplace transform to (5.4) and (5.5):
sðJs þ bÞqðsÞ ¼ Kt I ðsÞ (5.6)

ðLs þ RÞI ðsÞ ¼ V ðsÞ  Ke sqðsÞ (5.7)

The transfer function of the DC motor plant is:

q_ ðsÞ Kt
PðsÞ ¼ ¼ (5.8)
V ðsÞ ðLs þ RÞðJs þ bÞ þ Ke Kt
R L

θ
+
+
V i e J T
–
–

Rotor and wheel

Figure 5.6 Classic DC motor control diagram

 Design, modeling, simulation, and control of electric vehicle 101

The equation of motion in state space is

2 3

 b Kt
 " #
d q_ 6  q_ 0
¼ 4 KJ J 75 þ 1 V (5.9)
dt i e R i
  L
L L


q_
y ¼ ½1 0 (5.10)
i

5.6 EV control optimization and condition monitoring

This section will briefly provide general concepts of the control optimization and
condition monitoring of EVs and hope to give a brief introduction to what they are.

5.6.1 EV control optimization

The control and optimization of an EV involve managing and optimizing various modes
of operation to achieve desired performance, efficiency, and range. General concepts for
control and optimization of an EV under different modes, including the following:
Electric drive mode: In the electric drive mode, the EV operates solely on electric
power, utilizing the electric motor for propulsion. The control system manages the
power output of the motor based on driver inputs, such as accelerator pedal posi-
tion, to provide the desired torque and speed. The optimization in this mode focuses
on maximizing efficiency and range while ensuring a smooth and responsive
driving experience.
Regenerative braking mode: During deceleration and braking, the EV enters
the regenerative braking mode, where the electric motor acts as a generator,
converting kinetic energy into electrical energy to recharge the battery. The
control system modulates the regenerative braking force based on driver inputs,
vehicle speed, and other factors. The optimization in this mode aims to max-
imize energy recuperation while maintaining vehicle stability and brake feel.
Hybrid mode (parallel hybrid): In a parallel hybrid configuration, the EV can
operate in hybrid mode, combining the power of the electric motor and an internal
combustion engine (ICE). The control system manages the power distribution
between the two power sources based on various factors, such as driving condi-
tions, battery state of charge, and system efficiency. The optimization in this mode
focuses on achieving the best balance between electric and ICE operation to opti-
mize fuel efficiency and overall performance.
Hybrid mode (series hybrid/range extender): In a series hybrid configuration
or when using a range extender, the EV operates primarily on electric power,
while an onboard generator (usually an ICE) charges the battery to extend the
range. The control system manages the power flow between the generator and
the electric motor, optimizing the generator’s operation and battery charging
strategy. The optimization in this mode focuses on maximizing the electric
102 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

range and efficiency while ensuring sufficient power and range extension
through the generator.
Charge-sustaining mode: In charge-sustaining mode, the EV primarily relies on
the onboard generator or ICE to provide power to the electric motor while simul-
taneously maintaining the battery charge level. The control system manages the
power flow between the generator, battery, and motor to optimize fuel efficiency
and maintain a desired battery state of charge.
Energy management and optimization: In all modes of operation, the control
system performs energy management and optimization. It considers factors such as
vehicle speed, terrain, driver behavior, battery state of charge, and environmental
conditions to determine the most efficient power distribution, throttle control, and
charging strategies. The optimization aims to maximize overall efficiency, range,
and performance while ensuring safety and comfort.
The control and optimization of an EV under different modes involve a complex
interplay between the powertrain components, control algorithms, driver inputs, and
external conditions. Advanced control strategies, such as predictive control, machine
learning, and adaptive algorithms, are continuously being developed to further
enhance the efficiency and performance of EVs across different operational modes.

5.6.2 EV condition monitoring

EV condition monitoring refers to the continuous monitoring and analysis of various
parameters and operating conditions of an EV to assess its overall condition and
performance. It involves collecting and analyzing data from various sensors and
systems in real-time to detect abnormalities, identify potential issues, and optimize
the vehicle’s operation. Some key aspects of EV condition monitoring, include:
Sensor-based data collection: Condition monitoring relies on sensors embedded
within the EV to collect data on various parameters. These sensors may include
temperature sensors, current sensors, voltage sensors, vibration sensors, pressure
sensors, and more. The data collected from these sensors provide insights into the
performance, health, and operating conditions of different EV components.
Data analysis and diagnostics: The collected data are analyzed using algorithms
and techniques to identify patterns, anomalies, and trends. Data analysis can be
performed in real-time or through periodic diagnostics. The goal is to detect
deviations from normal behavior and identify potential issues that may require
attention or maintenance.
Performance monitoring: EV condition monitoring includes assessing the per-
formance of key components such as the battery pack, electric motor, power
electronics, and charging systems. Parameters such as battery state of charge (SoC),
motor efficiency, charging speed, and energy consumption are monitored to ensure
optimal performance and identify any degradation or inefficiencies.
Fault detection and predictive maintenance: Condition monitoring helps detect
and diagnose faults or malfunctions in real-time or proactively through predictive
 Design, modeling, simulation, and control of electric vehicle 103

maintenance. By analyzing sensor data and comparing it against pre-defined

thresholds or models, condition monitoring systems can identify deviations or
warning signs of component failure or degradation. This allows for timely main-
tenance or repair, minimizing downtime, and optimizing the vehicle’s reliability.

State of health (SoH) monitoring: EV condition monitoring involves monitoring

the SoH of critical components, particularly the battery pack. SoH monitoring
assesses the overall health, capacity, and degradation of the battery over time. It
provides insights into the battery’s remaining usable life and helps determine the
optimal charging and usage patterns to maximize its lifespan.

Driver behavior and usage analysis: Condition monitoring systems can also
incorporate driver behavior and usage analysis. By monitoring parameters such as
acceleration patterns, braking behavior, speed profiles, and energy consumption,
condition monitoring can provide feedback to drivers on how to optimize their
driving habits for better efficiency and performance.

Data logging and reporting: Condition monitoring systems typically log and store
data collected from sensors for future analysis, reporting, or system optimization.
These data can be used for long-term performance tracking, warranty claims,
diagnostics, and improving the design of future EV models.
EV condition monitoring enhances the operational efficiency, reliability, and
maintenance of EVs. It allows for proactive maintenance, early fault detection,
optimized performance, and improved driver awareness, ultimately resulting in
better overall vehicle performance and ownership experience.

5.7 Summary
EV modeling and simulation is a very important topic, by using modeling and
simulation, EVs are designed to be more efficient, safe, and less costly. Also,
design issues can be found early even without a physical prototype being made.
With simulation, EV aerodynamics can be optimized to make the air drag minimum
in a short development process. EVs need to be updated quickly due to the nature of
EVs; therefore, SIL and HIL are important, without modeling and simulation, SIL
testing and HIL testing are impossible to do. Nowadays, more and more OEMs are
committing to modeling and simulation, and some of them already started to pro-
pose a zero-prototype roadmap to their R&D, aiming to reduce the time to market
time and cost. Shortly, it would be possible to reduce the development time and
cost even further with the help of developing arcuate vehicle models and running
them in real-time simulation.

References
[1] R. Matulka, The History of the Electric Car, Department of Energy, 2014,
https://www.energy.gov/articles/history-electric-car.
104 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

[2] R. Holehouse, A. Shahaj, M. Michon, and B. James, “Integrated approach

to NVH analysis in electric vehicle drivetrains,” The Journal of
Engineering, vol. 2019, no. 17, pp. 3842–3847, 2019, doi:https://doi.org/
10.1049/joe.2018.8247.
[3] J. Zhang, L. Zhang, F. Sun, and Z. Wang, “An overview on thermal safety
issues of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicle application,” IEEE Access,
vol. 6, pp. 23848–23863, 2018.
[4] M.W. Grieves, “Virtually intelligent product systems: digital and physical twins.”
In Complex Systems Engineering: Theory and Practice, American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2019, pp. 175–200.
[5] IBM, https://www.ibm.com/topics/what-is-a-digital-twin.
[6] R. Tara, “Are we ready for digital twins?,” Engineering.com Audience
Survey of Perceptions and Readiness.
[7] e-motec, Optimizing EV Aerodynamics to Increase Range, September 2,
2021, https://www.e-motec.net/optimizing-ev-aerodynamic.
[8] G. Chen, Q. Xiong, P.J. Morris, E.G. Paterson, A. Sergeev, and Y. Wang,
“OpenFOAM for computational fluid dynamics,” Notices of the AMS,
vol. 61, no. 4, pp. 354–363, 2014.
[9] T. A. o. OpenFOAM, “OpenFOAM HPC with AWS EFA,” https://cfd.
direct/cloud/openfoam-hpc-aws-efa/.
[10] F. Ozcan and S. Ersoy, “Analysis of the vehicle: applying finite element
method of 3D data,” Mathematical Models in Engineering, vol. 7, no. 4,
pp. 63–69, 2021.
[11] R. Jobava, F. Bogdanov, A. Gheonjian, and S. Frei, “Application of adaptive
scheme for the method of moments in automotive EMC problems,” in
Proceedings of 16th International Zurich EMC Symposium, Zurich,
Switzerland, 2005, pp. 131–136.
[12] A. Fox, “Simulation of AWD performance with multibody chassis model
and hardware in the loop system (HILS),” in SIMULIA Great Lakes UGM
2016, 2016.
[13] I. Mula, G. Tosolin, and X.C. Akutain, “Enhanced ride comfort evaluation
on the driving simulator with real-time multibody models,” in 12th
International Munich Chassis Symposium 2021, 2022, New York, NY:
Springer, pp. 43–60.
[14] “VI-grade Announces Installation of DiM250 DYNAMIC Driving Simulator
at CEVT,” https://newsroom.notified.com/cevt/posts/pressreleases/vi-grade-
announces-installation-of-dim250-dyn.
[15] Apriv, What Is Software-in-the-Loop Testing, 2022, https://www.aptiv.com/
en/insights/article/what-is-software-in-the-loop-testing.
[16] N. Instruments, What Is Hardware-in-the-Loop, 2022, https://www.ni.com/
en-us/solutions/transportation/hardware-in-the-loop/what-is-hardware-in-the-
loop-.html.
 Chapter 6
Design, modelling, simulation and control
of electric machines and drives used in
electric vehicle
Faz Rahman1

6.1 Introduction to motor drives for electric vehicles

The adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) for automotive traction is gathering pace at
breakneck speed lately (see Figure 6.1). Passenger vehicle makers are announcing
new EV models virtually every day, some with announcements of even discontinuing
petrol/diesel vehicles entirely in a few years! At the higher power spectrum, elec-
trification of medium and large power trucks of >500 kW capacity is also a gathering
pace, especially for trucks with well-defined regular routes that can take advantage of
suitably located charging stations where batteries can be changed in a short time. The
change from IC engine-driven vehicles to EVs is akin to the way the world changed
over from steam engines to IC engines about a century or so ago. However, battery-
electric motor-driven vehicles are not new; one, depicted in Figure 6.2, was
announced as far back as 1832, when battery and motor technologies were very
primitive. These succumbed by 1920 when IC engines came of age and cheap
gasoline became easily available. The tremendous rise in battery energy density and
motor power density and associated improvements in power electronic converters for
efficient battery charging and control of electric machines in recent years have fun-
damentally altered the scene of EVs. This chapter will attempt to cover some of the
motor designs and control systems that are at the heart of traction drives of EVs.

6.2 Torque–speed capability requirements for EVs

The maximum torque that a traction motor is required to deliver to the wheels of
the typical vehicle over the full speed range from 0 to wmax is indicated by the
black trace in Figure 6.3. The base speed wb refers to the speed that is attained
with rated (or maximum) voltage at the base frequency (say 50 Hz) applied by the

1
School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, The University of New South Wales,
Australia
106 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

GLOBAL BEV & PHEV SALES ('000s) EV volumes

8,3%

Plug-in hybrids 6,750

Battery electric vehicles
EV market share
4,2%

2,5%
2,2% 3,240
1,3%
0,9%
0,2% 0,4% 0,6% 2,082 2,276 71%
0,2%
1,263
543 792 70%
321 69% 75%
125 208 67%
64%
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Growth +55% +69% +46% +59% +65% +9% +42% +108%

Figure 6.1 Growth in EVs since 2012. Source: ev-volumes.com.

Figure 6.2 An EV in 1832, developed by the Scottish inventor named Robert

Anderson
 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 107

Nm Constant
max Constant
torque power
T max (CPSR)

7Z Characteristic
T rated of an IC engine

Prated

T min

Zb Rad/s Z max |5u Z

b

Figure 6.3 Torque–speed characteristic requirement for a vehicle

inverter to the motor. The air-gap flux of the motor up to this speed is the rated or
nominal value for the motor. Beyond wb and up to wmax, the air-gap flux is
reduced inversely with speed, to maintain the back-emf in the stator phase at the
nominal value. This is the so-called field weakening region over which the
maximum torque that the motor produces falls inversely with speed. Because the
maximum developed power remains constant over the speed region wb – wmax
with this field weakening (FW) control, this speed range is known as a constant
power speed range (CPSR). A simplified analysis for a reasonable power rating of
the motor over this speed range shows that the wmax/wb ratio should be about 5 or
more to minimize the size of the motor. For an IC engine-driven vehicle, the
engine T–w characteristics (indicated by the faint blue curves) are progressively
shifted up or down by gear changes. An automated gearbox for this is a sub-
stantial part of the engine-traction drive system.
Modern interior permanent-magnet (IPM) motors are capable of meeting the
traction T-w profile without requiring any gear changes, i.e., just one gear stage is
normally required to match the motor torque to the requirement of the traction
system, as indicated in Figure 6.4. This advantage with the IPM machine also
allows the motor to be designed with the minimum volume, i.e., the highest torque/
power density, compared to other available machines. The motor also delivers the
short-time constant maximum torque requirement (indicated by the red broken line)
by exploiting the short-time capacities of the motor and the inverter switches.
A typical control system of an EV is indicated in Figure 6.5 in which the
accelerator pedal produces the torque reference for the vehicle. This reference
is then vectored into torque references for left and right motors on the axle with
an electronic differential gear-box. The steering angle d and speeds of the left
and wheels are used for calculating the torque references for the two motors.
These motors are then controlled by their individual inverter and torque
controllers. This chapter is mainly concerned with the motor and its control
system.
108 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Audi e-tron
Front electric motor with power electronics

Power electronics
Gearbox housing control circuit

Stator

Gearbox with planet gear

differential Rotor

Coolant connections

Housing

Stator carrier with

cooling jacket

Bearing plate

Figure 6.4 A typical motor-gear and housing arrangement of a vehicle motor.

Courtesy: Audi e-tron.

Steering
angle G Accelerator
pedal

Calculation of
Speed v torque
estimation distribution
ratio

vright v left

Distribution T*
of
torque

Tin and Tout

Vehicle control
system

Figure 6.5 A typical supervisory control system for an EV

 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 109

6.3 The evolution of IPM machines for EV application

Many contenders as electric motors for the current generation of EVs include induc-
tion motors (IMs), wound rotor synchronous motors (WRSMs), axial-flux PM motor
(AFPMM), switched reluctance motors (SRMs) and the interior permanent-magnet
synchronous motors (IPMSMs). The IMs were used in the Tesla 2017 EV Model S,
however, an IM has limited CPSR and low efficiency at high speed. As a result, recent
models of Tesla EVs are using the IPMSM. The WRSM has the disadvantage of slip
rings for supplying current to the rotor for rotor excitation and control of the rotor field.
Its torque/power–volume ratio also does not compare favourably with the IPMSM.
The AFPMM has a few advantages when the power rating of the motor is low (a few
KWs) and it does not lend easily to high-power design due to the increased diameter
and consequent unbalanced axial forces and torque at large diameter. The SRM also
loses out to IPMSMs in terms of increased power converter size, audible noise, and
low power factor operation, to name a few. Considering these, the IPMSM, with rare-
earth PM materials (usually sintered/bonded NdFeB in conjunction with other mate-
rials that extend the operating temperature and corrosion resistance) embedded within
the rotor iron, has become the motor of obvious choice for virtually all EV manu-
facturers as of now. Table 6.1 includes a few hybrid, plug-in-hybrid and pure EVs up
to 2017, which indicates the overwhelming usage of the IPMSM for EVs.

Table 6.1 IPM motor power and driving range data for a few hybrid and electric
vehicles

Vehicle Electric motor ECE Battery

data
Type Power Type Capacity Range
(electric)

Hybrid Honda PMSM 9.7 kW 1.31 petrol Li-ion 0.6 kW

Insight, 2010
Toyota Prius, PMSM 23 kW 53 kW 1.8 L gasoline Li-ion 8.8 kWh 40 km
2017
GM Volt PMSM 55 kW (MG) 1.4 L petrol Li-ion 18.4 kWh 85 km
hybrid, 2016 111 kW(M)
Hyundai PMSM 32 kW 1.6 L petrol Li-ion 1.56 kWh
loniq, 2017
BMW i3, PMSM 125 kW 647 cc petrol Li-ion 33 kWh 290 km
2014
Ford Fusion, PMSM 88 KW 2.5 L petrol Li-ion 7.6 KW 31 KM
2015
Hyundai PMSM 50 KW 2.0 L petrol Li-ion 9.8 KW 43 KM
Sonata, 2016
All-electric Tesla Model IM 581 kW (two m> 1 Li-ion 100 kWh 550 km
S, 2017 motors combined)
Chevrolet PMSM 150 kW – Li-ion 60.0 kWh 380 km
Bolt, 2017
Ford Focus, PMSM 107 kW Li-ion 33.5 kWh 185 km
2017
Renault PMSM 70 kW Li-ion 22 kWh 185 km
Fluence, 2014
110 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

6.3.1 The IPM rotor

The design of the rotor of IPM machines for EVs has developed much since the
first incorporation PM rotors in Toyota hybrid vehicles (Prius I) [1–7]. Early IPM
machines such as in Figure 6.6(a) and (c) did not exhibit adequate field weakening
until the V-shape magnet pole with iron bridges between magnets was incorporated
in each pole. Many other aspects of minimizing cogging torque, torque ripple, and
magnet volume and losses in the rotor, and maximizing the efficiency were
incorporated in the design of these and other still emerging structures. A few
examples of rotor structures adopted by several EV and PHEV suppliers are indi-
cated in Figure 6.7.

6.3.2 The fractional-slot concentrated winding (FSCW)

stator winding of the IPM machine
Another development that has taken place for the IPM machine is the fractional-slot,
concentrated windings [8–22] which have several desirable attributes. The FSCW, in
contrast with distributed windings, concentrates whole per-pole and per-phase windngs
on one or two adjacent stator tooths. This is indicated in the simple illustration of

q q q
d
d d

(a) Flat-type (c) Spoke (c) Inset

magnet magnet magnet

q
q q
d d d

(e) V-magnet (f ) Double V- (g) Multi-layer

magnet magnet

Figure 6.6 (a)–(c) Early IPM rotor designs; (d) V-shaped, (e) double-V, and (f)
multi-layer magnet designs are more recent developments
 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 111

2002 Toyota 2004 Toyota 2010 Toyota 2017 Toyota

Prius Prius Prius Prius

Honda Accord 2005 GM Volt Tesla S3

(with inset magnets) (Double V) (Single V)

BMW I3 Nissan Ford

(Double layer) (Delta magnets) (Single V)

Figure 6.7 Examples of a few rotor structures adopted by the hybrid and EV industry

Figure 6.8 where a single-layer winding is shown. In practice, a double layer winding
in each stator slot is preferred. The FSCW offers the following advantages:
● The condition of optimum CPSR is more easily achievable in FSCW
machines. Increased field-weakening (or high CPSR
5) capability due to
high d-axis inductance.
● Reduction of cogging torque due to a large least common multiple (LCM)
between the number of poles and the number of slots.
● Reduction of copper losses due to shorter end-winding length, and hence reduction
of machine total length, leading to increase in torque and power density.
● Reduction of short-circuit current due to higher inductances.
● Increased fault-tolerant capability due to the reduction of mutual inductance
and absence of overlapping of windings.
● Compact size and high pole number are also useful for low-speed direct-drive
applications.
● Simplified manufacturing, maintenance, and repair of the winding due to its
modular structure.
● The FSCW offers the opportunity for integrating motor and inverter in a
single unit.
112 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

C– A+ B– C+
B+ B–
B+ C–
N S
A– N S A+
A– C+

C+ A– A–
A+ S N
S N
C– B+
B– B+
C+ B–
A+ C–

Figure 6.8 The IPM machine with (a) conventional distributed winding and (b)
FSCW with slot/pole/phase less than 1

Elaborate designs meeting the optimization goals mentioned above can

nowadays be undertaken using a finite-element analysis platform and multi-
objective optimization algorithm guiding the analyses to optimize the dimensions
in the chosen rotor and stator structure (illustration Figure 6.9) [23–39]. This pro-
cess is rather time-consuming, requiring high computing resource.
The desirable attributes of the Spoke and V-type rotors, indicated in Figure 6.6(b)
and (e) were combined in the Y-type rotor of Figure 6.10 [40]. This rotor with the
FSCW in the stator has attributes better than what is possible in the multi-layer and V-
type rotors. These attributes include cogging torque, torque ripple, magnet volume
and losses in the rotor, operating efficiency, and CPSR.

6.3.3 IPM machine performance from FE analysis

Typical back-emf waveforms, torque ripples, torque–speed characteristics, and
efficiency maps of the Spoke, V- and Y-type motors of the same stator and rotor
dimensions obtained through FE analysis are shown in Figures 6.11–6.14. These
figures are included for the purpose of showing the depth of analysis and design
procedures and their efficacies. A fuller description of these procedures is however
beyond the scope of this chapter.
 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 113

(a)

(b)

(c) (d)

Figure 6.9 (a)–(d) A few examples of FSCW in hybrid and EVs. (a) Typical FSCW
stator poles and windings. (b) Hyundai Sonata 2010 with 24 slots, 16
poles, 14.4 kW, 840 rev/min (c) Stator poles for Honda 2005 Accord
IPM motor (d) Toyota Prius 2010 and 2017 FSCW stator.

Figure 6.10 The Y-type rotor with FSCW stator [40]

6.3.4 Steady-state performance from measured stator

parameters
The FE analyses as means for design and assessment of an IPM machine are
usually beyond the scope of a practicing engineer familiar with phasor analysis of
114 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Spp = 2/5, Spoke–type Experimental results of the prototypes

Back-EMF voltage L-N (V )

60 80

Back-EMF Voltage
measured V-type
40

Harmonic (V )
FEA 60 Spoke-type
20 Y-type
0 40
–20
20
–40
–60 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Time (ms) Electrical Harmonic order

Figure 6.11 (a) Bemf of the spoke type motor. (b) Harmonic spectrum of phase
voltages of Spoke, V- and Y-motor

Experimental results of Spoke-type rotor Experimental results of V-type rotor

6.4 7.4
Torque ripple = 7.8% Measured
Mech. Torque (Nm)

Torque ripple = 2.49% Measured 7.3

Mech. Torque (Nm)

Tave = 6.18 Nm FEA Tave = 6.82 Nm FEA

6.3 7.2
7.1
6.2 7
6.9
6.1 6.8
6.7
6 6.6
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 6.5
Rotor position (mech. degree) 0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72
(a) (b) Rotor position (mech. degree)

Experimental results of Y-type rotor

7.6
Mech. Torque (Nm)

Torque ripple = 2.97% Measured

Tave = 7.35 Nm FEA
7.5

7.4

7.3

7.2
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72
(c) Rotor position (mech. degree)

Figure 6.12 Torque ripples in optimized Spoke, V- and Y-motors

Experimental results of the prototypes

8
Mech. Torque (Nm)

7 V-type
6 Spoke-type
5 Y-type
4
3
2
1
0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
Speed (rpm)

Figure 6.13 Torque–speed characteristics of optimized Spoke, V- and Y-motors

 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 115

Experimental results of V-type rotor Experimental results of Y-type rotor

8 8
Measured points 90 Measured points 90
7 7
6 80 6 80

Efficiency (%)

Efficiency (%)
Torque (Nm)

Torque (Nm)
5 5
70 70
4 4
3 60 3 60
2 2
50 50
1 1
0 40 0 40
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
Speed (rpm) Speed (rpm)

Figure 6.14 Efficiency maps of the optimized Spoke, V- and Y-motors

q-axis
jIqXs
R jXs = j ZsLs I jIdXs
jIXs Ef
V
V‘0q Ef‘Gq Iq I
G J

T
d-axis
Id Of
(a) (b)

Figure 6.15 (a) IPMSM per-phase equivalent circuit and (b) phasor diagram

AC machines. The IPM machines of the foregoing section are in fact synchronous
machines which can also be analyzed using machine steady-state inductance
parameters Ld and Lq, stator resistance R and the stator flux linkage parameter lf.
Machine steady-state performance of torque and efficiency for various applied
voltages and operating speeds can be found using phasor algebra. It will be shown
in the latter section that the steady-state model can be deduced from the dynamic
model in the rotor dq frame. The above-mentioned parameters are easily obtained
via a self-test routine in which the inverter operates the motor at a few speeds and at
zero frequency to determine these parameters. It may be mentioned here that the
FOC and DTC controllers of the motor use parameters obtained via such self-tests
for running the motor.
The steady-state analysis of an IPMSM starts with representing the per-phase
equivalent circuit and the phasor diagram is shown in Figure 6.15(a) and (b),
respectively. For the phasor diagram of 6.14(b), the stator resistance/phase R has
been neglected.
116 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

The torque–speed characteristic of the IPMSM can be obtained from (6.1):

"V 2 V2
 #
3p l1 R þ V1 Efo lXqo sin d þ 21 Xdo  Xqo sin 2d  V1 REfo cos d
T¼
wo R2 þ l2 Xdo Xqo
(6.1)
where l = f1/fo; f1 is the input supply frequency and fo is the base supply frequency
(say, 50 Hz), V1 is the per-phase input RMS supply voltage to the motor with
frequency f1, p is the number of pole pairs, Efo is the back-emf at the base speed,
and Xdo and Xqo are dq synchronous reactances at the base frequency fo or speed wo.
The IPMSM operates near base speed, the voltage drop in R can be negligible
compared to V1, so that for R  0,
   
3p Efo V1 V 2 Xdo  Xqo
T¼ sin d þ 12 sin 2d (6.2)
wo lXdo 2l Xdo Xqo
With an open-loop V–f inverter, as shown in Figure 6.16(a), the torque–speed
characteristics from (6.1) and (6.2) are as shown in Figure 6.15(b). At a low speed,
the torque capability of the motor drops (equation (6.1)) due to the voltage drop in
R as indicated by the curved dotted line of Figure 6.16(b). With closed-loop control

Vo
V1ref
3-phase
fo
Zref PWM

f1 INV
f1ref

(a)

T Eq. 2
Nm

Eq. 1

0 fo Z1 (or f1) rad/s

(b)

Figure 6.16 The torque–speed capability of an IPMSM under (a) open v–f control
and (b) closed-loop current control which overcomes the voltage
drop in stator resistance R. (a) Inverter control for an IPMSM.
 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 117

of Id and Iq, the voltage drop in R is compensated, and the motor torque capability is
retained right down to zero speed. This production of the rated torque is one
important distinguishing capability compared to the IC engine. A single-stage gear
is thus only required, as indicated in Figure 6.4 to match the motor T–w char-
acteristic with the referred torque from the driven wheel. The maximum torque T,
the required CPSR, and wo for the drive allows the gear ratio indicated in Figure 6.4
to be selected.

6.4 The dynamic model and control of IPMSMs

An EV requires very fast dynamic control of the IPMSM used for the traction
drive. The required dynamic performance requires field-oriented controls (FOC)
based on the dynamic model of the IPMSM. For this, the IPMSM is represented in
the rotor reference frame, via Park’s dq-transformation. Equations (6.3)–(6.6)
represent the d- and q-axes voltages, flux linkages and the developed torque of the
machine.
The dq voltages:
dld dq did
vd ¼ Rid þ  lq ¼ Rid þ Ld  wLq iq (6.3)
dt dt dt
dlq dq diq

vq ¼ Riq þ þ ld ¼ Riq þ Lq þ w Ld id þ lf (6.4)
dt dt dt
The dq flux linkages:
ld ¼ Ld id þ lf lq ¼ Lq iq (6.5)
The developed torque:
3p
 3p 

T¼ ld iq  lq id ¼ lf iq  Lq  Ld iq id (6.6)
2 2
L
It should be noted that for an IPM machine, Lq > Ld, and x ¼ Ldq , the saliency
ratio is an important measure of the machine’s reluctance torque and field weak-
ening capability. Also, the flux linkage ld, which is responsible for the q-axis bemf
Eq to be reduced to zero when
lf
id ¼ ich ¼  (6.7)
Ld
The circuit representation of the machine in the rotor dq frame, as indicated in
Figure 6.17, follows from (6.3).
Control of flux linkage and torque are based on (6.5) and (6.6), respectively,
when the machine is driven from a current source inverter with independent and
decoupled control of id and iq. To understand the torque–speed envelope of the
machine and some of its control restrictions, it is useful to represent the machine in
terms of its steady-state equivalent circuit, in which the dq stator windings are
118 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

id R Ld iq R Lq

 
vd ZreLqiq vq Zre(Ldid + Of)
 

Figure 6.17 Circuit representation of an IPMSM in rotor d- and q-axes

q-axis q-axis q-axis

Iq2 Xq2
Ef2

Iq1 Xq1
Ef1 Id2 Xd2
Iqo Xq0 Id1 Xd1
Efo
Ido Xdo
G
Vo Io Iqo Vo G Vo G

T I1 Iq1
I2 T
T Iq2
d-axis d-axis d-axis
Ido Id1 Id2

(a) at base speed, Zo (b) at speed Z1 > ZO (c) at speed Z2 > ZO

Figure 6.18 Phasor diagrams of an IPMSM at base and higher speeds

stationary, but produces their MMFs along the rotor dq axes. In this condition, the
dq stator windings have AC voltage, current and flux linkage phasors at the fre-
quency corresponding to the speed of rotation. Figure 6.18 shows phasor diagrams
of the IPMSM at the base and two other speeds that are higher than the base speed,
if the voltage drops in the stator resistances are negligible at these speeds. Vo is the
rated phase voltage. Efo is the PM excited phase voltage at the base speed. Angles q
and d are the power factor and load angles, respectively.

6.4.1 dq Current controls below base speed and above with

field weakening
It should be clear from (6.2) that the inverter output voltage V should increase
proportionately with speed up to the rated voltage at base speed so that the motor
develops its maximum torque at the base speed. For operation at higher speeds, the
inverter output voltage remains fixed at the rated value corresponding to the
DC link voltage, while the speed is increased by increasing the supply frequency
w (= 2pf). The excitation voltage Ef and the d- and q-axes reactances also increase
proportionately with w. The phasor diagrams of Figure 6.18 show the V, Ef, and the
input current I phasors at three speeds at and above the base speed. These
 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 119

figures also indicate that operation above speed can be arranged by appropriately
controlling the phase angle of the input current phasor from the excitation voltage
Ef, when a current source inverter drive is used. This type of control increases the
ve d-axis current, which reduces the flux linkage (see (6.5)) as speed is increased
above the base speed, thereby reducing the air-gap field via armature reaction.
Equation (6.6) implies that the ve d-axis current id increases the reluctance
torque component of an IPM machine (the second term in (6.6)), which is advan-
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
tageous because the total current I ¼ i2d þ i2q of the machine must also be subject
to a maximum limit. The increased reluctance torque afforded by increased id
allows a reduction in iq, helping the drive to operate within its maximum current
limit while, at the same time, maximizing the total developing torque. It should be
clear also from Figure 6.18 that using Id for field weakening is equivalent to
making input current phasor I1 advance in phase angle with respect to Ef.

6.4.2 Power converters for EVs

The IPM motor in an EV is driven by an inverter, as indicated in Figure 6.19. The
inverter DC voltage is in the range of 500–800 VDC for today’s EVs. The inverter
DC voltage is maintained using a bidirectional DC–DC converter which operates
off the vehicle battery of about 300 V DC. The regenerative energy of the IPM
motor charges the inverter capacitor and the LV battery as required for maintaining
the inverter DC-bus voltage.

6.4.3 Torque control

The torque control system is shown in Figure 6.20. The torque reference T* is from
the acceleration pedal of the vehicles, or it may also be the output of a speed
controller in a cruise control system. The reference torque T* must be transformed
into current references id and iq by the current reference generator according to the
measured or estimated speed of the motor shaft and certain optimum control
requirements to be discussed in the following section. Motor currents ia – ic are
sensed and transformed into id and iq using the measured rotor position q. The shaft

HV DC bus > 500VDC

A
Ultra- Traction
B
cap motor
C
LV battery
≈ 180 -
300VDC

Figure 6.19 Power converters for IPMSM drive in an EV

120 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

dq current
controllers
i *q v*a
IPMSM
+ v*q
dq-
T* Current – decoupling, v*b 3-phase
reference voltage PWM
generator i *d + v*d compensation v*c inverter
and dq–1
–

ω ia
iq θ
ib
dq
id ic

d/dt

Figure 6.20 Torque control block diagram of the IPMSM

angle q is obtained using an encoder/resolver of adequate accuracy. The id and iq

current controllers (usually PI regulators with a low-pass filter) operate in the rotor
dq reference frame, producing voltage references vd and vq .

6.5 Optimum control trajectories

The current reference generator in Figure 6.20 is necessitated by the torque equa-
tion (6.6), in which the developed torque T is contributed partly by the product of
the rotor flux linkage lf and iq, which may be termed the excitation (or magnet)
torque Te and partly by the product of the reluctance difference (Lq – Ld) and id*iq,
which is known as the reluctance torque Tr. Because id and iq both contributes to the
torque, references for id and iq from the torque reference T* must be found [41–47].

6.5.1 The condition for maximum torque per ampere

(MTPA) characteristic
Assuming that the input current phasor I will lie on or to the left of the q-axis in the
id–iq plane, from Figure 6.15, we may write
id ¼  I sin g and iq ¼ I cos g (6.8)
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where I ¼ i2d þ i2q is the phase current phasor magnitude and g is the angle of the
I phasor with the q-axis on which the Ef phasor lies. Substituting (6.8) into the
torque equation (6.6), we obtain
3 1

T ¼ p lf I cos g þ Lq  Ld I 2 sin 2g (6.9)
2 2
 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 121

The first term in (6.9) is torque Te due to rotor excitation (flux) and the second
term is the reluctance torque Tr. To obtain the fastest transient response and highest
torque for a current i, the current phase angle g must be such as to satisfy the
maximum torque condition. The relationship between the amplitude of the stator
current and the phase angle g for the maximum torque can be derived by setting the
derivative of (6.9) with respect to g to zero.

dT 3 3

¼ plf I sin g þ p Lq  Ld I 2 cos 2g ¼ 0 (6.10)
dg 2 2

By replacing i with id and iq from (6.8) leads to the following relationship

between id and iq which procures the MTPA of stator current i:
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u
lf u l2f
id ¼ t þ i2q (6.11)
2ðLq  Ld Þ 4ðLq  Ld Þ2

Equation (6.11) implies that the maximum torque per-ampere can be achieved
if id is determined by this equation for any iq. The reference iq is usually determined
by the torque reference T*. The developed torque components of an IPMSM are
shown in terms of angle g in Figure 6.21, which is a plot of (6.6). Driving the motor
with id and iq current references from (6.11) is equivalent to operating the machine
with the current angle g that produces the maximum torque. Hence this mode is
referred to as the MTPA control. Note that with this mode of control, the motor
develops torque with the least current, thus minimizing the I2R loss (copper loss) of
the machine.

2.5

2
Total torque

Magnet torque
Torque [Nm]

1.5

0.5
Reluctance torque

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Current angle γ [Elec.Deg.]

Figure 6.21 Excitation (or magnet), reluctance, and total torque of an IPMSM
122 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

6.5.2 Operation under current and voltage limits

When an IPM synchronous motor is run from an inverter, the maximum stator
current and the voltage are limited by the inverter/motor current and DC-link vol-
tage ratings, respectively. These constraints can be expressed as
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
I ¼ i2d þ i2q  Ism (6.12)
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V¼ v2d þ v2q  Vsm (6.13)

where Ism and Vsm are the available maximum current and voltage limits of the
inverter/motor, respectively.
When an IPMSM runs at a steady speed, id and iq become DC variables and
(6.3) and (6.4) can be written as
      
vd R wLq id 0
¼ þ (6.14)
vq wLd R iq wlf

Substituting (6.13) into (6.14) yields

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V ¼ ðRid  wLq iq Þ2 þ ðRiq þ wLd id þ wlf Þ2  Vsm (6.15)

If the stator resistance R is neglected, which is applicable when the motor

operates near speed and above, (6.15) can be written as
 
2 2 Vom 2
ðLq iq Þ þ ðLd id þ lf Þ  where Vom ¼ Vsm  RIsm (6.16)
w
Equation (6.12) describes a circle in the id–iq plane with radius Ism. This
implies that id and iq currents, or the I trajectory, must always remain within this
current limit circle if the motor phase current is not to exceed its rated or maximum
value. This circle is centred at the origin of the id–iq plane, as shown
 in Figure 6.22.
l
Equation (6.16) describes ellipses with origin at 0;  Lfd in the id–iq plane.
These ellipses progressively become smaller as the speed w become higher, as also
shown in Figure 6.22. This implies that id and iq currents, or the I trajectory at any
speed, must always remain on the voltage limit ellipse for a given speed if the
motor phase voltage is not to exceed its rated maximum value. It should be noted
that for iq > 0, the IPMSM acts as a motor while for iq < 0, it acts as a generator.
Furthermore, id < 0 applies for field weakening for IPMSMs with Lq > Ld. With
higher id, ld is reduced, leading to operation at higher than base speed.

6.5.3 The crossover speed wc

Figure 6.23 includes the current-limit circle and a few voltage-limited ellipses for
the motor of Table 6.2. From Figure 6.23, the crossover speed (wc) may be defined.
For wc = 2,400 rpm, the voltage limit trajectory with zero load torque (or id = iq = 0)
 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 123

30
λf
0, –
Ld Current limit circle
20
ω1

q–axis current [A]

10 ω2
ω3
0 x

–10

–20
Voltage limit ellipses ω1<ω2<ω3
–30
–30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30
d–axis current [A]

Figure 6.22 Current and voltage limit trajectories in the id–iq plane

id, A
2 Maximum torque-per-ampere
1.8
1.6 Current limit
A
1.4 2,200 rpm
1.2 B
1
0.8
0.6 2,400 rpm 1,500 rpm
0.4 C
7,000 rpm
0.2
O
0
–1.5 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
id, A

Figure 6.23 Current and voltage limit trajectories in the id–iq plane for motoring

Table 6.2 Parameters of the IPM Motor IPMSM-I

Number of pole pairs p 2

Stator resistance R 18.6 W
Magnet flux linkage lf 0.447 Wb
d-axis inductance Ld 0.3885 H
q-axis inductance Lq 0.4755 H
Rated phase voltage V 240 V
Rated phase current I 1.4 A
Base speed wb 1500 rpm
Rated torque Tb 1.95 Nm
Crossover speed wc 2400 rpm
124 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

intersects the MTPA trajectory. When the machine is operated between the base and
crossover speeds, the operating mode can be both along the MTPA and FW trajec-
tories, as determined by the load. For example, when the motor runs at 2,200 rpm, the
corresponding voltage limit trajectory is BCO in Figure 6.23. If the machine is
heavily loaded, the id–iq trajectory is along BC. When lightly loaded, the trajectory is
along CO which is on the MPTA trajectory.

6.5.4 Operation with MTPA and field-weakening under

maximum current and voltage limits [43,48,50–58]
Figure 6.23 also shows the MTPA trajectory and voltage limit ellipses, for a motor
at a few speeds from 1,500 to 7,000 rev/min for a 4-pole IPMSM for which the base
speed is 1,500 rev/min. The MTPA trajectory given by (6.11) is independent of
rotor speed w and determined only by three motor parameters and Ism. It should be
expected that the MTPA trajectory OCA in Figure 6.23 intersects the current limit
circle at the base speed wb where the motor will develop its maximum torque and
rated voltage.

It can also be seen from (6.16) that as the speed increases to infinity, the
l
voltage limit ellipse shrinks to the point 0;  Lfd , on the d-axis. The d-axis
current represented by the centre of the ellipses is the Characteristic Current, Ich,
defined as.
lf
Ich ¼ A (6.17)
Ld

6.5.5 The characteristic current and flux-weakening control

conditions
For an IPMSM, three flux-weakening control conditions based on the characteristic
current of a machine may exist, as explained below.
(i) Ich > Ism
If Ich lies outside the current limit circle, i.e., to the left of the intersection of the
current limit circle and the d-axis, voltage limit ellipses above certain high
speeds will fall outside the current limit circle, as shown in Figure 6.24(a). At
these speeds, the current–voltage limits cannot both be satisfied. As a result, the
field-weaking range will be limited and a wide CPSR cannot be achieved. In this
case, the maximum speed (wmax ) which the IPMSM can be operated is defined
when id ¼ Ism and iq ¼ 0. At this point, the torque becomes zero and the
machine cannot be operated
beyond
 that speed. The maximum speed is thus
given by wmax ¼ Vom = lf  Ld Ism .
(ii) Ich ¼ Ism
In this case, the centre of the voltage limit ellipse lies on the cross point of
the current limit trajectory and the negative d-axis as shown in Figure 6.24
(b). Thus, there will always be an intersecting point between the current limit
trajectory and the voltage limit ellipse, regardless of the shrinkage of the
 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 125

iq Current limit Current limit

iq
Voltage limit Voltage limit
ωmax

id id

(–Ich, 0) (–Ich, 0)

(a) (b)

MTPV iq Current limit

Voltage limit

id

(–Ich, 0)
ωcritical

(c)

Figure 6.24 The significance of the characteristic current in determining CPSR

voltage ellipse with the increasing speed. In this case, the CPSR is infinite
theoretically and it is considered as the optimum flux-weakening condition.
(iii) Ich < Ism
If the characteristic current is less than the rated current of the system, voltage
limit ellipses tend to shrink at a point inside the current limit circle with
increasing speed as shown in Figure 6.24(c). Even though this demonstrates
that the machine can run up to an infinite speed, the CPSR is limited to a finite
speed which may not cover the required speed range of an EV. For such a
machine the CPSR can be extended by using the maximum torque per voltage
(MTPV) control [48,49]. This entails the id–iq trajectory moving along the
MTPV trajectory as indicated in Figure 6.24(c). It should be noted that the
characteristic current of an IPMSM will tend to move to the right due to fall of
lf with rise of magnet temperature during normal operation. The d-axis
inductance Ld does not change much with temperature or operating current.

6.6 Selection of control modes

6.6.1 Operation with MTPA below base speed

It is seen in Figure 6.23 that the voltage limit ellipse for operation below the base
speed is larger than the one for base speed. Therefore, if the stator current vector is
126 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

controlled according to the maximum torque-per-ampere trajectory and satisfies the

current limit, which is the trajectory OA, it must satisfy the voltage limit since the
current vector is inside the voltage limit ellipse. Therefore, the maximum torque-
per-ampere mode is selected for constant torque operation.
The d- and q-axis currents, idA and iqA, with which the maximum torque is
produced, are determined by (6.11) and (6.12) when Is = Ism.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
lf l2f
idA ¼  þ Ism 2
 i2dA (6.18)
2ðLq  Ld Þ 4ðL  LÞ2
Solving (6.18), one gets
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u
lf u l2f I2
idA ¼  t þ sm (6.19)
4ðLq  Ld Þ 16ðLq  Ld Þ 2 2
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
iqA ¼ 2  i2
Ism dA (6.20)

This is the operating point at which the motor produces the maximum torque
and the limit value of the outer control loop for constant torque operation is then
determined by (6.20).

6.6.2 Operation between base and crossover speeds

When the rotor speed is in the range from wb to wc, the control mode is determined
by the load. When the motor is under light load, it may operate near the crossover
speed with MTPA control. When the motor is fully loaded, it must be controlled
according to the voltage limit trajectory above the base speed. For instance, if the
motor runs at 2,200 rpm, the corresponding voltage limit trajectory is BCO in
Figure 6.23. Thus, if the motor is heavily loaded and the current vector is along the
trajectory BC, it must be controlled according to the voltage limit trajectory.
Otherwise, the motor may be still controlled with MTPA control along the trajec-
tory CO. The determination of the control mode is based on the calculated id from
both equations (6.11) and (6.16). If the calculated id from (6.11) is smaller than the
one calculated from (6.16), the MTPA trajectory is used for constant torque
operation. Otherwise, voltage limit trajectory is used to control the current vector
for field weakening operation. The limit value for the outer control loop is still
determined by (6.12).

6.6.3 Operation with field-wakening above the crossover

speed
To run the motor above the crossover speed wc, the flux lf, which is the flux linkage
along the rotor d-axis, must be reduced. Although the flux is already reduced with
the MTPA control, the voltage limitation is no longer satisfied when the rotor speed
is above the crossover speed. The stator current vector is, therefore, controlled
according to the voltage limit trajectory instead of the MTPA trajectory. Thus, id
 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 127

and iq are determined according to the voltage and current limit equations (6.16)
and (6.12), respectively. The limit value, idv and iqv, of the outer control loop for
such a field weakening operation is, therefore, determined by these two equations
with Is = Ism, which is inversely proportional to the rotor speed:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
lf Ld 1
idv ¼  þ l2f L2d  a b (6.21)
a a

where

a ¼ L2d  L2q (6.22)

2
Vsm
b ¼ Ism
2 2
Lq þ l2f  (6.23)
w2

and
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
iqv ¼ I2sm  i2dv (6.24)

6.6.4 MTPV trajectory control

If Ich < Ism , the field-weakening speed range can be extended by using MTPV
control after the conventional flux-weakening control. The MTPV trajectory deli-
vers the optimal operating point that develops the maximum torque under the
voltage constraint. The relationships between id and iq for MTPV control can be
derived as follows.
From the flux linkage Equation (6.5),

ld  lf
id ¼ (6.25)
Ld
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
l2s  l2d qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
lq
iq ¼ ¼ ; where ls ¼ l2d þ l2q (6.26)
Lq Lq

By substituting (6.25) and (6.25) into (6.6),

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

3 ld ld  lf
T ¼ p l2s  l2d  (6.27)
2 Lq Ld

dT
By taking and equating the derivative to 0 for maximum torque,
dld
q
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
2
Lq lf þ Lq lf þ 8 Lq  Ld l2s Vom
ld ¼
 ; where ls ¼ (6.28)
4 Lq  Ld w
128 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

1.2 Torque
Voltage limit
Current limit A
1

q-axis current (A)

0.8
MTPA
0.6
T1>T2
B
0.4 T1 T2
E
0.2 D
MTPV
C O
0
–1.2 –1 –0.8 –0.6 –0.4 –0.2 0
d-axis current (A)

Figure 6.25 MTPA, FW, and MTPV control trajectories

By substituting (6.28) in to (6.25) and (6.26), id and iq for MTPV control are
obtained.
lf
id ¼   Did (6.29)
Ld

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

Vom 2 ffi
2
w  ð L d Di d Þ
iq ¼ (6.30)
Lq

where
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðLq lf Þ þ 8ðLq Ld Þ ðVom w Þ
2 2 2
Lq lf þ
Did ¼ 4Ld ðLq Ld Þ

The MTPV trajectory in the id –iq plane is shown in Figure 6.25. If the motor
speed is below the critical speed, MTPV control cannot be applied because the
intersection of the MTPV trajectory and the voltage ellipse will be outside of the
current limit trajectory.

6.7 Controller implementation issues

6.7.1 Voltage compensation for avoiding current controller
saturation
Separate id and iq current control are performed in the rotor flux reference frame,
as indicated in Figure 6.20. Measured id and iq are fed back to the q- and d-axes
 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 129

i*q v*q
Gcq(s)
v*a

iq vdo
vdo = –ωLqiq
v*b
ω –1
dq

vqo
id vqo = ωλf + ωLdid
v*c

i*d v*d
Gcd (s)

Figure 6.26 The d- and q-axes current controllers with decoupling

current controllers. PI controllers are usually used for fast dynamic performance
and high accuracy in the steady state. The de-coupling block of Figure 6.26
helps remove the coupling between the d- and q-axes voltages and is used for the
fast transient response of these controllers. Transient responses of id and iq
with and without voltage decoupling based on (6.14) are shown in Figure 6.27(a)
and (b).

6.7.2 Prevention of controller saturation during field-

weakening
It should be noted that the stator voltage constraint in the previous sections was
based on the steady-state equations (6.14) and (6.16). In the flux weakening
operation, the stator voltage is kept equal to the maximum stator voltage Vsm.
The voltage resulting from commanded id and iq may exceed Vsm in transient
operations when id or iq are required to change abruptly. As a result, the dq
current controllers can be saturated and the current control performance then
becomes poor. To prevent saturation, current id should be controlled prior to iq
current in the case of current controller saturation. The voltage compensation
which was indicated in Figure 6.20 and detailed in Figure 6.28 can be used for
preventing the current controllers from saturation, in which vd and vq are the
output signals from the voltage de-coupling block of Figure 6.26 and vdc
are the vqc voltage references for inverse dq transformation (dq1) and applica-
tion to the inverter.
 0.1
0.1
0 0
d-axis current (A)

d-axis current (A)

–0.1 –0.1
–0.2 –0.2
–0.3 –0.3
id Ref. id Ref.
–0.4 id –0.4 id
–0.5 –0.5
1.99 1.995 2 2.005 2.01 2.015 2.02 1.99 1.995 2 2.005 2.01 2.015 2.02

1 1
0 iq Ref. 0 iq Ref
q-axis current (A)

q-axis current (A)

iq iq
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
–5 –5
1.99 1.995 2 2.005 2.01 2.015 2.02 1.99 1.995 2 2.005 2.01 2.015 2.02
Offset=0 Time (s) Offset=0 Time (s)

Figure 6.27 (a) id and iq transients without dq decoupling and (b) with decoupling
 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 131

v*d, v*q

2 yes
v*2d + v*2q < v
= sm

no

yes
2 v*dc = v*d
v*2d + v*2qo < v
= sm
v*qc = v*q
no

v*2dc = v*2sm – v 2qo v*dc = v*d

v*qc = vqo v*2qc = v*2sm – v*2q

v*dc, v*qc

Figure 6.28 Flow-chart of voltage compensation for avoiding controller

saturation during field weakening

6.8 Current controller gains for FOC IPMSM drives

Several highly integrated and sophisticated simulation platforms like MATLAB/

Simulink and PSIM exist that can simulate many steady-state and dynamic per-
formances of a drive system. Many complex drive issues can be addressed at the
design stage on such platforms, without having to build a drive at the outset. Tuning
of controllers for various control loops, effects of machine, load parameter varia-
tions, and drive efficiency map can all be pre-assessed.
To achieve good dynamic performance and operational features, a cascaded
structure of closed-loop controls is normally employed in the electric drive system
with an outer speed loop Figure 6.29 shows a cascaded control structure for electric
drives, which includes speed control (for cruise control only) in the outer loop and
current (or torque) controllers in the inner loop comprising of d-axis and q-axis
current controllers (see Figure 6.19).
Usually, PI controllers are used for these controllers. Many procedures are
available for designing and tuning such controllers. Nevertheless, for the sake of
completeness, a short account is included here.
From the dq representation of Figure 6.16, the approximate plant model can be
taken as a first order Laplace Equation (6.31):

Km
Gi ðsÞ ¼ (6.31)
Tm s þ 1
132 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Accelerator
pedal
VDC

ωref Speed T* Current

controller controller Inverter IPMSM
G''ω(s) G''I (s)

OV
i

Figure 6.29 Cascaded feedback control loops for electric drives

1. Discretization of the plant model with forward Euler discretization method.

1
Substituting s ¼ 1z
Ts z1 into (6.31) yields the discrete plant model:

Km TTms z1 b1 z1
Gi ðz1 Þ ¼  ¼ 1
(6.32)
1 þ Ts Tm z1 1 þ a1 z
Tm

where Ts is the sampling time for the discrete current controller.

2. Define a discrete PI controller using the same transform.

Ts z1 KP þ ðKI Ts  KP Þz1 q0 þ q1 z1

GPI ðz1 Þ ¼ KP þ KI ¼ ¼
1z 1 1  z1 1  z1
(6.33)
Combining the discrete transfer function of the plant and PI controller, the
closed-loop transfer function is given by

q0 b1 z1 þ q1 b1 z2
GCL ðz1 Þ ¼ (6.34)
1 þ ða1  1 þ q0 b1 Þz1 þ ða1 þ q1 b1 Þz2
where the denominator of the transfer function is the characteristic polynomial
of the system.

PCL ðz1 Þ ¼ 1 þ ða1  1 þ q0 b1 Þz1 þ ða1 þ q1 b1 Þz2 (6.35)

3. The characteristic polynomial for achieving the required performance is
defined as

Pcd ðz1 Þ ¼ 1 þ a1 z1 þ a2 z2 (6.36)

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where a1 ¼ 2exwn Ts cos wn Ts 1  x2 and a1 ¼ e2xwn Ts .
4. To determine the controller parameters, set the characteristic polynomial for
the system equal to the characteristic polynomial for the required performance,
 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 133

i.e., PCL ðz1 Þ ¼ Pcd ðz1 Þ. Solving for the proportional and integral gains of the
controller for the first-order system yields
8
> a2  a1 þ 1
< KP ¼
b1 (6.37)
>
: KI ¼ a 2 þ a1 KP
þ
b1 Ts Ts

The above general equations for the PI controller gains contain two coeffi-
cients, the damping factor x and natural frequency wn . These two coefficients
determine two of the main step-response characteristics, overshoot s and
response time tr :
ffiffiffiffiffiffi
ppx
s¼e 1x2 (6.38)

8 4
>
< w x ; if ðx < 0:7Þ
>
n
tr ffi (6.39)
>
>
: 6x ; if ðx
0:7Þ
wn

It should be noted that the gain Km and time constant Tm of the first-order
system Gi ðsÞ for an IPMSM are
( d;q
Km ¼ 1=Rs
(6.40)
Tmd;q ¼ Ld;q =Rs

The proportional and integral gains of the controllers will be different and
must be calculated separately.
Given the system requirements such as overshoot and response time, one can
now solve for the PI current controller gains in the rotor dq frame.

6.9 Dynamic responses and trajectory following

A few results on the following of the MTPA and FW trajectories are included in
Figure 6.30 for the distributed-winding IPMSM of Table 6.2. Figure 6.30(a) shows
the id and iq along the MTPA line for this motor and Figure 6.30(b) shows their
transient values during the MTPA operation. Figure 6.30(c) and (d) includes id and
iq current during MTPA and FW operation to 2200 rpm. For this machine, Ich > Ism.
For the IPMSM-2 in Table 6.3, Ich < Ism. A few experimental results on the
trajectory following, which include MTPV, are included in Figure 6.31(a)–(f).
Operation with MTPV for this motor leads to some increase in torque at high speed
with deep field weakening and a consequent increase in CPSR, as is shown in
Figure 6.32(a) and (b).
134 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies
2 200
MPTA trajectory Current limit

Speed (rad/sec.)
150
1.5
100 1.5 Nm load applied
1
50

0.5 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Actual current
0 trajectory
2

Current (A)
–0.5 1

–1 0
Voltage limit
at 1,500 rev/min
–1.5 –1
–1.5 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time (sec.)
(a) (b)

2 300
MPTA trajectory
Speed (rad/sec)

VL 1,500 rev/min 200

1.5
VL 2,200 rev/min 100
1
0

0.5 –100
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
0 VL 2,400 rev/min
2

–0.5
Current (A)

–1
0
Current limit
–1.5
–1.5 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 –1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Time (sec.)
(c) (d)

Figure 6.30 id and iq current during MTPA and FW trajectory following for the
motor of Table 6.2. (a) Operation with MTPA below base speed
(1,500 rev/min), (b) speed and current transients during acceleration
to base speed, (c) operation with field weakening under current and
voltage limits, and (d) speed and current transients over the whole
speed range from 0 to 2,400 rev/min.

Table 6.3 Parameters of the DW IPMSM-2

Parameter Value
Number of pole pairs, p 2
Stator resistance, R 18.6 W
Magnet flux linkage, lf 0.18 Wb
d-axis inductance, Ld 0.238 H
q-axis inductance, Lq 0.5128 H
Friction coefficient, TF 0.00029 Nm/rad/s
Rotor inertia, J 0.001176 kgm2
Rated phase voltage (peak), Vsm 178 V
Rated current (peak) Ism 1.2 A
Characteristic current 0.75 A
Base speed, wb 1,500 rpm
Critical speed, wcritical 3,500 rpm
Crossover speed, wc 4,200 rpm
 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 135

– –

– –

– –
– – – – – – – –

(a) (b)

Time (s)

–
– –
–
– –

(c) (d)

–
–

–
– – – –

(e) (f )

Figure 6.31 Trajectory following of IPMSM-2 with Ich < Ism

136 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

1.2 250

1 200

Power (W)
Torque (Nm)

0.8 150
0.6 100
0.4
50
0.2
0
0
0 2000 4000 6000 0 2000 4000 6000
Speed (rpm)
Speed (rpm)

FW with MTPV FW only FW with MTPV FW only

Figure 6.32 Extension of CPSR with MTPV for the IPMSM-2 of Table 6.3

Speed reference 250

12,000
200
10,000
Torque, Nm
Rev/min

8,000 150
Motor torque, Nm
6,000 Motor speed 100
4,000
50
2,000
0
0

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Sec Sec
(a) (b)

70
200
iq 60 Motor power
100
dq currents, Amp

50
Power, kW

0 40

30
–100
id 20
–200
10

–300 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Sec Sec
(c) (d)

Figure 6.33 Control simulation results of a 40 kW IPM motor for an EV with CPSR = 4

The foregoing simulation and experimental results in Figures 6.30–6.32 are for
two low-power IPMSMs-1 and IPMSM-2. Figure 6.33(a)–(d) shows dynamic
responses of (a) speed, (b) torque, (c) dq currents, and (d) developed power of a 40
kW IPMSM used in an EV. Table 6.4 includes all parameters of this machine for
which Ich  Ism, so that MTPV operation is not required.
 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 137

Table 6.4 Motor and Drive Parameter Values

Item Symbol Value Unit

DC Bus Voltage VDC 320 V
Stator resistance/phase R 0.04132 W
Rotor Flux Linkage lf 0.152 Wb
Pole pairs p 3
d-axis inductance Ld 0.46 mH
q-axis inductance Lq 1.06 mH
Base speed wb 3,000 rpm
Moment of inertia J 0.047565 kg m2

0.05

Lq (linear “L”) vs Iq
0.04
Ld, Lq [Henries]

0.03

Lq (saturable “S”) vs Iq
0.02

0.01 Ld (linear) vs Id

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Id, Iq [Amperes]

Figure 6.34 Variation of Lq with current

6.10 Variation of machine parameters and impacts

It may be noted that the trajectories described in Section 6.5 have parameter
dependency. The magnet flux linkage lf decreases by about 0.1%/ C of rise in
magnet temperature, however, this change is rather slow and can be obtained by a
variety of recursive estimation techniques. The variation of dq inductance with
current, especially of Lq, is more pronounced due to magnetic saturation along the
q-axis, as indicated in Figure 6.34. The dynamics of this change are as fast as
current changes and thus more difficult to adapt to. It may be also noted that Ld
does not have significant dependency on the current. As a result of variation Lq with
current, the MTPA trajectory should ideally follow the trajectory OB in
Figure 6.35, rather than OA when saturation of Lq is neglected. The shift of the
MTPA obviously has some implications on the value of the base speed, field-
weakening trajectories efficiency and CPSR. Look-up tables for determining these
138 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

250 Current limit

circle
A MTPA
200 without
q-axis current, iq A
B q-axis
* *
* saturation
150 *
*
*
100 MTPA with *
q-axis
saturation *
50 *

O
–250 –200 –150 –100 –50 0

d-axis current, id A

Figure 6.35 MTPA trajectory with q-axis saturation

trajectories thus become the current dependent and rather complex to manage [59–
61]. These will not be discussed here. More can be found in [62,63].

6.11 Summary
This chapter has attempted to give an overview of IPM machines for the application in
EVs. The progression of this motor over the past several years for the inclusion of high
CPSR, power density and efficiency, and low torque ripple have been reviewed. Of
particular interest is the rotor configuration that has offered high CPSR, so that these
motors could cover the required speed range with the torque requirement of vehicles.
This has implications for the number and size of motors in such applications. The
control techniques of the IPM machines for exploiting the full CPSR and by meeting
the current and voltage limits were discussed by a mix of steady-state and dynamic
models in the rotor dq reference frame. Controller design and control strategies for
effective control of currents (and hence torque) and trajectory following have also been
included. Extensive simulation and experimental results on three IPMSMs, one of
which is a 40-kW IPM machine for an EV, have been included to demonstrate the
suitability and applicability of optimum control boundaries (trajectories) for these
motors for high efficiency, high dynamic response, and wide field-weakening.

Symbols

wmax full speed range

wb base speed
T–w torque–speed
 Design, modelling, simulation and control of electric machines 139

ds steering angle
Ld and Lq machine steady-state inductance parameters
R stator resistance
lf stator flux linkage parameter
f1 input supply frequency
fo base supply frequency
p pole pairs
Efo back-emf at the base speed
Xdo and Xqo dq synchronous reactance at the base frequency fo
Id and Iq direct and quadrature axis current
Eq q-axis back-emf
Vo rated phase voltage
Efo PM excited phase voltage
d load angle
Ef excitation voltage
V inverter output voltage
I input current
T* reference torque
id and iq current references
ia – ic Motor currents
q rotor position/shaft angle
vd and vq voltage references
Tr reluctance torque
g angle of the current phasor with the q-axis
Ism radius of id–iq plane
wc crossover speeds
dq1 inverse dq transformation
x damping factor
wn natural frequency
tr response time
s overshoot
Km Gain of first-order system
Tm time constant of the first-order system

Glossary

AFPMM axial-flux permanent magnet motor

CPSR constant power speed range
140 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

DTC direct torque control

EV electric vehicles
FE analysis finite-element analysis
FOC field-oriented control
FSCW fractional-slot concentrated winding
FW field weakening
ICE internal combustion engine
IM induction motors
IPM interior permanent-magnet motors
IPMSM interior permanent-magnet synchronous motors
LCM least common multiple
MTPA maximum torque per ampere
MTPV maximum torque per voltage
NdFeB neodymium iron boron magnets
PHEV plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
PI proportional-integral
SRM switched reluctance motors
WRSM wound rotor synchronous motors

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 Chapter 7
Battery management system for electric vehicle
Khare Mangesh1, Mandhana Abhishek1, Gudhe Siddhant2,
Singh Sanjeev2 and D Giribabu2

7.1 Introduction

Lead-acid batteries had been an integral part of internal combustion engine (ICE)
vehicles supplying power for cranking, ignition and supporting auxiliary loads like
lights and horns. Increasing expectations on improving vehicle efficiency, reducing
emissions, and enhancing safety and comfort lead to higher demands on vehicle
battery. This triggered the need for better management of the battery as well as
development of newer battery technology.
During the 1970s to early 2000, pressure to reduce the emissions and fuel
consumption, forced several automotive original equipment manufacturers (OEMs)
and tier1 suppliers to introduce new technologies to tackle these challenges. One
such technology was “Automatic Start Stop” system. This was the first trigger for
the introduction of an intelligent battery sensor (IBS) for actively managing then
state of art lead-acid batteries. Leading German Automotive tier1 company,
HELLA was among the first few companies to launch IBS in the year 2000 [1] and
has sold more than 30million units of it till date. The picture of Hella IBS gen-
eration II is shown in Figure 7.1. Bosch [2] and Continental [3] also became the
leading suppliers of IBS. The schematic block diagram of present IBS is shown in
Figure 7.2.
IBS provided measurement of voltage, current and temperature of the 12V
Lead Acid Battery. It also gave an indication of battery status and thus marked the
beginning of Battery Management Systems (BMS) for automotive applications [4].
With the advent of hybrid electric and battery electric vehicles, the need for bat-
teries for traction application became evident. Lead-acid batteries were no longer
suitable for traction application due to their inherent limitations, hence NiMH and
Li-ion batteries got entry into Automotive.
Li-ion batteries had distinct advantages in terms of higher energy density,
longer cycle life, lighter weight, and higher charge–discharge capacities; however,

1
Hella India Automotive Private Limited, Pune, India
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, MANIT Bhopal, India
148 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

1
4 Battery sensor
IBS generation II

1. Shunt at sensor
2. Connector
3. Sensor module
5
4. Negative terminal clip
5. Screw-on bolt
For cable lug contacting
(ground cable)
2 3

Figure 7.1 Picture of Hella IBS (courtesy: Hella)

DC power line
Intelligent battery sensor Communication line

Single chip ASIC

Voltage
regulator
Measurement Flash To
unit controller LIN
LIN-Transceiver bus

Figure 7.2 IBS schematic block diagram

they required highly controlled operating conditions for safe operations, and this
led to the evolution of modern-day BMS [5].
Today Li-ion battery pack along with BMS forms the heart of a battery electric
vehicle (BEV). Ensuring safe operation, optimizing performance, prolonging bat-
tery life and providing accurate information regarding battery’s state are the core
functions of BMS.
This chapter discusses various aspects of BMS along with the future trends of
battery management system for EVs.

7.2 BMS overview

Figure 7.3 shows a system overview of BMS through a schematic block diagram.
The main functions of BMS include sensing various battery parameters, analyzing
them to control the load engagement or disengagement, informing the thermal
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 149

Battery management system DC power line

Communication lines
Traction battery

Thermal Thermal
control
management
unit

Analysis
Battery Battery Communication
pack Control
parameter with
sense other
Diagnosis subsystem

Charger unit
Electrical
Machine control
control
unit

Figure 7.3 BMS schematic block diagram

control units to maintain battery temperatures, estimating the different battery

parameters and communicating this information to other subsystem in the vehicle.

7.2.1 Common concepts in BMS

The following concepts are important for understanding BMS functionalities.

7.2.1.1 Low voltage and high voltage automotive systems

Low voltage automotive systems are those which operate at 60 V DC and below.
Systems operated above 60 V DC are referred to as high voltage automotive
systems.

7.2.1.2 Vehicle classification

Vehicle classification influences some of the design criteria for the BMS. Typical
vehicle classification with reference to BMS is given in Table 7.1.

7.2.1.3 Li-ion battery pack structure

Li-ion battery pack structure as shown in Figure 7.4 has significant impact on the
selection of suitable BMS architecture.
Cell: It is the fundamental unit of a battery pack. Its electrical specifications
would vary based on its chemistry, form factor and size.
Module: It is a group of cells connected together to generate the specific
voltage and currents. In the low voltage packs, these are usually parallel-
connected cells.
Pack: It is a group of modules connected together to form a single entity of the
battery which can be used to provide necessary power and energy to the vehicle.
150 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Table 7.1 Classification of vehicles

Specifications Micro LEVs Passenger Heavy commercial

mobility (2W/3W) vehicles vehicles
Power <1 kW 3–6 kW 100 kW >300 kW
Range 20–40 km 100–150 km 300–450 km >500 km
Speeds 10–30 km/h 80–100 km/h 120–180 km/h 100–120 km/h
Battery voltages 12 V, 24 V 48 V, 60 V, 72 V >300 V >800 V
No. of wheels 2 or 3W 2 or 3W 4W >4W

3 parallel cell
PCM

3 cell groups in
parallel
SCM

Figure 7.4 Block diagram of Li-ion battery pack structure

PCM approach for a battery pack: The parallel-cell-module (PCM) approach

wires cells in parallel to make modules, then wires modules in series to create a
battery pack.
SCM approach for battery pack: The series-cell-module (SCM) approach wires
cells in series to make modules, then wires modules in parallel to make a
battery pack.
In automotive applications, commonly PCM approach is used to fabricate
battery packs.

7.2.1.4 Common Li-ion cell chemistries

Commonly used Li-ion battery chemistries for automotive traction application are
lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO2), abbreviated as NMC and
lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) or lithium ferro phosphate abbreviated as LFP.
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 151

Table 7.2 Li-ion cell operating voltage range and nominal voltage

Battery chemistry Operating voltage range (V) Nominal voltage (V)

NMC 3.0–4.2 3.7
LFP 2.5–3.6 3.20

The typical operating voltage range and nominal voltage of Li-ion cells are shown
in Table 7.2.

7.2.1.5 Battery capacity

It is the amount of electrical energy (charge) that a battery can store or deliver to
various electrical devices or system over a specific period of time. It is typically
measured in ampere-hours (Ah).
A battery’s capacity is an important characteristic as it directly relates to its
runtime or how long it can power a device or system before it needs to be
recharged. Every cell in a battery is marked with an Ah rating called as nominal
capacity. For example, a cell with a rating of 5 Ah means it can deliver a con-
tinuous current of 5 A for 1 h, before its charge is depleted.

7.2.1.6 C-rate
C-rate specifies the speed at which the battery is charged or discharged [5,6]. For
a 5 Ah fully charged cell, at 1 C discharge rate, the battery discharges completely
in 1 h. Similarly at 0.5 C discharge rate a fully charged cell discharges com-
pletely in 2 h. The same interpretation can be applied for charging cases.
Sometimes C rates are also represented in fraction form. For example, C/2 rate
means 0.5 C.

7.3 Measured parameters

Battery parameter measurement plays a crucial role in BMS. Measurement
resolution, accuracy and sampling frequency are some of the important
considerations.

7.3.1 Voltage, current, and temperature measurement

These are the most crucial directly measured battery parameters. Some important
considerations for voltage (V), current (I) and temperature (T) sensing are
discussed below.
7.3.1.1 Synchronous sampling
Current drawn from battery and its voltage are interdependent. Also, traction
batteries are often subjected to high load/current dynamics. So synchronous
sampling of voltage and current is important. Typically sampling rate is in
milliseconds.
152 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

7.3.1.2 Voltage
The battery pack consists of several cells connected in the application-specific
configuration. Each cell has a direct impact on the overall battery performance.
Ideally BMS should measure each cell voltage levels. However, with system con-
siderations and to reduce the overall complexity, voltage measurements are usually
done at the module level.

7.3.1.3 Current
Current sensing becomes very crucial as it forms the basis of many algorithms for
the state estimation of the battery [7,8]. The higher the accuracy of measurement is,
the better the algorithm accuracy is. Hall sensor or shunt-based sensor is typically
used in BMS as shown for illustration in Figure 7.5. Both the technologies have
its merits and demerits. Hall sensor is better in terms of thermal management;
however, it is bulky and less accurate. Usually, it is used in very high current
measurement requirements. The shunt-based sensing is very accurate and compact;
however, it generates heat which needs to be managed separately. As discussed
earlier, the accuracy expectations are higher in BMS automotive applications,
usually shunt-based measurements are preferred. Shunt sensors in combination
with multiple amplifiers provide the best resolutions and accuracy for a wider range
of current measurement.

7.3.1.4 Temperature
Lithium-ion batteries are sensitive to temperatures. Hence BMS is expected to
measure the temperatures of each cell in the battery pack accurately to ensure the
safety and performance of the pack [7,8]. However due to wiring and cost con-
siderations, the number of sensors used is limited. Thermal simulations of the
battery are performed to identify critical areas of heating and accordingly sensors
are placed inside the battery pack. Usually, thermistors with negative temperature
coefficient (NTC) are used for measurement.

(a) (b)

Figure 7.5 (a) Shunt-based current sensor (courtesy: Hella). (b) Hall-based
current sensor (courtesy: Aliexpress.com)
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 153

7.3.2 Gas sensors

It is used primarily as an early warning mechanism for any abnormal chemical
reaction within the battery pack. Analysis of gases emitted helps in analyzing dif-
ferent internal faults and thereby enables timely maintenance of affected battery
cells/packs. Phenomena like thermal runaway can be detected well in advance and
accordingly user can be intimated of the imminent hazard. Gas sensors are still not
used commonly due to cost and system integration-related considerations
(Figure 7.6).

7.3.3 Inferred parameters

There are several battery parameters that are inferred based on the measured
parameters and the battery operational condition.

7.3.3.1 State of charge (SoC)

SoC is an indicator of the remaining capacity of the battery during discharging or
charging scenarios. It is one of the most important indicators which translates to the
remaining distance a vehicle can travel (called distance to empty, DTE). SoC is a
cyclic parameter that is measured during each charge and discharge cycle. It is
usually represented in %. The equation used to represent the SoC is given as,
Cremaining
SoCðtÞ ¼  100%
Cactual
Cremaining is the available capacity that can be extracted from battery at time t;
Cactual is the actual capacity is the maximum possible charge (in Ah) that can be
extracted or accepted by the battery during initial complete charge/discharge cycle
at room temperature and C/30 rate.
SoC is sometimes also represented as the depth of discharge (DoD)
DoD = 100%  SoC

25ºC 130ºC 700ºC

Figure 7.6 Investigated battery failure cases, which involve gas emissions.
(a) Unwanted electrolysis, (b) vaporizing electrolyte of damaged
cells, (c) the first venting of a failing cell, (d) the thermal runway (TR),
and (e) battery fire not investigated.
154 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Open circuit voltage: Lithium-ion vs Lead acid

58
0.5V
56
Lithium-ion
54
Lead-acid
52
voltage (V)
Battery

6V
50

48

46

44
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Depth of discharge

Figure 7.7 DoD versus OCV characteristics of different batteries

SoC estimation is one of the important tasks of BMS. However, it is also one of
the complex tasks because of the non-linear nature of SoC the battery. Hence,
advanced algorithms are used to estimate SoC of lithium-ion batteries [9].
SoC or DoD measurement in lithium-ion batteries is complex compared to the
lead-acid batteries because of non-linearity between SOC versus OCV (open circuit
voltage graph).
Figure 7.7 describes the difference between DoD versus OCV characteristics
of lead acid and lithium-ion batteries.
From Figure 7.7, the characteristics of SOC versus OCV for lithium ion are
highly non-linear compared to lead acid. Hence, there is need of complex algo-
rithms to estimate SoC.

7.3.3.2 State of health (SoH)

SoH indicates the reduction in battery capabilities due to the ageing. As the battery
is an electrochemical system, it ages with the usage. Due to ageing, there is a
reduction in the charge storage capacity of the battery and its ability to provide the
instantaneous power to the system [10].
A reduction in the charge storage capacity of the battery is called “capacity
fade”. Whereas, the reduction in the capability to provide instantaneous power is
called “power fade”. Battery ages because of continuous charging and discharging
events and due to storage without use.
Ageing effect due to charging and discharging is called “cyclic ageing”
whereas, the ageing effect due to storage without use is called calendric ageing.
Calendric ageing also intensifies the cell health degradation process. Usually
this is ageing due to storage of the cell and mainly depends on the conditions at
which the cells are stored. These conditions include SOC at which the cells are
stored and ambient conditions like temperature at which cells are stored.
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 155

0.95

Normalized capacity
0.9

0.85
0 % SOC
0.8 10 % SOC
20 % SOC
0.75 30 % SOC
50 % SOC
(a) 0.7 60 % SOC
1.5 70 % SOC
80 % SOC
1.4 85 % SOC
Normalized resistance

90 % SOC
95 % SOC
1.3

1.2

1.1

(b) 1
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time/d

Figure 7.8 (a) Normalized capacity over time and (b) normalized resistance over
time for calendar aging tests at 50 C

In Figure 7.8, the cells used are NMC cells stored at 50 C at different SOCs.
From the figure, it can be concluded if cells are stored at higher SOC, calendric
ageing happens faster.
Cyclic ageing is dependent on rate at which batteries are charged and dis-
charge, the temperature range of SOC at which charge, and discharge is happening
and chemistry of the battery.
In Figure 7.9, the cells used are NMC cells cycled at 1 C charge discharge rates
at 35 C and SoC depth of 10%.
From the figure, it can be concluded that the cell ages faster if they are cycled
at extreme SoC ranges and minimum ageing observed when cycled in the range of
45%–55%.
In general, higher temperatures and higher C rates influence ageing faster as it
produces electrical stress over battery.
SoH using capacity fade
Ca
SoH ¼  100%
Cr
or
156 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

0.95

Normalized capacity 0.9

0.85

0.8 5 – 15% SOC

20 – 30% SOC
(a) 0.75 45 – 55% SOC
70 – 80% SOC
1.5 85 – 95% SOC
90 – 100% SOC
Normalized resistance

1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1

1
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
(b) Equivalent full cycles

Figure 7.9 (a) Normalized capacity and (b) normalized resistance over equivalent
full cycles

where Ca and Cr represent actual and rated capacity.

SoH using power fade
Ra  R r
SOH ¼  100%
Rr
where Ra and Rr are actual and rated internal resistances.
The SoH representation used in BMS is decided based on the vehicle appli-
cation’s sensitivity to capacity or power fade. The estimation of SoH becomes very
crucial as it impacts the range and performance of the vehicle. SoH in combination
with SoC is used to provide the accurate DTE. SoH also indicates the remaining life
of the battery and plays a key role in making the decision to scrap the battery for
specific applications. Hence, from the industry perspective, it addresses very
important problems of battery warranties. The SoH measurement is used to define
battery warranty conditions; hence, it is important.

7.3.3.3 State of power (SoP)

SoP indicates the capability of battery to supply and absorb power. This indicator is
very important to ensure that the charge or discharge power does not exceed certain
limits. This helps in using the battery as good as possible to extend its life
expectancy.
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 157

A battery’s SoP is defined as the ratio of peak power to nominal power and is
represented in %.
Pmax ðtÞ
SoP ¼  100%
Pnominal ðtÞ
The peak power, based on present battery-pack conditions, is the maximum
power that is maintained constant for a predefined time in seconds without vio-
lating operational design limits on battery voltage, SoC, power, or current.
The SoP depends primarily on battery chemistry, capacity, voltage and SoC.

7.3.3.4 State of energy (SoE)

SoE indicates the energy left in the battery from initial energy stored under fully
charged condition. It is defined as the ratio of the residual energy to the maximum
available energy. SoE is represented in % and it gives a wholistic indication of the
overall capability of the battery in terms of power and capacity.
Ðt
pðtÞdt
SoEðtÞ ¼ SoEðto Þ þ to
EN
where, EN is nominal energy amount and pðtÞdenotes power at time t.

7.4 BMS system architecture

Overall BMS as system consists of the following key subsystems:

● BMS controller unit: This component is responsible for making key decisions,
communicating information and controlling the battery engagement with the
load. This unit holds all intelligence capabilities for BMS.
● BMS monitoring unit: This component is responsible for collecting battery
information including current, voltage, and temperature. This unit must be
controlled via the BMS controller.
● BMS power distribution unit (PDU): This component consists of switches that
are used to engage or disengage battery from loads and charger.
Based on the combination of these BMS modules, the overall system archi-
tecture is classified into the following types.

7.4.1 Centralized architecture

In centralized BMS architecture, BMS controller unit and BMS monitoring unit are
integrated into a single BMS unit as shown in Figure 7.10.

7.4.2 Distributed architecture

Distributed Architecture is used in electric vehicles where the battery pack size is
big and there are multiple battery modules. In distributed BMS architecture, the
BMS monitoring units reside inside the battery modules. As described earlier, the
158 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Battery pack

Battery
module BMS
monitoring
Battery unit
module
BMS Load
controller PDU
Battery
module BMS
monitoring
Battery unit
module

Figure 7.10 Centralized BMS architecture

Battery pack
Battery BMS
module monitoring unit

Battery BMS
module monitoring unit
BMS Load
Battery BMS controller PDU
module monitoring unit

Battery BMS
module monitoring unit

Figure 7.11 Distributed BMS architecture

main function of the BMS monitoring unit is to sense the voltage, current, and
temperature information from the battery pack.
There are multiple BMS monitoring units communicating with the BMS con-
troller unit. This BMS controller unit compiles the information received from dif-
ferent BMS monitoring units and relays this information to other ECUs in the
vehicle. The BMS controller unit ensures that appropriate decisions are taken
during fault conditions. It does it by controlling the switches in PDUs.
Cell balancing is done in combination of BMS monitoring unit and BMS
monitoring unit. The BMS monitoring unit senses all the information and com-
municates to the BMS controller unit. Based on information and type of algorithm
implemented, the BMS controller unit identifies the channel needs to be balanced
and communicates back this information to BMS monitoring unit. The BMS
monitoring unit ensures the specific channels to be balanced and the defined rates.
PDU is outside battery packs. It consists of switches to engage or disengage the
battery packs from the load. In some architecture these switches could be specific
to modules (Figure 7.11).
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 159

7.4.3 Factors influencing choice of architecture

There are various factors influencing the choice of the BMS architecture.

7.4.3.1 Vehicle type

Vehicle Categories Low Voltage system High Voltage system

Architectures Micro LEVs Passenger Heavy

mobility (2W/3W) Vehicles Commercial
vehicles
Centralized
Distributed

7.4.3.2 Scalability
Distributed architecture is preferred when a high level of scalability is required.
When battery modules are added or reduced to increase or decrease the battery
voltage respectively, with distributed architecture it becomes convenient to add
further BMS monitoring units.
7.4.3.3 Fault tolerance
Distributed architecture provides fault tolerance due to multiple BMS monitoring
units being distributed throughout the battery system. The faulty battery module
can be easily isolated and replaced without impacting the entire system.
7.4.3.4 Communication requirements
In a distributed architecture, all BMS monitoring units need to have a reliable
communication channel to exchange the data. This is more complicated than in
centralized architecture where there is a single point of communication.
7.4.3.5 Cost considerations
Cost considerations are often dependent on the application. However, in general,
the distributed BMS is costlier as it has more hardware components, complex
communication infrastructure and software modules.

7.4.3.6 Performance requirements

Distributed architecture has distributed and parallel computation, so it has a faster
response compared to centralized architecture where all processing happens centrally.

7.5 BMS functionalities

There are various functionalities of the BMS.

7.5.1 Protections
BMS needs to ensure the protection of the battery and the vehicle user during fault
conditions. Types of protection are as given below. All protections are governed by
the following conditions.
160 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

● Set conditions: This defines the conditions at which the fault needs to be set.
● Reset conditions: This defines the conditions at which the fault needs to be reset.
● Detection delay: This is over all time delay required to detect and set the fault.
All these parameters need to be defined considering the battery boundary condition
and vehicle performance requirements.
7.5.1.1 Over and under voltage protection (cell and pack level)
BMS should disconnect the battery pack from load if the cell/pack voltage exceeds
or is below the operating range.
7.5.1.2 Over charging and discharging current protection
BMS should disconnect the battery pack if the charging/discharging current
exceeds the operating range.
7.5.1.3 Over and under temperature protection during
charging/discharging
BMS should disconnect the battery pack if the temperature during charging/dis-
charging exceeds or is below the operating range.
7.5.1.4 Over on-board temperature protection
BMS should disconnect the battery pack if the temperature of BMS circuit boards
exceeds the operating range.

7.5.1.5 Pre-charge protection

BMS should protect the battery and load from inrush pre-charge currents.

7.5.1.6 Short circuit protection

BMS should protect the battery from short circuits.

7.5.1.7 Reverse polarity protection

BMS should protect the battery from any reverse polarity connections.

7.5.1.8 Isolation protection

In high-voltage systems, BMS needs to ensure the isolation between high-voltage
battery and vehicle chassis.

7.5.1.9 Fault management

As per regulatory requirements (e.g., Indian regulation AIS 156) for any protection
violations, BMS needs to record the fault conditions in non-volatile memory. Fault
setting and resetting conditions need to be defined based on battery parameters and
vehicle performance expectations. In some BMS solution before faults, additional
conditions regarding alarms are also defined.

7.5.2 Cell balancing

BMS needs to ensure all their cells are balanced to the same voltages. This helps in
the efficient charging and discharging of the battery. If cell balancing is absent, the
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 161

life of the battery would be defined by the weakest cell among the modules.
Figure 7.12 shows the basic concept of cell balancing. BMS ensures the balancing
by following approaches.

7.5.2.1 Passive cell balancing

In this method, BMS identifies the weakest cell (cell with the lowest voltage) and
dissipates the other cells to bring it to the same voltage level. Sometimes this
method is also called dissipative balancing as it dissipates the energy.
As shown in Figure 7.13, the bleeder resistor (R1 . . . R4) is used along with a
switch (Q1/Q2) to control the balancing. The specification of the bleeder resistor is
determined by the balancing current requirement.
Typical balancing current in automotive applications range from 50 to
300 mA.
Balancing current specification has a tradeoff. The higher the current, the
faster would be balancing and the better would be efficiency of charging and dis-
charging. However, the higher the current, the more heat is generated and requires
thermal management.
Passive balancing currents dissipates the heat and, hence, are inefficient and
reduces the range of the vehicle. However, due to simplicity and cost benefits, this
method is mostly used in the applications.

After
Cell
using for
balancing
sometime

Figure 7.12 Basic concept of cell balancing

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

R1 R2 R3 R4

Cell1 Cell2 Cell3 Cell4

Figure 7.13 Passive cell balancing

162 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Q2 Q3 SSR5

Cell1
SSR4
Cell2

SSR3

Cell3

Q1 SSR2
Q4 Q5 Cell4

SSR1

Figure 7.14 Active cell balancing

7.5.2.2 Active cell balancing

In this method, instead of dissipating the charge via the resistor, it is transferred to
the other cells in the pack. With this approach the wastage of charge is reduced.
However, the transfer of charge requires complex and bulky power electronics to be
connected between each cell. Figure 7.14 shows active balancing and it uses
bidirectional flyback converter between cells to transfer charge.

7.5.3 Battery-inferred parameter estimation

BMS needs to implement an algorithm for the estimation of SoC, SoH, SoP and
SoE [11]. Correct estimation of these parameters and timely communication to
BMS algorithm shall result in an effective protection of the battery from any
malfunction.

7.6 BMS hardware

7.6.1 BMS hardware architecture
Typical BMS HW architecture shown in Figure 7.15 consists of the following main
blocks: analog front end (voltage and temperature sensing, signal conditioning unit,
and cell balancing unit), protection, power distribution, and monitoring unit
(PDMU), communication unit, and power supply section.

7.6.1.1 Power supply section

The power supply section is responsible for providing power to control and the
sensing circuits. It plays a crucial role in ensuring the safe and optimal operation of
BMS components. The section comes with a protection mechanism that includes
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 163

Battery
12V positive
Power supply section
Battery Transient 5V
positive and 12V buck
reverse
Battery current converter
negative protection
3.3V
3.3V
Battery
positive External ROM

Communication
Battery Analog Front End Microcontroller
pack Temperature sensing

Battery Pack voltage sensing

negative
5V
PDU section
Current main & precharge switch Battery
sensing switch monitoring negative

Figure 7.15 BMS hardware architecture

overcurrent, UVLO (under voltage lock out), and the transient and reverse polarity
protection. The battery voltage is stepped down to various low voltage levels based
on the requirement of the different components (e.g., CAN controller, micro-con-
trollers). For high voltage BMS, a galvanic isolation is incorporated to separate the
low-voltage electronics from the high-voltage battery pack.

7.6.1.2 Analog front end (AFE)

The most crucial component in any BMS is the AFE that is controlled by a micro-
controller via a serial communication interface. It is responsible for the cell voltage
and temperature sensing, and cell balancing. It also senses out of range conditions for
cell voltage and temperature. The AFE is provided by many semiconductor compa-
nies (like Texas Instruments, Analog Devices, Infinion) and supports multiple cell
voltage channels in the battery pack. The cell voltage measurement has redundant
architecture with two ADCs (main and auxiliary) to measure the cell voltages. The
battery pack temperature measurement is done through the analog input channels.
AFE consists of multiple comparators with programmable thresholds. These
comparators are used to detect out of range conditions for cell voltages and pack
temperatures.
For cell balancing, AFE has channels controlled by internal balancing
switches. In the case of high-end AFEs, these channels are separated from sensing
channel while for low-end AFEs, they are multiplexed with sensing channel. AFE
is a slave device controlled by microcontroller.
A case study of the ASIC BQ79716 is shown for the understanding of AFE as
shown in Figure 7.16, where the number of channels are 16 and for a greater
number of channels two AFEs are used and connected through a daisy chain
communicating with the master AFE BQ79600 and to the micro-controller. The
specifications of BQ-79716 are summarized in Table 7.3.
 Battery
modules
12V

Balance and filter Balance and filter

components components

To CAN
bus

Isolation
components

Capacitive level-
shifted
Optional ring differential
connections interface
Optional ring
connections

Figure 7.16 BMS AFE hardware architecture for case study

 Battery management system for electric vehicle 165

Table 7.3 Specifications of BQ-79716

Description Supports from 6S to 16S battery modules

AEC-Q100 standard Qualified
ASIL D
ADC accuracy 1.5 mV
ADC resolution Main 16 bits
Aux 14 bits
Cell balancing Supports internal cell balancing with a balancing current of
240 mA
Communication UART/SPI
ADC conversion time 8 ms for single channel (8 * no. of channel) in round robin
manner

Battery Battery
cut-off
Vdc Idc switch
positive

Gate
Cell monitoring unit

Voltage
current driver
Battery sensing
pack Battery
monitoring
Comm
and control
(BMC)

Battery
negative

Figure 7.17 Battery cutoff switch placed on the positive terminal of battery (high
side cutoff)

7.6.1.3 Power distribution unit

It consists of three subunits, a battery cut-off switch, a pre-charge circuit, and a
switch monitoring unit.
Battery cut-off (main) switch
It is also called the power delivery unit. It engages or disengages the battery to the
load and charger. Based on the voltage levels of application and size constraints
either solid-state switches like MOSFETs or electromechanical switches like con-
tactors are used for the purpose. Figures 7.17 and 7.18 show battery pack with high
side cut-off and low side cut-off, respectively.
In the case of MOSFETs, conduction losses are kept in consideration for
selection. Response time and life of the MOSFETs are better than contactors. On
166 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Battery
positive
Battery
monitoring

Cell monitoring unit

and control Comm
(BMC)

Battery Voltage/
pack current Gate
sensing driver

Battery
cut-off
switch
Vdc Idc Battery
negative

Figure 7.18 Battery cutoff switch placed on negative terminal of the battery (low
side cutoff)

the other side, contactors are better in terms of thermal performance and replace-
ment requirements. MOSFETs are generally used for low-power applications.
In a few architectures, charging and discharging paths for the battery are
separate and, hence, in this case, additional switches are required to be placed and
controlled in the other path.
Based on architecture considerations, these switches are placed either on the
positive terminal or the negative terminal of the battery. In some cases, it is placed
at both ends to ensure redundancy. As per AIS 156 standard, the additional fuse is
added to make entire protection mechanism fail safe.
The major benefit of MOSFETs at the positive battery terminal is that there is
no bypass of the ground or there is no hanging ground, but the drawback is the
bootstrap, or the charge pump circuitry is required to drive the MOSFETs.
Pre-charge circuit
When initially connecting a battery to a load with capacitive input, there is an
inrush of current as the load capacitance is charged up to the battery voltage. With
large batteries (with a low source resistance) and powerful loads (with large
capacitors across the input), the inrush current can easily peak 1,000 A. A pre-
charge circuit limits that inrush current, without limiting the operating current.
The pre-charge circuit consists at the minimum of:
● A pre-charge resistor, to limit the inrush current (R1)
● A contactor (high power relay) across the pre-charge resistor (R1) to bypass
the resistor during normal operation.
Additionally, the pre-charge circuit may have:
● A pre-charge relay (K1), to keep the load from being powered through the pre-
charge resistor when the system is off.
● A contactor (MOSFET or electromechanical relay) in line with the other end of
the battery (K3) to isolate the load when the system is off.
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 167

In the typical pre-charge circuit as shown in Figure 7.19, the pre-charge

resistor is on the positive terminal of the battery, though it could just as easily be on
the negative terminal. Typical charging time and its representation in terms of
voltage and current are shown in Figure 7.20.

Figure 7.19 Battery pre-charge circuit

Figure 7.20 Pre-charging sequence

168 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

R1 is the pre-charge resistor.

K1 is the pre-charge contactor at the positive terminal.
K2 is the normal contactor.
K3 is the Pre-charge contactor at the negative terminal.
In the most basic form, the pre-charge circuit is operated as follows:
● Off: When the system is off, all relays/contactors are off.
● Pre-charge: When the system is first turned on, K1 and K3 are turned on, to
pre-charge the load, until the inrush current has subsided. This can be either
done time based (preconfigured switch on time) or the voltage feedback
(capacitance voltage can be measured) to decide the end of pre-charge.
● On: After pre-charge, contactor K2 is turned on (relay K1 may be turned off to
save coil power).
The decision to stop precharging and move to ON state is done either in open
loop: time-based strategy or closed loop: voltage feedback strategy.

Time-based strategy
In this approach, the load voltage is not actively monitored assuming that the bat-
tery and capacitors of load will reach the suitable pre-charge level within the spe-
cified time. It is also essential to note that an open-loop, time-based strategy may
not be as precise or adaptive as closed-loop strategies that actively monitor the load
voltage. Considering the battery voltage and the pre-charge current which is cal-
culated based on the desired pre-charge time. As it is timer-based control, the pre-
charging is turned off after the pre-determined pre-charge time.
Sample calculation of the pre-charge resistor and current for 48 V battery pack to
charge a load to 98% of the battery voltage in 2 ms. The load capacitance is 5 mF.
Battery voltage = 48 V
Pre-charge time = 2 ms
Load capacitance = 50 mF
Time required to charge the load to 98% = 4RC
where R is the pre-charge resistor and C is the load capacitance:

2  103 ¼ 4  R  50  106
4  50  106
R¼
2  103
R = 10 W
Initial pre-charge current = VR
48
¼ ¼ 4:8 A
10
Closed loop – voltage feedback strategy
In voltage feedback strategy, the load voltage is monitored and given as feedback to
BMS controller. When the load voltage reaches to the battery voltage, the con-
troller switches off the pre-charge contactor and switches on the main contactor to
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 169

engage the load. In some cases, this feedback is also used to control the current
using a current controller circuit instead of a constant precharge resistance.
Switch monitoring unit
To ensure that switches (MOSFETs or contactors) are operating well, additional
circuitry which includes voltage sensing is used to conduct the diagnostic tests.
This becomes very relevant and critical as the operations of this switch are very
important specially during fault conditions.

7.6.1.4 Pack voltage sensing and current sensing

Pack voltage sensing is used to monitor the entire pack voltage. It can alternatively
be done via summing up individual cell voltages; however, as redundancy and
efficient pre-charging, it is recommended to add this circuit.
Current sensing is realized via shunt or hall.
In some architectures, due to precision requirements, multiple shunts are used
to measure the currents in different ranges.

7.6.1.5 Onboard temperature sensing

BMS has a lot of heat-generating components like pre-charge resistors, cell bal-
ancing resistors, and MOSFETs. It is important to monitor the onboard temperature
to ensure that BMS does not heat up above design considerations. Additionally, this
heating should not impact battery temperature. Hence it is recommended to add
onboard temperature sensing and take appropriate actions if temperatures cross the
threshold limits.

7.6.1.6 Short-circuit protection

Usually, all the protections are provided with SW intelligence; however, for short-
circuit protection to ensure response times within microseconds, an additional cir-
cuit is added to protect the battery from short circuit. A low side shunt current
sensing is used as a protective measure. The Op-Amps used are chosen with high a
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) so that the small differential voltage across
the shunt element is sensed. The digital IOs to the microcontroller have pull-up or
pull-down circuitry if the logic is of active low and active high, respectively. The
microcontroller pin inputs are clamped to 5 V by using Zener diodes to protect the
pins against the short to battery voltages.

7.6.1.7 Micro controller

All the intelligence lies in this section of the BMS HW. The microcontroller of the
BMS can be programmed with all the features and protection and estimation of
battery internal states is ensured.
The selection of micro controller can be on the following aspects.
● BMS functional safety – ASIL level
● Algorithms memory and computation requirements
● Communication requirements
● Input and output pin requirements
170 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

● Sleep current requirements

● Cost
● Memory size

7.6.1.8 Communications
BMS communicates all its state information and safety information to multiple
controllers that are inside the vehicle network. CAN being standard communication
in automotive, BMS needs to support this protocol.
An isolated or non-isolated CAN section is used for the data transfer from the
BMS to the external ECUs. The CAN transceivers used are selected for maximum
battery voltage such that the CANH and CANL pins do not get affected due to the
high-voltage stress. Additional back-to-back diode protections are given to the
transmitter and receptor pins.

7.6.2 HW design considerations BMS performance

parameters
To ensure optimal performance and safety of the batteries, BMS is designed to
monitor and control its operation. Some key performance parameters are typically
considered when evaluating the effectiveness of the BMS which includes SoC,
SoH, cell voltage monitoring, current monitoring, temperature monitoring,
and more.

7.6.2.1 Leakage currents

The term leakage current refers to the small amount of the current that flows
through the BMS when the battery is not in use or during the standby period. The
consideration of leakage current is essential in the BMS design because it can lead
to battery drainage if left unattended. There are various factors that are responsible
for the leakage currents which include circuitry imperfections, component toler-
ances, parasitic capacitance, or residual charges.

7.6.2.2 Accuracies of measurement

For monitoring the battery and managing its performance accurately, the mea-
surement of the physical parameters which includes the cell voltage, temperature,
and battery pack current should also be done with high accuracy. Thus, it starts with
the sensors used for measurements, their offset values, and ruggedness. These
values play a major role in the estimation of the other parameters like SoC, SoH,
and SoP of the batteries.

7.6.2.3 Thermal performance

The heat-dissipating components in the BMS include the MOSFET switches, the
balancing resistor, shunt element (for current sensing), and a considerable amount
of the heat generated from the power supply section also. The heat generated from
these components has to be handled and dissipated wisely otherwise the overall
battery ambient temperature may increase. Thus, MOSFETs selection is made
considering the temperature rise during the operation because of the huge current
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 171

flow. MOSFETs with top-side cooling are chosen as they have the superior thermal
performance than the normal FETs.

7.6.2.4 Response times

The response time defines the time taken for the cut-off switches to readily act for
any fault and disconnect the battery pack during charging and discharging condi-
tions. The more critical of all faults is the short-circuit fault that requires the cut-off
switches to disconnect in micro-seconds. The entire response time includes the
response time of the current sensing circuitry, over-current protection circuit, the
gate driver circuits and the turn-off time of the MOSFETs. Apart from the short
circuit protection, all other faults are handled by the software which has pre-defined
time to set and reset the faults and trigger the battery switches accordingly.

7.6.3 BMS software

Figure 7.21 shows typical software architecture for BMS applications.

7.6.3.1 BMS SW architecture

BMS SW architecture consists of two sections:
1. Application software: It includes software implementation of the functions
of BMS.
2. Base software: This contains driver configuration and handler implementations
accessed by the applications. Usually, this is made according to standard
AUTOSAR implementations. In a few cases, this can be customized to
vehicle needs

BMS state manager

The BMS has different types of states and the power consumption in each state
differs. The common states in the BMS are normal, sleep and fault. In the normal

BMS state Protection

manager algorithm
State elimination
algorithms
CAN network
Cell balancing
update

Base software

Figure 7.21 Typical software architecture for BMS

172 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Figure 7.22 BMS states

state, the BMS can be in charge, discharge, or standby mode. To conserve power,
the BMS enters to sleep state which can be based on a timer mechanism. There
should also be some wakeup mechanism to bring the BMS back to normal opera-
tion. These wakeup mechanisms include a wakeup from user via Ignition switch or
CAN wakeup from other ECUs of the vehicle. There are also some functionalities
being carried out in the sleep mode considering the safety critical compliances.
Thus, sleep mode reduces the power consumption of the battery in turn saving the
energy in the battery. Another common state in BMS is fault state. Here, BMS
enters based on the faults detected. BMS comes out from this state back to normal
either by user intervention or via intelligent strategies to reset the fault. Considering
safety criticality, many vehicles prefer to reset the fault via user intervention.
Figure 7.22 shows a typical software architecture for BMS.
Whenever BMS transits towards normal state either from fault or from sleep, it
is important to go through a pre-charge phase. As the load capacitances that are
going to be connected during normal state, it can demand lot of inrush currents.
Protection algorithms
This application layer incorporates all the checks of battery operating conditions.
Any fault detected would lead the BMS to enter the fault state. Recovery from the
fault is also based on BMS reset or release conditions.
Cell balancing
BMS balances the series-connected cells to maintain same level of charge. This function
is usually done during charging. In some cases, it is also allowed during standby.
State estimation algorithms
This SW application is responsible for estimating all the battery’s internal states
including SoC and SoH [12].
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 173

CAN network update

BMS updates all the information over CAN to communicate wit the other
controllers.

7.6.3.2 BMS algorithms

State estimation algorithms
SoC and SoH are two most important battery states that need to be monitored by
BMS and shared with other systems in the EV [12]. This information is then used
for updating driver with battery conditions, Motor controllers and charger con-
trollers (Figure 7.23).
SoC and SoH
SoC – state of charge is ratio of remaining capacity to actual capacity of the battery.
SoH – it measures the capacity degradation or Internal resistance increase due
to battery ageing.
(a) Look up table method for SoC
In this method, SoC versus open circuit voltage (OCV) characteristic is obtained
from offline measurements using the battery. This characteristic is then used by
BMS as a look-up table to infer SoC from the OCV measurements.
Figure 7.24 shows battery OCV versus SoC for a lithium-ion polymer battery
(LiPB). Thus we can infer battery SoC by looking-up at the table between OCV and
SoC. This is the most commonly used method in BMS.
It can be efficiently used for correcting offset and providing initial value in
other SoC estimation techniques like Coulomb counting and model based estima-
tion. However, it is hard to measure the precise OCV in real-time. This type of SoC
estimation method is more suitable for being applied to the laboratory environment.
(b) Coulomb counting method for SoC
Figure 7.25 presents the Coulomb counting method for SoC estimation. In this SoC
estimation technique, electric charge passing through the battery (during charging
and discharging) is measured.

SOC/SOH algorithms

Direct measurement Model based estimation Data drive approaches

Columb Equation Equivalent AI/ML

OCV based
counting based circuit algorithms
estimation
methods
Lookup Electro
table chemical
methods modelling

Figure 7.23 Battery algorithm strategies

174 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

3.9

3.8
OCV (V)

3.7

3.6

3.5

3.4
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
SoC (%)

Figure 7.24 OCV versus SoC for a lithium-ion polymer battery

Figure 7.25 Coulomb counting methods to obtain SoC of the battery

deltaT  ik
zk ¼ zk1 
Q
zk is the SoC of the cell at the kth instant; Q is the discharge capacity of cell; ik
input current; and deltaT is the sampling time.
Although this is a simple estimation method, it has certain limitations.
The initial state of SoC is unknown and hence the estimations could be wrong.
The current sensor noises can lead to integration errors.
Battery degradation over time due to factors like aging, temperature, etc. are
not factored in this methodology and would lead to error in estimation.
(c) Empirical model (data driven) for SoH

This approach utilizes ageing data collected from battery/cell under different pre-
defined operating conditions. This data is used to develop look-up tables to
specify the capacity degradation and IR increase over specific intervals of cycles.
However, this approach is very basic and can go wrong as the actual cyclic and
calendric ageing of batteries on the vehicle is different from the operating con-
ditions at which data is collected. This approach is further optimized to incor-
porate the operating conditions to be as close as the actual vehicle conditions
(e.g., operating conditions are defined by driving cycles).
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 175

This data can also used in development of AI based and machine learning
approaches to formulate the ageing effect. This approach required huge amount
of data beforehand for learning and testing purposes. Accuracies of these
models highly depend on the training data. Additionally, the learning process
can be reinforced to adapt the unexpected changes.
Coulomb counting in combination with OCV-based compensation (for initial
SoC information and minimize the integration errors) is the most used SoC
algorithms for NMC batteries. Additionally, the look-up table approach to
define the capacity degradation is used to estimate SoH parameter. The capa-
city fade information from SoH is used to calibrate the actual capacity of the
battery. This incorporates the ageing effect in SoC estimation as well.
(d) Model-based estimation using Kalman filter for SoC and SoH
Figure 7.26 presents a state-of-the-art method based on Kalman filter for SoC and
SoH estimation. In this method, the dynamic battery model is developed to emulate
the battery under different operating conditions. It takes into consideration of dif-
ferent battery-related parameters like current, temperature, voltage, ageing, self-
discharge rates, etc. to describe time-based estimation of SoC/SoH. This estimated
SoC/SoH is dynamically corrected using the Kalman filter [9].
Battery models change as per the battery chemistry. There are three most
widely used techniques for battery model development: equation-based modeling,
electrochemical model (EM), and equivalent circuit model (ECM). In the model-
based SoC/SoH estimation methods, battery models are expressed as state
equations.
Kalman filter acts as a state observer for SoC/SoH. There are several other
possible nonlinear state estimation algorithms and adaptive filters that can be
employed to estimate SoC/SoH. The typical algorithms are Luenberger observer, PI
(proportion integration) observer, H? observer, and sliding-mode observer.

Current, Measured
temperature Battery voltage
Battery
collection

Kalman filters +
SoC Luenberger/PI/H Error
Initial
estimation observer
value
Sliding mode observer –

Battery model State-space equations

Estimated
voltage

Figure 7.26 State of art methods to obtain SoC/SoH of the battery

176 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

7.6.3.3 Battery modeling techniques

Lithium ion battery is a non-linear system that is a combination of electrical and
chemical phenomenon. The aim of modeling the battery is to replicate the battery
behavior as close to the real state in the software environment. This model then can
be used in the development of closed-loop algorithms for battery-state estimation
(SoC and SoH) and also for BMS SW validation. Battery is a safety critical system,
performing all testing activities using the real battery is not always possible. In such
scenarios, the battery model can be safely used.
Battery as a model consists of the following subsystem models:
1. Electrical model
2. Thermal model
3. Chemical model (only in electro chemical modeling approaches)
4. Ageing model
Each of these sub-systems (battery behaviors) can be modeled using any of the
following techniques:
1. Equation-based model
2. Equivalent circuit modeling (nRC models)
3. Electrochemical modeling
4. Data-driven modeling using ML
Figure 7.27 shows a comparison of different battery models with respect to
CPU time and predictability. Also, a typical battery model architecture is repre-
sented in Figure 7.28.
Equation-based modeling
The equation-based approach uses polynomial equations to estimate the electrical,
ageing, and thermal behavior of the cell [13]. These equations are obtained using

Figure 7.27 Comparison of different battery models with respect to CPU time and
predictability
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 177

Figure 7.28 Typical battery model architecture

data collected from multiple characterization tests on the cells. These tests include
the following:
1. Hybrid pulse power characterization test (HPPC test): The output is the func-
tion of the open circuit voltage and cell capacity.
2. Capacity tests: The output is the overall capacity of the cell.
Equivalent circuit modeling
Here, the cell characteristics are represented via resistance capacitance-lumped
circuits. The similar tests are used to obtain the RC coefficients for the lumped
circuits. The RC circuits can represent the dynamic behavior (transients) of the
battery. This is a “state-of-the-art” modeling technique that used batteries in the
automotive applications.
Electro chemical modeling
The electrochemical modeling approach uses cell chemical information to model
the battery behavior. This approach is cross-functional development of the cell
chemical phenomenon’s leading to the electrical outputs. Additional inputs include
the chemical information of the cell.
For example, anode characteristics, cathode characteristics, and electrolyte
characteristics.
This approach is governed by defined sets of assumptions on the cell.
Accordingly, they are classified into the following:
1. Single particle models (SPMs)
2. P2D models (porous electrode) models
As we add more details, the complexity of these models increases.
Machine learning approaches
Machine learning (ML)-based approaches work on data and develop
suitable models against it. This approach requires the cell life data and expected
output characteristics. These characteristics are modeled using ML approaches and
integrated to give desired output parameters. The accuracies of these models highly
depend on the training data. Additionally, the learning process can be reinforced to
adapt the unexpected changes.
178 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

7.6.3.4 BMS algorithm validation

Algorithms need to be validated for their functionality and accuracy. SoC and SoH
have a direct impact on the distance to empty estimations. Any deviations in the
estimations would lead to misinformation to the end user.
Since SoC and SoH are only estimated parameters, there is no direct mea-
surement possible. This makes the validation a complex process. A standard vali-
dation strategy for these algorithms, for the automotive application, is not yet
available. As of now, algorithms are proven under a set of defined operating con-
ditions based on the application needs and regulatory considerations.
Typical operating conditions for a 48 V BMS using NMC batteries for 2 W
application in Indian conditions are summarized in Table 7.4.
The most commonly used test setup for BMS includes a battery cycler and a
climate/temperature test chamber. Battery cycler has three main functionalities:
Measurement unit: It is a high precision measurement unit to measure tem-
perature, voltage, and currents of all cells and overall battery pack. Besides this it
also includes estimating functions for other parameters like internal resistance,
capacity, SoC, SoH, etc.
Programmable load: It consists of a load that can be programmed as per
required dynamic or static current profiles.
Data logger: It records all the test results and observations. A typical cell cycler
specification is given in Table 7.5.

Table 7.4 Typical operating conditions for a 48 V BMS

Parameters Values
Operating temperatures 20 C–70 C
Discharge rates 0.2 C, 0.5 C, and 1 C
Charge rates 0.2 C, 0.5 C, and 1 C
Operating cell voltage range 3.0–4.2 V
Operating pack voltage 39–54.6 V
Dynamic profiles Indian drive cycle (maximum current 1 C)

Table 7.5 Typical battery cycler specification

Parameters Values
No. of channels 8
Voltage range 0–100 V
Maximum continuous current per channel 100 A
Accuracy voltage measurement 0.01% Full-scale range
Accuracy current measurement 0.02% Full-scale range
Data acquisition rate 10 ms
Profile configuration Supported
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 179

The climate test chamber provides controlled environmental conditions like

temperature, humidity, pressure, etc., while the temperature test chamber provides
only a controlled temperature environment. Cells or battery pack to be used for
BMS validation is kept inside the climate/temperature test chamber for simulating
different test conditions.

7.7 Future trends in BMS

BMS plays a very important role in BEVs. Lot of innovations and research are
happening in this domain in both industry and academics. New architectures are
coming into the vehicles to support additional features like battery swapping,
increased redundancy and fault tolerance, reduce wiring complexity, provide
cybersecurity, Over-the-air (OTA) updates, support for Artificial Intelligence/ML,
switchable architecture (400–800 V for charging), etc.

7.7.1 Wireless BMS

In wireless BMS, each individual cell is wirelessly connected with other cells via
wireless communication technology like Bluetooth, ZigBee, Wi-Fi or any other
proprietary protocols. This reduces the weight of battery pack, enhances flexibility,
increases safety, and makes battery-pack maintenance easy.

7.7.2 Cloud-connected BMS

In cloud-connected architecture, GPRS connectivity is provided to BMS. This enables
direct connectivity to Internet and BMS data can be uploaded in the cloud. BMS can
then make use of cloud-computing capabilities to perform data analytics and execute
advanced battery algorithms which otherwise are difficult to run on the embedded
system. It also allows OTA software updates and easy monitoring of the BMS.

7.7.3 Switchable architecture

This architecture allows manual or automatic switching of battery configurations
based on different operating conditions. In this architecture, multiple battery packs
or modules are configured to achieve specific performance objectives like, for
example, different driving modes. Although this provides greater control and
adaptability over battery system, ensuring safety of operations becomes critical.

7.7.4 Battery swapping

Battery swapping refers to a mechanism that allows the exchange of discharged
batteries with the charged batteries in a vehicle [14]. This de-links the vehicle and
battery thereby providing several advantages over the normal charging mechanism.
In this case, Internet of things-based BMS is required and it needs to be an
integral part of the battery pack. It needs to support remote monitoring and
immobilization capabilities and several other control features to ensure safety,
adaptability with different vehicle systems and misuse of the battery pack.
180 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

7.8 Summary
The chapter aims to present various aspects of BMS required for a typical electric
vehicle. The industrial perspective with prevailing architecture and algorithms has
been presented for the understanding of the readers. The graphical and pictorial
representations of the available industrial systems are also included to give the
reader a feel of real-time systems. The future trends has also been included to
encourage the coming development and the research in the prospective areas.

Symbols
V voltage
I current
Cremaining available capacity that can be extracted from battery at time t
Ca actual capacity
Cr rated capacity
Ra actual internal resistances
Rr rated internal resistances
P max ðtÞ peak power
P nominal ðtÞ nominal power
EN nominal energy amount
pðtÞ power
t time
R1/R2 bleeder resistor
Q1/Q2 switch
K1 pre-charge contactor at positive terminal
K2 normal contactor
K3 pre-charge contactor at negative terminal
C load capacitance
R pre-charge resistor
zk SoC of cell at kth instant
Q discharge capacity of cell
ik input current
deltaT sampling time

Glossary
AFE analog front end
Ah/Wh Ampere-hours (Ah)/Watt-hours (Wh)
 Battery management system for electric vehicle 181

AIS Automotive Industry Standard

AUTOSAR automotive open system architecture
BEV battery electric vehicle
BMS battery management system
CAN controller area network
DEC diethyl carbonate
DMC dimethyl carbonate
DoD depth of discharge
DTE distance to empty
EC ethylene carbonate
EFC equivalent full cycle
EM electrochemical model
EMC ethyl methyl carbonate
ECM equivalent circuit model
EIM electrochemical impedance model
IBS intelligent battery sensor
ICE internal combustion engine
LEV light electric vehicle
LFP lithium iron phosphate
MOSFET metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor
NiMH nickel–metal hydride battery
NMC nickel manganese cobalt
NTC negative temperature coefficient
OEMs original equipment manufactures
PCM parallel-cell-module
PDMU protection, power distribution, and monitoring unit
PDU power distribution unit
SCM series-cell-module
SoC state of charge
SoH state of health
SoP state of power
OCV open circuit voltage
UVLO under voltage lockout

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 Chapter 8
Fault–tolerant operation of electric vehicles
Paramjeet Singh Jamwal1, Vinay Kumar2 and
Sanjeev Singh3

This chapter discusses various probable faults of power electronic switches in an

electric vehicle and preferable solutions for a fault–tolerant operation of electric
vehicles.

8.1 Introduction
In presently available electric vehicles (EVs), a high number of power electronic
components and their drivers are being used in the motor control unit (MCU) and
DC–DC converters. It increases the probability of faults in power electronic com-
ponents and their drivers.
Any unexpected variation in the switching device parameters (specifically
voltage and current through it), from its desired specification is defined as a “fault.”
Further, the fault may be categorized as a malfunction of an individual device or the
complete system.
The faults in the devices used in power electronic converters (PEC) decrease
its reliability, lower its efficiency, increase its production losses, increase user
hazards, and increase its repair costs. Therefore, several techniques are reported for
fault detection, diagnosis, and restoration in PEC [1–4]. In an induction motor (IM)
drive system, 38% fault occurs in the PEC. Among these faults, 34% of faults are
occurring in the power semiconductor devices. The occurrence of faults in PEC and
their devices arises the need to make it fault-tolerant (FT) [5].
The primary reason for failure in PEC is an open-circuit (OC) fault in the
switches used in it [6]. The probability of the OC fault increases with the increase
in the number of switches. The other reason for failure in PEC is a short-circuit
(SC) fault which leads to the flow of current in the absence of a gating signal. This
SC fault leads to blowing the switch due to excessive current and overheating of the
junction. Therefore, the switch becomes open and shown as the OC fault later.

1
Department of Electrical Engineering, NIT Hamirpur, India
2
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, GLBITM Greater Noida, India
3
Department of Electrical Engineering, MANIT Bhopal, India
184 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Status detection of each Identification of Identification of

switch of each phase faulty switch faulty phase

Activation of Isolation of
additional phase faulty phase

Figure 8.1 Flow chart of fault–tolerant operation

A cascaded H-bridge (CHB) three-level (3L) voltage source converter (VSC) is the
first category of CHB multi-level (ML) VSC. There are four most common FT tech-
niques based on switch level, leg level, module level, or system level by which a CHB-
ML VSC can be made fault–tolerant [7]. As there is modularity in the structure of
CHBML VSC, therefore, FT technique based on module level is mostly preferred.
The fault–tolerant operation of VSC consists of five steps, i.e., status detection
of each switch of each phase, identification of faulty switch, identification of faulty
phase, isolation of faulty phase, and activation of additional phase. A flow chart of
fault–tolerant operation is shown in Figure 8.1.
A technique for the detection of switch status based on phase-voltage error,
load current, and gating signal is reported in [8,9]. In this detection technique, a
faulty gating signal was considered to create the OC fault. This detection technique
took one switching period to detect the fault in two switches of H-bridge while it
took around five switching cycles to detect the fault in another two switches. A
technique for the detection of switch status based on the half-cycle mean voltage
(HCMV) is reported in [10]. This detection technique takes around a half-cycle of
output voltage to detect the OC fault. In this chapter, a technique for the detection
of switch status is described which took one sample or first gating signal of that
switch to detect the fault (OC or SC).

8.2 Types of faults in a VSC and their detection

The voltage source converters (VSCs) can have two types of faults, categorized as
hard faults and soft faults. These faults can be further classified as shown in
Figure 8.2. Any physical damage to the device is designated as hard fault, such as
switch faults, diode faults, gate driver faults, and DC link capacitor faults. The
misfiring of switches and errors in the control algorithm are considered as soft
faults. The hard faults lead to maloperation or a complete halt of the system,
whereas with soft faults, the system continues to operate with altered behavior. The
most common types of hard faults in switches and diodes of VSCs are OC and SC
faults, known as open switch and short switch faults also.

8.2.1 OC fault in VSC

The OC fault may occur in any switch, either MOSFET or IGBT, of a VSC, due to
many reasons such as lifting of soldering track or excessive heat across the junction
due to overloading or SC fault across the switch or physical damage of the switch.
 Fault–tolerant operation of electric vehicles 185

Voltage source
converter
faults

Hard Soft
faults faults

DC-link Input Load Gate Misfiring Error in

Transistor Diode Leg
capacitor supply terminal driver of control
faults faults faults
faults faults faults faults switches algorithm

Open Open Open Dielectric Open Open Discontinuous

circuit circuit leg breakdown circuit circuit gate signals

Short Short Short Short Short Short Continuous

circuit circuit leg circuit circuit circuit gate signals

Figure 8.2 Types of faults in a VSC

Table 8.1 The detection logic for OC fault in S1a switch of VSC

Switch condition Sensed signal Signal status OCF logic status

GS1ad vS1a iS1a SvS1a SiS1a SiS1a SOCF = GS1ad  SvS1a  SiS1a
Healthy 1 VSW Ia 0 1 0 0
0 Vdc 0 1 0 1 0
OC fault 1 Vdc 0 1 0 1 1
0 Vdc 0 1 0 1 0

One sample G S1ad

G S1a
delay

Voltage to SvS1a Sample and

vS1a AND SOCF-S1a
signal hold

Cur r ent to SiS1a SiS1a

iS1a
signal

Figure 8.3 Block diagram of OC fault detection scheme [14]

The OC fault can be characterized by rated voltage across the switch and zero
current through it when the gate signals are high (ON state). The detection logic of
OC fault in S1a switch is presented in Table 8.1 [11]. The logic operation for OC
fault in S1a switch is explained under ON condition of the switch as the gating
signal (GS1a) and the sensed switch voltage (vS1a) shall be high (rated value). As the
switch is open during OC fault, hence, the sensed switch current (iS1a) shall be low
(zero value). The schematic block diagram for the detection scheme of OC fault is
shown in Figure 8.3. This OC fault detection scheme begins with delaying the
gating signal by one sample (GS1ad). Thereafter, sensed switch voltage and current
186 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

are converted into switch voltage and current signal (SvS1a and SiS1a). While the
switch current signal is further inverted (SiS1a ) for the successful detection of
OC fault.

8.2.2 SC fault in VSC

The SC fault may occur in any switch, either MOSFET or IGBT, of a VSC, mostly
due to current overloading or SC across the switch. This fault results in excessive
heat generation across the junction leading to blowing the switch and finally open
circuits of the switch.
The SC fault can be characterized by zero or very low voltage across the
switch (usually equal to ON voltage drop) and high current through it when the gate
signals are low (OFF state). The detection logic of SC fault in S1a switch is pre-
sented in Table 8.2 [12]. The logic operation for SC fault in S1a switch is explained
under OFF condition of the switch as the gating signal (GS1a) shall be low (zero
value). As the switch is short during SC fault, hence, the switch current (iS1a) shall
be high (rated or more value). The block diagram of SC fault detection scheme is
shown in Figure 8.4. This SC fault detection scheme also begins with delaying the
gating signal by one sample (GS1ad). Thereafter, the delayed gating signal is further
inverted (GS1ad ) while the sensed switch current is converted into switch current
signal (SiS1a) for the successful detection of SC fault.

Table 8.2 The detection logic for SC fault in S1a switch of VSC

Switch condition Sensed signal Signal status SCF logic status

GS1ad iS1a GS1ad SiS1a SSCF = GS1ad  SiS1a

Healthy 1 Ia 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
SC Fault 1 Ia 0 1 0
0 Ia 1 1 1

One sample G S1ad G S1ad

G S1a
delay

Sample and
AND SSCF-S1a
hold

Current to SiS1a
iS1a
signal

Figure 8.4 Block diagram of SC fault detection scheme [12]

 Fault–tolerant operation of electric vehicles 187

8.3 Identification of faulty phase in VSCs

The detection logic results in the type of fault on any switch, individually, but the
switch and the respective phase must be identified by the logic to enable the fault
removal process. A cumulative logic to identify the switch status of the VSC is
presented in Table 8.3. The cumulative logic status results in “1” (high value) fault
status, under both the OC and SC faults. The respective phase of the faulty switch is
detected based on the logic status received for each switch in the phase from
Table 8.3, as shown in Figure 8.5. In a similar way, the status of other phases is
obtained.

Table 8.3 Cumulative detection logic for OC and SC faults in VSC switch

Switch condition Logic status Switch status

SOCF-S1a SSCF-S1a SS1a

OC fault 1 0 1
SC fault 0 1 1

SOCF-S1a
Identification SS1a
of switch
status
SSCF-S1a

SOCF-S2a
Identification SS2a
of switch
status
SSCF-S2a Identification
of phase Spa
status

SOCF-Sna
Identification SSna
of switch
status
SSCF-Sna

Figure 8.5 Schematic diagram of faulty phase identification scheme

188 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

8.4 Removal of fault in VSCs

A process in which the switches of the faulty phase are turned-off and switches of
an additional phase are turned-on is termed as VSC fault removal scheme. This
fault removal scheme consists of two steps as faulty phase switches isolation
(removal) and additional phase switches activation in the same phase.

8.4.1 Isolation of faulty phase switches of VSCs

The schematic diagram for the isolation of faulty phase switches is shown in
Figure 8.6. The logic is designed in such a way to turn-off all the switches of faulty
phase with gating signals (GS1ai-Snai). For this, the status of that phase (Sa) is com-
plemented with the NOT gate. After that, the complemented status of that phase is
multiplied by each gating signal (GS1a-Sna) of the switches of that phase. During
healthy condition, the status of that phase is “low” hence each signal of that phase is
multiplied with high value and switches of that phase remains in operation. During
fault in any switch of that phase, the status of that phase becomes “high,” hence each
signal of that phase is multiplied by low value and switches of that phase are turned-
off. In this way, the switches of the faulty phase are isolated from the VSC.

8.4.2 Activation of additional phase switches of VSCs

The schematic diagram for the activation of an additional phase switches is shown
in Figure 8.7. The logic is designed in such a way to turn-on all the switches of

G S1a G S2a G Sna

× G S1ai × G S2ai × G Snai

S pa

Figure 8.6 Schematic diagram for isolation of faulty phase switches

G S1a G S1aa G S2a G S2aa G Sna G Snaa

× × ×

S pa
G S1b G S1ba G S2b G S2ba G Snb G Snba
× × ×

S pb

G S1m G S2m G Snm

× × ×

S pm

OR G S1r OR G S2r OR G Snr

G S1ma G S2ma G Snma

Figure 8.7 Schematic diagram for the activation of additional phase switches
 Fault–tolerant operation of electric vehicles 189

additional phase with the gating signal of the faulty phase. For this, the status of
each phase (Spa, Spb, . . . , Spm) is multiplied by the gating signals of the switches of
that phase (GS1a-Sna, GS1b-Snb, . . . , GS1m-Snm) to obtain the activation signals (GS1aa-
Snaa, GS1ba-Snba, . . . , GS1ma-Snma). The activation signal of the first switch of each
phase is fed to OR gate to obtain the gating signal for the first switch of additional
phase (GS1r). In a similar way, gating signals for all the switches of an additional
phase are obtained (GS2r, . . . , GSnr).
During the healthy condition, the status of each phase is “low,” hence, each
signal of that phase is multiplied with a low value and switches of the additional
phase remain inactive. During fault in any switch of any phase, the status of that
phase becomes “high,” hence, each signal of that phase is multiplied with a high
value and switches of additional phase are turned-on with the gating signals of that
phase. In this way, the switches of an additional phase of the VSC are activated.

8.5 Fault–tolerant VSC topologies for EVs

VSC topologies are used in the EV to convert DC power into AC power and vice
versa. Any fault (OC or SC fault) in the VSC topology of EV disturbs its operation.
Therefore, it arises the need to make VSC topology fault–tolerant. The fault–tol-
erant two-level and three-level VSC topologies are discussed in the following
section.

8.5.1 Two-level VSC topologies

The two-level VSC topologies are most preferred topology because it uses the
lowest number of components. The schematic diagram of fault–tolerant two-level
VSC topology-fed IM is shown in Figure 8.8. During the healthy condition, the
fault–tolerant two-level VSC behaves as a normal VSC and the additional phase
remains inactive. When any switch of any phase becomes faulty, the status of that
phase becomes high and activates the respective bidirectional switch (Sa, Sb, Sc). In
this way, an additional phase replaces the faulty phase and maintains the smooth
operation of IM.

S 1r S 1a S 1b S 1c

Sa a
Vdc IM
Sb b
Sc c

S 2r S 2a S 2b S 2c
Additional Phase-a Phase-b Phase-c
Phase
G S1ai G S2ai G S1bi G S2bi G S1ci G S2ci
G S1r G S2r

Figure 8.8 Fault–tolerant two-level VSC-fed IM for EVs [13]

190 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

S 1a S 3a S 1b S 3b S 1c S 3c

a
IM
V dc V dc b V dc
c
n
S 2a S 4a S 2b S 4b S 2c S 4c
Phase-a Phase-b Phase-c

G S1ai G S2ai G S3ai G S4ai G S1bi G S2bi G S3bi G S4bi G S1ci G S2ci G S3ci G S4ci

S 1r S 3r

V dc Sa
Sb
Sc
S 2r S 4r
Additional Phase

G S1r G S2r G S3r G S4r

Figure 8.9 Fault–tolerant CHB three-level VSC fed IM for EVs

8.5.2 Three-level VSC topologies

Several topologies of three-level VSC are available in the literature. Among them,
cascaded H-bridge (CHB) three-level VSC is popular where isolated DC sources
are available. The schematic diagram of fault–tolerant CHB three-level VSC-fed
IM is shown in Figure 8.9. During the healthy condition, the fault–tolerant CHB
three-level VSC behaves as a normal VSC and an additional phase remains inac-
tive. When any switch of any phase becomes faulty, the status of that phase
becomes high and activates the respective bidirectional switch (Sa, Sb, Sc). In this
way, an additional phase replaces the faulty phase and maintains the smooth
operation of IM.

8.6 Results and discussion

The performance of fault–tolerant VSC is analyzed after observing the waveforms
of gating signal, phase status, phase currents, voltage across motor terminals and
speed, and current through motor terminals and torque as shown in Figures 8.10–
8.14, respectively. The gating signals of a switch of each phase are shown in
Figure 8.10. The gating signal of the switch of each phase is transferred to the
switch of an additional phase during the fault in the respective phase. The status of
each phase is shown in Figure 8.11. The status of each phase becomes high during
the fault in the respective phase. The currents of each phase are shown in
 Fault–tolerant operation of electric vehicles 191

(a) Phase-a fault

(b) Phase-b fault

(c) Phase-c fault

Figure 8.10 Gating signal waveforms

192 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

(a) Phase-a fault

(b) Phase-b fault

(c) Phase-c fault

Figure 8.11 Phase status waveforms

 Fault–tolerant operation of electric vehicles 193

(a) Phase-a fault

(b) Phase-b fault

(c) Phase-c fault

Figure 8.12 Phase current waveforms

194 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

(a) Phase-a fault

(b) Phase-b fault

(c) Phase-c fault

Figure 8.13 Voltage across motor terminals and speed waveforms

 Fault–tolerant operation of electric vehicles 195

(a) Phase-a fault

(b) Phase-b fault

(c) Phase-c fault

Figure 8.14 Current through motor terminals and torque waveforms

196 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Figure 8.12. The current of each phase is supplied by an additional phase during the
fault in the respective phase. The voltage across motor terminals is shown in
Figure 8.13. The voltage across motor terminals is applied by an additional phase
during the fault in the respective phase. The current through motor terminals is
shown in Figure 8.14. The current through motor terminals is supplied by an
additional phase during the fault in the respective phase.

8.7 Summary
In this chapter, the fault–tolerant operation of various converters used in an electric
vehicle has been discussed with an overview of the types of possible faults in the
EV system. The fault detection, identification, and removal schemes used on a
fault–tolerant VSC for EV traction motor have been discussed in detail with a
generalized concept. The results of a fault–tolerant system have also been presented
to showcase the practicability of such systems. This results in an uninterrupted
operation of the EV under OC and SC faults in VSC. There is a wide scope for
fault–tolerant operation of converters for EV system and expected that this chapter
has given thought-provoking ideas in this direction.

Symbols
GS1a gating signal for S1a switch
GS1ai gating signal for Isolation of S1a switch
GS1b gating signal for S1b switch
GS1m gating signal for S1m switch
GS1r gating signal for S1r switch
GS2a gating signal for S2a switch
GS2ai gating signal for Isolation of S2a switch
GS2b gating signal for S2b switch
GS2m gating signal for S2m switch
GS2r gating signal for S2r switch
GSna gating signal for Sna switch
GSnai gating signal for Isolation of Sna switch
GSnb gating signal for Snb switch
GSnm gating signal for Snm switch
GSnr gating signal for Snr switch
GS1ad one sample delay in GS1a
iS1a current through S1a switch
S1a first switch of phase-a
S1b first switch of phase-b
 Fault–tolerant operation of electric vehicles 197

S1c first switch of phase-c

S1r first switch of additional phase
S2a second switch of phase-a
S2b second switch of phase-b
S2c second switch of phase-c
S2r second switch of additional phase
S3a third switch of phase-a
S3b third switch of phase-b
S3c third switch of phase-c
S3r third switch of additional phase
S4a fourth switch of phase-a
S4b fourth switch of phase-b
S4c fourth switch of phase-c
S4r fourth switch of additional phase
Sa bidirectional switch connected between additional phase and phase-a
Sb bidirectional switch connected between additional phase and phase-b
Sc bidirectional switch connected between additional phase and phase-c
SiS1a switch current signal of current through S1a switch
SOCF-S1a status of OC fault in S1a switch
SOCF-S2a status of OC fault in S2a switch
SOCF-Sna status of OC fault in Sna switch
Spa status of phase-a
Spb status of phase-b
Spm status of phase-m
SS1a status of S1a switch
SS2a status of S2a switch
SSna status of Sna switch
SSCF-S1a status of SC fault in S1a switch
SSCF-S2a status of SC fault in S2a switch
SSCF-Sna status of SC fault in Sna switch
SvS1a switch voltage signal of voltage across S1a switch
vS1a voltage across S1a switch

Glossary

CHB cascaded H-bridge

DC direct current
EV electric vehicle
198 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

FT fault–tolerant
IM induction motor
MCU motor control unit
OC open circuit
OCF open circuit fault
SC short circuit
SCF short circuit fault
VSC voltage source converter
2L two-level
3L three-level
5L five-level

References

[1] J. N. Apruzzese, S. B. Monge, J. Bordonau, S. Alepuz, and A. C. Prado,

“Analysis of the fault-tolerance capacity of the multilevel active-clamped
converter,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 60, no. 11, pp. 4773–4783, 2013.
[2] X. Kou, K. A. Corzine, and Y. L. Familiant, “A unique fault-tolerant design
for flying capacitor multilevel inverter,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron.,
vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 979–987, 2004.
[3] E. Esfandiari, N. Mariun, M. H. Marhaban, and A. Zakaria, “Switch-ladder:
reliable and efficient multilevel inverter,” Electron. Lett., vol. 46, no. 9,
p. 646647, 2010.
[4] K. Ambusaidi, V. Pickert, and B. Zahawi, “New circuit topology for fault
tolerant H-bridge DC–DC converter,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 25,
no. 6, pp. 1509–1516, 2010.
[5] M. Ali, Z. Din, E. Solomin, K. M. Cheema, A. H. Milyani, and Z. Che,
“Open switch fault diagnosis of cascade H-bridge multi-level inverter in
distributed power generators by machine learning algorithms,” Energy Rep.,
vol. 7, pp. 8929–8942, 2021.
[6] V. Kumar, S. Singh, and S. Jain, “A reduced switch count symmetric T-type
multilevel inverter with single and multiple switch open circuit fault tolerant
capabilities,” IETE J. Res., pp. 1–23, 2022.
[7] W. Zhang, D. Xu, P. N. Enjeti, H. Li, J. T. Hawke, and H. S. Krishnamoorthy,
“Survey on fault-tolerant techniques for power electronic converters,” IEEE
Trans. Power Electron., vol. 29, no. 12, pp. 6319–6331, 2014.
[8] M. Kumar, “Open circuit fault detection and switch identification for LS-
PWM H-bridge inverter,” IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst.—II: Express Briefs,
vol. 68, no. 4, pp. 1363–1367, 2021.
[9] G. Zhang and J. Yu, “Open-circuit fault diagnosis for cascaded H-bridge
multilevel inverter based on LS PWM technique,” CPSS Trans. Power
Electron. Appl., vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 201–208, 2021.
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[10] A. Anand, A. V. B. N. Raj, J. G and S. George, “A generalized switch fault

diagnosis for cascaded H bridge multilevel inverters using mean voltage
prediction,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 1563–1574, 2020.
[11] P. S. Jamwal, S. Singh, and S. Jain, “Fault-tolerant operation of the cascaded
H-bridge three-level inverter for electric vehicle application,” Int. J. Ambient
Energy, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 1649–1662, 2023.
[12] P. S. Jamwal, Multilevel Inverter fed Induction Motor Drive for Battery
Electric Vehicle, PhD Thesis, EIE Department, SLIET Longowal, India, July
2023.
[13] R. L. d. A. Ribeiro, C. B. Jacobina, E. R. C. d. Silva, and A. M. N. Lima,
“Fault-tolerant voltage-fed PWM inverter AC motor drive systems,” IEEE
Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 439–446, 2004.
[14] V. Kumar, Investigations on Fault Tolerant Operation of Multilevel Inverter,
PhD Thesis, EIE Department, SLIET, Longowal, India, 2022.
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 Chapter 9
Design, simulation, and control of battery
charger for electric vehicle
Anjanee Kumar Mishra1 and Ankit Kumar Singh1

This chapter is intended to provide insight into the design and development of
single-stage battery charging systems for on-board applications of plug-in electric
vehicles (PEVs), their classification and issues related to them, different config-
urations, size, and compactness improvement, and possibility and technique to
incorporate solar energy into charging system.

9.1 Introduction
Petroleum-based goods are mostly used in land transportation. To fulfill this
expectation, numerous steps were taken. On the one hand, rapid trains, the metro,
and tramways all now run on electric trains. On the other hand, adopting lighter
ICEs boosted the efficiency of personal transportation by reducing vehicle weight.
Internal combustion engine advancements, however, were insufficient to lower fuel
usage. To accomplish this, scientists and automakers have investigated a number of
alternatives, such as biodiesel, ethanol, compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied
natural gas (LNG), hydrogen, compressed air, electric vehicles (EVs), and others.
New advances have directed the entry of electric cars as an alternative to cars
using internal combustion engines. Good policies in both developed and developing
countries and the development needed to prevent urban pollution to create the most
favorable environment for these developments. Some countries have established
emission standards to limit the environmental pollution of cars to be sold in these
countries. Additionally, continued research on battery technology leads to improved
and cheaper batteries for future EVs; therefore, the overall cost of EVs is falling
rapidly. The EV sales are expected to continue to rise due to two key factors: market
scenario and other is innovation in battery technology. In terms of the market
economies, various manufacturers have developed their own storage systems to cut
its costs. Also, batteries are used for power distribution, drone aviation, etc. It should
be noted that it is widely used in areas and its prices will decrease rapidly.

1
Department of Electrical Engineering, Netaji Subhas University of Technology (NSUT), India
202 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

The majority of EVs are charged by coupling the car straight to the low-voltage
grid. The PEVs can be broadly categorized as fuel cell plug-in hybrid EVs (FC-PHEV),
plug-in hybrid EVs (PHEV), and battery EVs (BEVs). On the other hand, hybrid EVs
(HEVs) are not the same as PEVs. These vehicles do not require a mains charge because
their batteries may be charged by ICE-made electricity that is produced inside. PEVs,
which produce clean energy for automobiles using non-polluting batteries, are now a
potential approach to reducing pollution. PEV is a combination of an additional charger,
battery, and inverter drive system. Batteries play an important factor in the development
of EVs. The battery charger for the car should be compact and lightweight as it is
located inside the car. So, to achieve these objectives, scientist and researchers are
focusing on the development and production of electronic components for pure EVs.

9.2 Classifications of chargers

PEVs use two types of battery chargers; standalone (non-built-in) chargers and
OBCs. Use a built-in charger when more charging power is needed. The size and
the weight of the charger are easier to carry with a built-in charger, and the vehicle
can be charged anywhere [1,2]. The desired properties of OBCs are lightless, high-
energy density, and high performance [3–7]. An OBC may be configured as a
single-stage converter (Figure 9.1) or a two-stage converter (Figure 9.2). Since
there are more components in a two-stage charger [3,8–12], a single-phase con-
verter charger [13–17], it is more attractive for car use, but the problem associated
with its the presence of low-frequency ripple at the DC link.
OBC adds heaviness and costs to the EV; thus, it is generally designed for
lower power levels, usually less than 3.5 kW [18,19]. However, using the trans-
former as a separate two-phase converter is a convention in OBC design. Also,
multiple output voltages and high-frequency transformers for galvanic isolation can
affect performance and power density [20–22]. There is no electrical limit to the
need to isolate the battery from the AC input because the battery floor usually floats
with the vehicle’s body floor. However, for safety reasons, a protective relay can be

AC/DC Isolated or Bidirectional

converter nonisolated DC/AC
+ DC/DC Motor
Grid DC/DC converter converter
PFC stage converter

Figure 9.1 Single-stage EV battery charging scheme

AC/DC
converter Bidirectional
DC/DC DC/AC
+ Motor
Grid converter converter
PFC stage

Figure 9.2 Two-stage EV battery charging scheme

 Design, simulation, and control of battery charger for EV 203

added to the battery discharge. The power capacity and the charging time of dif-
ferent types of chargers can also be categorized. The distribution was chosen based
on the current power levels in the country [20], as shown in Table 9.1. In addition,
the charger is also divided into unidirectional and bidirectional chargers.
A bidirectional charger allows for charging from the grid and the ability to
inject battery energy back into the grid (V2G operation mode). Figure 9.3 displays
a typical block schematic of one such charger. The bidirectional charger comprises
two stages: a bidirectional DC/DC converter to control battery current and an active
bidirectional AC/DC converter connected to the grid that enforces the power factor.
However, there are drawbacks to bidirectional power flow, including battery
deterioration from repeated cycling, the high cost of a charger with this capability,
metering problems, and the requirement for distribution system upgrades.
Additionally, using a bidirectional charger will call for rigorous safety precautions.
A single-stage OBC may be more desirable than an off-board charger in areas
where there has been considerable growth in PEVs since it prevents the dispersal of
fewer off-board charging stations and helps to manage traffic at charging spots. To
decrease the price, heaviness, and dimension of the on-board charger, scientists
have designed integrated converter-based chargers. These can be classified as
integrated chargers utilizing machine windings and traction converter into the
charging circuit and integrated chargers incorporating bidirectional DC/DC con-
verter into the charging circuit. In the subsequent sections, single-stage-based
chargers (conventional and integrated) are reviewed.

Table 9.1 Class of chargers according to power level

Level Placement of charger Utilizing location Power capacity

Level-1
120 Vac (USA) OBC, single-phase Residential charging 1.4 kW (12 A)
230 Vac (EU) 1.9 kW (20 A)
Level-2
240 Vac (US) OBC, single-or three-phase Charging at private 4 kW (17 A)
or public outlets
400 Vac (EU) 8 kW (32 A)
Level-3
208–600 Vac or Vdc Off-board, three-phase Commercial Commercial

Bidirectional Bidirectional
AC/DC DC/DC Battery
converter converter pack
Grid

Power flow

Figure 9.3 Block diagram of bidirectional charger

204 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

9.3 Integrated charging system

The block diagram of a typical single-phase charger is shown in Figure 9.4. The EV
battery is connected to the DC/DC converter via a bidirectional DC–AC converter
[18], which only needs one converter to support a full working mode, power factor
adjustment stage [4,23], and other features. The entire system is less than a single
charge, as various indices, combining semiconductor devices and some passive
components, are distributed as a pattern. Many of these chargers are listed in [17],
and all have been checked.
In [24], a combination with each type of throwing boost function is proposed
for each vehicle type, as shown in Figure 9.5. The regenerative braking power of
the converter’s buck/boost function provides better control and performance. In this
class of converter, a total of two to four semiconductor components charge the
battery at a voltage of 200–450 V using the global grid. In the current operation, the
transmission loss is exacerbated, and the power efficiency is reduced.
The topology discussed in [25], shown in Figure 9.6, involves a total of nine
switches to achieve the desired operation of the vehicle. Due to the presence of
detachment in PIC mode, the converter evades thermal supervision problems and
avoids interference with bridge rectifiers. Nevertheless, the large number of semi-
conductor devices makes on-board charging less preferable. In addition, many
control strategies in this switch are required to integrate IGBT switches.

AC/DC
converter Bidirectional DC/ DC/AC
+ DC converter converter
PFC stage

Integrated Converter
DC/AC
(AC/DC+DC/DC)
converter

Battery
pack

Figure 9.4 Scheme of integrated charging arrangement for EV

 Design, simulation, and control of battery charger for EV 205

Figure 9.5 Integrated charger [24]

Figure 9.6 Integrated charging scheme [25]

This study’s [26] integrated charger approach features one power drive switch and
one inductor and performs both charging and discharging functions. The buck–boost
converter also performs recharging functions. The following modes are the plug-in,
regenerative, and propulsion modes for the inverting buck/boost and buck and boost
operational converters, respectively. Also, the result of this converter is better than the
converter [24], depending on the number and quality of each type of product.
Therefore, it provides inexpensive translation for developers. However, the main dis-
advantage of this converter is increased voltage and current stress on electrical com-
ponents and current stress on magnetic components. Additionally, the dual-stage
converter having buck–boost ability in PP and RB mode has greater transmission loss
as compared to the existing structure associated with mechanical switches Figure 9.7).
206 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Figure 9.7 Integrated charger [26]

–
–
–

Figure 9.8 Integrated charger [27]

Dusmez and Khalid [27] proposed an integrated charging circuit using four
switches and an inductor in the biased channel with various semiconductor devices
(depending on the model), as shown in Figure 9.8. Also, the flexibility and the
performance loss of individual technologies are compared to their traditional
equivalents (persistent/supportive switching with one or two switches). Also, since
the voltage/current in this converter is very low, there is less loss and less heat gain,
which ultimately makes the circuit thinner. Furthermore, by measuring the current
through the inductor, only one sensor measurement is needed for one type, reducing
the overall design and reducing feedback. Inactive during the pay period; it cannot
control the power of the battery when the voltage is higher than the battery voltage.
Researchers in [28] proposed another expansion of the bridgeless integrated
converter with carrier base control, as illustrated in Figure 9.9. Plug-in charging
techniques are used with non-linear charger controllers and are PFC compatible in
permanent connection. Therefore, the charger becomes more compact with less
input circuitry. The automatic bridge design of the converter is designed to upsurge
the efficiency of the converter in PIC mode by minimizing the count of components
utilized in the current path. However, this converter follows the standard inverting
 Design, simulation, and control of battery charger for EV 207

Figure 9.9 Integrated charger [28]

Figure 9.10 Integrated charger [29]

converter having the buck–boost capability. During the second half duration of the
mains supply, great stress is created, which causes losses and characteristics
(behavior and change). As a result, the benefits of disconnected features are
somewhat sacrificed on the negative half of the grid. Additionally, the battery’s
voltage range is limited because there is no single mode that has both buck and
boost capabilities. Since there is no single operating mode with both buck and boost
operation, the voltage range of the battery is limited [29].
For various battery voltages, semi-two-phase chargers have been developed as
illustrated in Figure 9.10. When battery voltage vb > peak mains voltage, vg:max, the input
converter behaves like a typical step-up converter (single-stage operation); when vb, vg:
max, the designed converter works as a semi-two-stage converter. Due to the additional
conversion, the variation of this conversion in plug-in charging mode is slightly larger
than that of the standard powered converter with PFC capability. However, this circuit
has lower semiconductor losses due to the uniqueness of its three-level output.
Additionally, in PP and RB modes, the claimed circuit operates in boost/buck modes.
208 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

9.4 Assessment of existing integrated charging circuits

In this section, the integrated chargers are compared according to the voltage/current
stress of the semiconductor device, the buck/boost operation of each type of con-
verter, and the components. Table 9.6 is a list of each semiconductor device’s
stress.2. “Less” denotes an input or output value [(vout or vin) and (iout or iin)]. and
“More” denotes the sum of input and output values [vout + vin and iout + iin]. From
Tables 9.2 and 9.3, the integrated charger [24] has buck/boost functionality and low
pressure in all modes at the expense of a high number of semiconductor components.
By lowering the number of components in the current path, the converter [25]
improves the efficiency of the converter [24], but the charger’s price rises as a result
of the numerous switches. The chargers [26] were better than the chargers [24,25] in
terms of component count. The charger [27] has fewer components and stress than
any prevailing converters and has smaller current/voltage stress in all modes. The
charger in [29] has buck/boost operation in plug-in charge mode, but a tedious control
approach is required in this mode. Additionally, the converter’s two-stage operation
in buck mode loses its advantages.

Table 9.2 Stresses in terms of voltage/current on semiconductors

Integrated chargers PIC PP RB

Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage Current

Figure 9.5 Less Less Less Less Less Less
Figure 9.6 Less Less Less Less Less Less
Figure 9.7 More More Less Less Less Less
Figure 9.8 Less Less Less Less Less Less
Figure 9.9 More More Less Less Less Less
Figure 9.10 Less Less Less Less Less Less
PIC, plug-in charging; PP, propulsion; RB, regenerative braking.

Table 9.3 Comparison between the existing charging schemes

Chargers Type Operating modes Components count

PIC PP RB Diode Inductor Capacitor

Figure 9.5 Bu/Bo Bu/Bo Bu/Bo 9 1 2
Figure 9.6 Bu/Bo Bu/Bo Bu/Bo 4 1 2
Figure 9.7 Bu/Bo Boost Buck 5 1 2
Figure 9.8 Boost Bu/Bo Bu/Bo 4 1 2
Figure 9.9 Bu/Bo Boost Buck 1 1 2
Figure 9.10 Boost Bu/Bo Bu/Bo 6 2 2
Bu/Bo, buck–boost.
 Design, simulation, and control of battery charger for EV 209

As can be seen from the literature cited above, there is a possibility for addi-
tional upgrading in the combination by creating converters having the functionality
of buck/boost in every mode, reducing the number of devices, and improving PP
and RB mode performance. Further, reducing the complication of the feedback
offers less in the converter dimension and increases its trustworthiness.

9.5 Modified zeta-based integrated converter for

battery charging

This part discusses the design, operation, and control of an integrated converter for
battery charging for PEVs that is also capable of operating in two other modes, i.e.,
propulsion and regenerative modes. The diagram of the charging circuit with the
designed converter is illustrated in Figure 9.11. The proposed scheme is derived
from an existing Zeta converter followed by a buck/boost operation in propulsion
and RB mode and a traditional Zeta power factor correction converter in PIC mode,
respectively. Since Zeta works in the PIC mode, it can charge the battery from any
electrical input supply. In addition, due to the capability to buck/boost, the energy
stored in the devices may be completely composed during RB. Moreover, this
converter has fewer components than other conventional converters. The control
logic for this converter is formed simply by utilizing one switch throughout the
operation. The voltage/current stresses and loss studies of the converter were also
carried out to select the semiconductor devices and to demonstrate the feasibility of
the designed converter.

9.6 Working of integrated converter

The integrated converter illustrated in Figure 9.11, consists of three switches, four
diodes, two capacitors (apart from filter capacitors), and two inductors (excluding
filter inductors). Table 9.4 tabulates the role of switches and diodes in all working
modes. The following sections discuss the operation of the converter using the
operating state and corresponding waveforms.

Dpv
Dd
ipv
Solar Dc
Spv
panel
Lf Da
Solar panel Cm Sc
Ls vc L ib
ig Lm Chv
vhv
+
Sa Sb _
Grid v Db Cb
+ +

g vg Cf _ _ vb
supply
P

Figure 9.11 Designed battery charging scheme

210 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Table 9.4 Devices state in different operating scenarios

Operating mode Sa Sb Sc Spv Da Db Dc Dpv

PIC 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
PV 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
PP 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
RB 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1: active and 0: in-active.

D pv
Dd
i pv
S pv Dc
Solar
panel
Lf Da
Cm iL Sc
Solar panel
Ls Lm vc L ib C hv
ig Sa Sb
+

Db Cb
+
vg
+

vg Cf _ _ vb

Grid
P
supply

Figure 9.12 Utilizing a grid supply to charge the vehicle battery

9.6.1 PIC mode of operation

This mode only works when the output of the solar panel drops underneath a par-
ticular threshold. In this case, the designed converter works as a separate Zeta
converter because the “Spv” switch is disabled, and only the mains are used to
charge the battery. A high-frequency signal is sent to the switch “Sa” to activate it
when the single pole, double-thrown switch “P” is in operation. The magnetizing
inductor “Lm” retains and charges the battery using a capacitor “Cm” and an
inductor “L” by following the track indicated by the dotted lines in Figure 9.12.
Additionally, switch “Sb” and “Sc” are inactive, and diode “Db” is used in
this mode.
Assuming “d1” has a duty ratio, the voltage-sec. balancing technique for
inductors Lm /L for a single switching period, Ts can be expressed as,
Vg max j sin ðwtÞj  d1 ðtÞ ¼ Vb  f1  d1 ðtÞg  Ts (9.1)
Utilizing (9.1), the voltage gain of the converter “M1” can be written as,
Vb d1 ðtÞ
M1 ¼ ¼ (9.2)
Vg max jsin wtj 1  d1 ðtÞ
 Design, simulation, and control of battery charger for EV 211

9.6.2 Charging through solar power

This mode is activated when the PV power is higher than a critical value. In this case,
both the switches “P” and “Sa” are active, but the “Sb” and “Sc” switches are not used.
In this situation, the converter improves the behavior of the photovoltaic panel in all
environmental conditions by using MPPT control [30–36] to produce the PWM signal
for “Sa.” Figure 9.13 illustrates the equivalent circuit for such an operation. The voltage
gain for the converter in this mode is the same as before, as this mode also has the
same ratio.

9.6.3 Driving mode of vehicle

This mode initiates when the battery starts providing power to the motor drive. In
this mode, switches other than switch “P” are inactive, while switch “Sb” is oper-
ated by the PWM signal. As shown in Figure 9.14, when “Sb” switch is closed, the
inductor “L” is charged via “Vb–L1–Sb–Vb” (red dotted line) by another inductor
through diode “Dc” when “Sb” is not active (blue dotted line).
The reconfiguration of converter components in this mode forms the boost
converter configuration. Assuming “d2” is the duty ratio, the magnitude of the

Dpv
Dd
ipv
Dc
Solar Spv
panel
Lf Da
Cm iL Sc
Solar panel
Ls Lm vc L ib Chv
ig Sa Sb
+

Db Cb
+
v g Cf
+

vg _ _ vb

Grid P
supply

Figure 9.13 Vehicle battery charging utilizing PV power

Dpv
Dd
ipv
Spv Dc ihv
Solar
panel +

Lf Da
Cm iL Sc
Solar panel
Ls Lm vc L ib Chv
ig Sa Sb
+

_ vhv
Db Cb
+
vg Cf
+

vg _ _ vb

Grid P _
supply

Figure 9.14 Functioning of the integrated converter in driving mode

212 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Dpv
Dd
ipv

Solar Spv Dc ihv

panel +

Lf Da
Cm iL Sc
Solar panel
Ls Lm vc L ib Chv
ig Sa
+

vhv
Sb _

v g Cf Db Cb
+ +
vg _ _ vb

Grid P _
supply

Figure 9.15 Operation in the regenerative mode

average voltage across the inductor, “L” over a single switching duration, “Ts” is
null, and henceforth,
ðVb  Vhv Þð1  d2 Þ  Ts ¼ Vb  d2  Ts (9.3)
Following (9.3), the voltage gain “M2” can be written as,
Vhv 1
M2 ¼ ¼ (9.4)
Vb 1  d2 ðtÞ

9.6.4 Regenerative braking mode

This mode is very critical for vehicle operation and contributes a major part to
extending the vehicle range corresponding to per-hour charging. The battery gets
recharged in this mode by the mechanical energy gained by the motor during
propulsion mode. In this case, switch “P” is remaining to be inactive, and switch
“Sc” is in operating condition. On the other side, the switches labeled “Sa” and “Sb”
are both inactive. The suggested converter’s performance in this mode is shown in
Figure 9.15. Based on the average inductor voltage for one switching time, which
serves as the foundation for (9.5), the voltage transfer function M3 can be expressed
as (9.6):
ðVhv  Vb Þd3  Ts ¼ Vb  ð1  d3 Þ  Ts (9.5)
Vb
M3 ¼ ¼ d3 ðtÞ (9.6)
Vhv

9.7 Design of the battery-charging converter

In general, the component ratings of the converter in each mode are entirely dif-
ferent. Thus, the selection of devices is governed by the particular operating mode.
Therefore, the ratings of the devices are chosen based on the stresses, mainly in
terms of voltage/current stress.
 Design, simulation, and control of battery charger for EV 213

9.7.1 Design of switching devices

A few diodes and switches are unglued into AC/DC and DC/DC phase groups as a
result of the bidirectional operation in DC/DC stages. The voltage and the current
flowing through the switches and diodes will vary due to the variations in power
and capacity in various modes. As a result, the choice of voltage/current values
depends on the switch’s peak voltage/current. The voltage/current stresses on
semiconductor switches in each mode are shown in Table 9.5. The switch “Sa” has
a peak current rating of ig(t)= p /2 + Ib, while switches “Sb” and “Sc” have max-
imum voltage ratings of max. (Vhv, Vb). The rated peak voltage of “Sa” is stated as:
Sa = [vg(wt)wt=p/2 + Vb].

9.7.2 Aspects of passive component selection

The inductor “L2” contributes to all operating modes of the converter. So, by
choosing the inductor value with allowable current ripple for each mode, the CCM
nature of the converter can be maintained in each mode. The maximum value of
these parameters is selected according to the value of the inductor “L2.”
The size of “L2” for maintaining the CCM working in PIC mode is expressed
as

  
RL; max Vg; max  1
0
RL d1 ðtÞTs
L2 > >   (9.7)
2 2 Vg; max  þ Vb fs

Corresponding the parameters shown in Table 9.1 value of “L2” in the PIC
mode is estimated as
90 311 1
L2plug in > ¼ 1:14 mH (9.8)
2 311 þ 300 20; 000
The size of “L2” for CCM, (9.7)–(9.8) define working in PP, and RB modes are
V b d2
L2prop ¼ (9.9)
Dib fs
Vb ð1  d3 Þ
L2reg ¼ (9.10)
Dib fs
where “Dib” signifies the ripple current at the battery side. Corresponding to
parameters tabulated in Table 9.6 and selecting the ripple in battery current, Dib =
20 % of Ib, the size of “L2prop” and “L2reg” is estimated as
300  0:25
L2reg ¼ L2reg ¼ ¼ 2:83 mH
1:33  20; 000
The following is chosen as “L2” final value:
 
L2 ¼ max L2plug in ; L2pop ; L2reg (9.11)
Table 9.5 Ratings of peak voltage and current for semiconductor devices

Sa (Da) Sb (Db) Sc (Dc)

Operations Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage/current

PGC and PV          
vg ðwtÞwt¼p=2 ig ðwtÞwt¼p=2 vg ðwtÞwt¼p=2 ig ðwtÞwt¼p=2 vg ðwtÞwt¼p=2
/NO
þVb Sa
þIb Sa
þVb Db
þIb Db
þVb Dc

2 3
h i hiLprop iTs þ
Di 4 5
PR ½ZeroSa ðDa Þ NO ½Vb Sb hiLprop iTs þ Lprop
2 ½Vhv Dc / DiLprop
Sb
2 Dc
2 3
h i hiLrege iTs þ
Di
RB ½ZeroSa ðDa Þ NO ½Vb Db hiLrege iTs þ Lrege
2 ½Vhv Sc /4 DiLrege 5
Db
2 Sc
 Design, simulation, and control of battery charger for EV 215

Table 9.6 Various parameters of the designed system

Variables Values
DC link voltage (Vhv) 400 V
Grid supply voltage (Vg,minVg,max) 90–220 V
Frequency ( fg) 50 Hz
L2 3 mH
Cb/C1/Chv 1,500/10/550 mF
Operating frequency of converter ( fsw) 20 kHz
Charging power (Pb) 1 kW
Battery voltage, (Vb) 320 V

9.7.3 Size of capacitor (Cm)

The link capacitor “C1” plays a vital role in the suggested converter due to its
significant impact on establishing the quality input current. To prevent input
applications from being too diverse at each half-line cycle and to maintain a con-
stant voltage during such a switching period, the resonance frequencies of “L2” and
“Cm” in CCM operation must be greater than the line frequency “fL” and smaller
than the switching frequency “fs.” As a result, the design of this capacitor will be
subject to the following limitations:
fL < fr < fs (9.12)
where
1
fr ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (9.13)
2p ðL1 þ L2 ÞC
The switching frequency “fs” in this study is set to 20 kHz, and “fr” is set to 1
kHz. Both in simulation and in hardware, the capacitor “C1” is set at 10 F. Because
this capacitor’s voltage characteristics are chosen in accordance with the battery
voltage range and during all operations, the voltage in the coupling capacitor is
selected according to the “vb.”

9.7.4 Size of capacitor (Cb)

Higher-order switching harmonics are presumptively ignored because a capacitor,
“Cb” is directly connected to the vehicle battery. However, the double-frequency
voltage ripple is demonstrated and has a major impact on the battery pack’s lifespan.
The low-frequency voltage ripple in “Vb” is written as
Pb
Dvb  (9.14)
4fg Cb; min Vb
where “fg” denotes the grid supply frequency and, “Dvb” denotes the voltage ripple
across the capacitor, “Cb.” Table 9.6 tabulates the converter’s chosen values for
usage in the system.
216 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

9.8 Control strategy

A schematic of the controller employed by the recommended converter is shown in
Figure 9.16. The designed converter undergoes three operating scenarios, and dif-
ferent control concepts are utilized in each operating mode. The mode selection
logic primarily chooses the operating mode, and then it begins the baseline para-
meter for that mode. Since the input reference is dependent on the operating modes,
it may be any one of the parameters like voltage at the DC bus, braking torque,
power for charging, etc. Corresponding to this operating mode, the relevant con-
troller will be activated and will guarantee the desired operation. The overall
control strategy of the operation can be divided into two main classes. The first part
controls the PIC and solar PV charging modes, and the second section controls the
PR and RB modes.
The input selector logic’s PGC and solar PV modes are included in this control
parameter. The logic developed for this mode is illustrated in Figure 9.17. In the
PIC mode, a 2-loop controller is used to control power on the grid side and charge
the LPEV. The controller “Gib(z)” calculates the expected battery current and the

Reference
selector logic

Mode
selector logic

Figure 9.16 Charging mode control technique

Pb* i b*
x *
i sa
+ Gib (z) x
% - + G sa (z) +
vb ib x -
-
sin ωt i sa
driver
Driver
Gate

>0 >
Gate

vpv Sa
MPPT
i pv controller
0
>0 > S pv
1

Figure 9.17 Battery charging with solar energy

 Design, simulation, and control of battery charger for EV 217

actual battery current and outputs the difference as

Ki Ts
Gib ðZÞ ¼ Kp þ (9.15)
z1
Combining the “Gib(z)” output with a sinusoidal signal unit template, the
reference current for “GiL” is produced. This reference is created by multiplying the
“Gib(z)” output by a sinusoidal signal unit template. After power factor adjustment,
it produces the high-frequency gate control signal for switch “Sa” at the utility grid.
The term “GiL” can be expressed as
Kic Ts
GiL ðZÞ ¼ Kpc þ (9.16)
z1
To keep the controller bandwidth at 1/6th and 1/10th of the operating switch-
ing frequency, the gains (Kpc and Kic) should be changed. Similar to this, the “Gib
(z)” controller’s bandwidth is adjusted to less than 120 Hz to reduce the impact of
the current reference loop’s second harmonic. In PV charging mode, the “Spv”
switch is passed through a switch selector with 0 and 1 logic, while the drift-
independent MPPT P&O control method is used to produce high-frequency signals
for switch “Sa.” Therefore, the loss associated “Spv” is very low.

9.8.1 Control for the modes of propulsion and regenerative

braking
The average current mode logic is used for both propulsion and regenerative modes
of operation. Depending on the operating mode, appropriate switches are operated
utilizing a mode picker. Combining logic gates with stop command and changeable
input voltage, the mode picker logic system is formed. In the propulsion mode, the
VSC voltage input is controlled by the controller Ghv(z) and the inner loop controller
Gibc(z).
In the regenerative mode, the switch “Sc” plays a significant part in returning
energy from the motor to the battery through the motor inverter switches.
Figure 9.18 shows the high-frequency signals for switch “Sc” produced by the

Propulsion
Common controller for propulsion
and regenerative modes
v*hv + Ghv(z)
Sb
-
Gate driver
vhv i*b
+ Gibc(z) +
Gate driver

Gt (z) x -
τ* -
%
+ ib Sb & Sc Sc
vb Mux
S- a
Mode selector
τ
Regenerative braking

Figure 9.18 Control logic for PP and RB modes

218 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

logic. The braking torque is the command utilized in this mode. As shown in
Figure 9.18, the command then generates a reference for employing a Gt(z) PI
controller that produces a current reference for the vehicle battery.

9.9 Result and analysis

The converter characteristics shown in Table 9.6 are used to model a battery
charger that uses a modified Zeta-based converter. Plotting and individual exam-
ination of the system’s behavior in the three modes have been studied in this sec-
tion. The circuit of the proposed system has been modeled using the 2013a
MATLAB version of the Sim Power-Systems toolbox. To finish the power gen-
eration, the simulation time is maintained at 1e6s.
The waveforms of the grid current and the voltage corresponding to the PIC
mode of operation are illustrated in Figure 9.19. It can be observed that both the
quantities are exactly in phase and authenticate the unity power factor operation of
the system. The Fourier technique is utilized to estimate the total harmonic dis-
tortion (THD) and power factor of the system, which are obtained at 3.78% and
0.99, respectively. While charging the battery, the battery’s base voltage is set to
300 V, including an initial SoC of 20%, a grid voltage of 220 V, and 1 kW charging
power. Figure 9.20 shows simulated graphs for battery voltage (vb) and battery
current (ib).
From Figure 9.20, it can be seen that there is a presence of lower order fre-
quency (100 Hz) oscillation in the battery current in a single-phase system. The
presence of a series inductor attached to the battery is responsible for the oscillating

35
vg(V ) & ig(A)

vg /10 ig
0

35
0.6 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.7
Time(s)

Figure 9.19 Grid current and voltage waveforms in the PIC mode of operation

350
Battery terminal voltage
Vb (V )

300

250
5
ib (A)

3
Battery charging current
0
0.6 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.7
Time(s)

Figure 9.20 Battery voltage (Vb) and current (ib) waveforms during PIC mode of
operation
 Design, simulation, and control of battery charger for EV 219

nature of the battery current. This is a trade-off situation between the charging
circuit size and the overall service life of the battery.
The voltage across the filter capacitor and current through the filter inductor at
the grid side is illustrated in Figure 9.21. The nature of capacitor voltage is realized
to be constant and pulsating in this mode. The current through the filter inductor
has also been seen to be of a similar nature but of dissimilar magnitude. The esti-
mated maximum current through “Lf” is nearly 9.7 A, while the peak voltage across
“Cf” is approximated to be 311 V.
The plot showing the THD in grid current in PIC mode is demonstrated in
Figure 9.22, which is noted to be 1.57%. This value of THD clearly verifies the
UPF operation of the integrated converter. This type of operation helps to minimize
the overall power consumption and also diminishes the reactive power loss.
The nature of the voltage across the middle capacitor “Cm” is shown in
Figure 9.23(a). The highest voltage across “Cm” is exactly 212 V, which is also the
maximum supply voltage. According to Figure 9.23(b), the voltage across switch
“Sa” is determined by adding the supply and battery voltages.
As the designed converter has the capability to act as both PFC as well as
MPPT converter, thus, the examination of the behavior of PV and battery indices is
also very critical. Figure 9.24 shows the PV voltage and current waveforms under
the solar charging mode of operation. In this case, the voltage across the battery is
comparably smoother as compared to the PIC charging. It is due to the elimination
of the rectifying operation of the grid voltage to supply the DC voltage at the
battery side after the converter processing.

350
Vcf (V )

200
0
7
iLf (A)

3
0
0.60 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.70
Time(s)

Figure 9.21 Voltage and current waveforms across filter capacitor inductor in
PIC mode of operation

4
Mag (% of fundamental)

Fundamental (50 Hz) = 6.713, THD = 3.62%

3

0
0 5 10 15 20
Harmonic order

Figure 9.22 Total harmonic distortion of grid current in the PIC mode of
operation
220 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

225

150
Vcm (V)
75

0
(a)

600

400
Vsa (V)

200

0
0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3

Time (s)
(b)

Figure 9.23 Voltage across Cm and voltage stress across switch “Sa” in PIC
mode

180
Vpv (V )

170 MPPT
160 operation
10
ipv (A)

0
340
Vb (V)

300

260
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Time(s)

Figure 9.24 Parameters of solar PV and battery solar charging mode of

operation

The waveforms of various system parameters corresponding to the propulsion

mode of operation are illustrated in Figures 9.25 and 9.26. This mode is realized in
the system by utilizing step load variation. The change in loading power is done
from 1 kW to 2 kW at t = 1.2 s and from 2 kW to 1 kW at t = 1.8 s. The controller
design for this mode has the basic objective of maintaining the DC link voltage at
the drive side. The effective working of the designed controller is well established
by observing Figure 9.25 that the DC link regulated successfully at the desired
voltage level.
 Design, simulation, and control of battery charger for EV 221

600
Vhv (V ) Regulated DC link voltage
400
200
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time(s)

Figure 9.25 DC link voltage nature in the propulsion mode

350
Battery voltage
Vb (V)

300

250
9 Battery current
ib (A)

6
3
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time(s)

Figure 9.26 Nature of battery voltage and current under dynamic scenario

380
Variation in DC link voltage
Vhv (V )

350
320
290
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Time(s)

Figure 9.27 DC link voltage nature under regenerative braking operation

The nature of battery indices in the propulsion mode of operation is demon-

strated in Figure 9.26. The magnitude of current through the battery is observed to
increase from 3.45 to 9.9 A at the time, t = 1.2 s. In the same way, it decreases to
3.45 A from 9.9 A at time t = 1.8 s by changing the load value from 2 kW to 1 kW.
As can be seen that the nature of battery voltage is almost constant under all these
dynamic scenarios.
In the last, the behavior of some designed system parameters in the RB mode is
illustrated in Figures 9.27 and 9.28. This mode plays a very crucial role in enhan-
cing the vehicle’s performance, particularly in terms of range/km. Therefore, the
performance of the system under this mode is examined and analyzed very care-
fully. The variation in DC link voltage at the inverter side is shown in Figure 9.27.
The variation is very smooth, which validates the effectiveness of the designed
controller. The magnitude changes from 290 to 350 V. On the other side, the var-
iation in battery voltage and current in this mode is shown in Figure 9.28.
Irrespective of the change in DC link voltage, the magnitude of the battery current
has a constant nature and is maintained at 3.5 A.
222 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

350
Vb (V)

Battery voltage
300
250
9 Battery current
ib (A)

6
3
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time(s)

Figure 9.28 Battery voltage behavior under regenerative braking operation

9.10 Summary
This chapter presented the evolution of power converter topologies for on-board
applications of PEVs, which were essentially based on single-stage conversion.
These converters are capable of multi-mode operation to achieve battery charging,
vehicle propulsion, and regenerative braking. This feature of multi-mode operation
is reflected in calling them integrated converters. Priority is devoted to classifying
chargers and reviewing conventional single-stage and integrated chargers. The non-
isolated converters are found more suitable for on-board EV applications. The
review of battery chargers has been divided into two groups: (a) integrated chargers
using a diode rectifier in the AC/DC stage and (b) bidirectional DC/DC converter
incorporated into the charging circuit. A review of each topology is focused on its
merits and demerits. After evaluating the existing converter-based battery charging
typologies, the design, analysis, and control of one such new battery charging
system are discussed. To validate the effectiveness of this new charging scheme,
MATLAB-based simulation results are examined and provided in this chapter. For
plug-in battery charging and regenerative braking modes, the simulated integrated
converter-based battery charging system operates as a ZETA converter; for pro-
pulsion mode, it operates as a buck-mode converter. Therefore, the designed con-
verter has efficiently achieved all the desired working performances under every
operating scenario.

Symbols
Pg, Pb, Ppv Power output from the grid, battery power, and solar panel power,
respectively
Vg, Vb, VPV, RMS voltage of the grid, battery, solar panel @1000W/m2, and
Vhv DC-bus voltages, respectively
vg, vb, vpv Instantaneous voltages of the grid, battery, and solar panel,
respectively
Vg,max Peak voltage output from the utility grid
Vac Grid supply voltage
vout, vin Output and input voltage of the integrated converter
 Design, simulation, and control of battery charger for EV 223

iout, iin Output and input current of the integrated converter

Spv Solar PV switch of charging system
P Single pole double thrown switch of the converter
Lm , L Magnetizing and output inductor
Cm Intermediate energy transfer capacitor
Da, Db, Dc Diodes of the integrated converter
Ts Switching period of the converter
M1, M2, M3 Voltage gains in charging, propulsion, and regen mode,
respectively
vcm Voltage across the middle capacitor of the integrated converter
ig, ib, iPV Instantaneous currents of the grid, battery, and solar panel,
respectively
ig,max Peak current output from the utility grid
fl, fs Supply frequency and operating switching frequency of the inte-
grated converter
iLprop, iLrege Magnitudes of current in driving and regen modes through output
inductor, L.
d1, d2, d3 Duty ratio in charging, propulsion, and regen mode, respectively
Dpv Duty ratio of solar PV switch
RL Equivalent load resistance at the output of the converter
Ghv (z), Gibc Voltage and current controllers
(Z)
t, t* Reference and actual braking torque in regen operation
Sa, Sb, Sc Switches of the integrated converter

Glossary

CCM continuous conduction mode

DCM discontinuous conduction mode
EMC electromagnetic compatibility
EMF electromagnetic force
EMI electromagnetic interference
EVs electric vehicles
FPGA field programming gate array
ICEs internal combustion engines
NLCC nonlinear carrier control
OBC on-board charger
PCB printed circuit board
PEVs plug-in electric vehicles
224 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

PF power factor
PFC power factor correction
PI proportional integral
PLL phase-locked loop
PV photovoltaic
PWM pulse width modulation
RMS root mean square
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SOC state of charge
THD total harmonic distortion
TSBuB two-switch buck/boost
UPF unity power factor
V2G vehicle-to-grid

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This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 10
Power quality control of battery charging system
Shailendra Kumar1, Rheesabh Dwivedi2, Sanjay Gairola3
and Miloud Rezkallah4

10.1 Introduction

The electric vehicle (EV) chargers can be of different categories (OFF-board or

ON-board charger), (AC or DC supply type charger), (integrated or dedicated
topology), (conductive or inductive type), and (unidirectional or bidirectional
charger) [1,2]. EVs may have different types of chargers due to a variation of
battery technology and its voltage level. The battery of any EV requires matching
DC voltage with a controlled current to charge it. The most popular method of
obtaining DC is to rectify the available AC power from the grid. Either a single-
phase or a three-phase diode bridge rectifier (DBR) is used for the rectification
from the AC grid, followed by a capacitor as a filter to provide a ripple-free DC
voltage [3].
The voltage distribution network from the utility at low voltage inside the
charging stations (CS) can be either AC or DC, as shown in Figures 10.1 and 10.2.
The AC distribution network is mature in comparison with the DC distribution and
so preferred by most of the popular CSs.
It is worth mentioning here that a solid-state transformer can be used in place
of the conventional electromagnetic wire wound transformers for better perfor-
mance when used for fast charging.
Due to the capacitive filter’s uncontrolled charging and discharging, the cur-
rent drawn from the AC grid has non-sinusoidal and peaky behavior as shown in
Figure 10.3. This current is analyzed to have poor power factor (PF), high crest
factor (CF), high harmonics, and results in several undesirable effects on both sides,
i.e., the utility and the consumer, such as line voltage distortion, increased losses
and overheating in the transformer, cables, and shunt capacitors [3,4].

1
Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT – Bhilai, India
2
Department of EIE, SLIET – Longowal, India
3
Department of Electrical Engineering, GBPIET – Pauri, India
4
Department of Electrical Engineering, ETS – Montreal, Canada
230 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

AC/DC DC/DC
Grid

AC/DC DC/DC

MV/LV AC/DC DC/DC

AC/DC DC/DC

Figure 10.1 Block diagram of battery charging stations with AC distribution

DC/DC
Grid

DC/DC
AC/DC

MV/LV DC/DC

DC/DC

Figure 10.2 Block diagram of battery charging stations with DC distribution

20
DC–DC Converter

Electrical
Grid L D1 D2
is (A)

0
C

D3 D4 –20
0.59 0.6 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64
Time (s)

Figure 10.3 Conventional DBR-based battery charger and its current waveform

The major problems in this line frequency-based AC–DC converter are injec-
tion of harmonics on AC and DC sides. The capability of tolerating harmonics is
affected by the susceptibility of the load (or power source) to them. The most
susceptible equipment is one in which the sole objective is heating, as in a heater.
In a heater-like application, the energy contained in unwanted harmonics also gets
converted into heat and, therefore, becomes useful. The least susceptible is one
where the useful output is decided only by the fundamental component.
Therefore, an effective power quality (PQ) control is essential for the battery
charging system of EVs with close compliance with international standards. There
 Power quality control of battery charging system 231

are various methods reported in the literature to control the PQ problems in battery
charging systems. One of the common methods is the use of a DC–DC converter
operated with PQ or PF correction (PFC) controller. Another method is to have a
controlled rectifier in the place of DBR for the rectification of AC supply with PQ or
PFC controller. However, an additional DC–DC converter with galvanic isolation is
required as the second stage to provide a well-regulated DC voltage and current for
charging the battery in constant voltage (CV) or constant current (CC) mode.
The main question asked by any researcher investigating and analyzing a
charging converter is “What factors limit the charging rate of a battery?” The
possible answers to this question are given below:
● The converter must provide a very high current for fast charging of the battery
which is limited by the capacity of the battery. The size of battery terminals
and the chemical reaction rate inside a battery may lead to unwanted heating or
deterioration, restricting its life and charging/discharging rate.
● For producing high-charging currents, a high value of source voltage may be
needed which is limited by the insulation provided around the battery to be
charged.
● As high currents are required in constant-current charging mode, a current
source converter may be a preferred choice. Alternately more than one current
source converter may be connected in parallel to increase the rating further.
● The minimum number of elements causing voltage drop, between the source
and the battery to be charged, should be there. This means only a small number
of power electronic switches, inductors, or transformer windings are desired in
the path of charging current.
● The battery needs to be investigated if high-voltage pulses are to be permitted
for its charging.
Therefore, a PQ controller for the EV battery charger is required to achieve an
improved PQ operation at AC mains in a wide input and output voltage range. The
other qualities required are the reduction of switching devices in the PFC con-
verters for low-cost system and easy control scheme. Increasing the efficiency of
the charger by reducing the conduction and switching losses along with the
reduction in charging time are also of prime importance. The power density and the
efficiency of the EV charger are adversely affected by the use of high-frequency
transformer (HFT) for galvanic isolation in the second stage [5,6]. Isolation
requirements in EV battery chargers should be of the least concern, according to
SAE J17722 [7].
This chapter discusses these issues and presents various converter topologies
and control schemes for PQ control of battery chargers for EVs.

10.2 PQ control for battery charger

The PQ disturbances at AC mains of a charger are represented in terms of various
PQ indices such as PF, CF, total harmonic distortion (THDi) of AC mains current,
232 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

displacement PF (DPF), and ripples in DC link voltage (DVdc). The harmonic

voltages/currents in the electrical system produce increased heating by affecting the
Core and Cu losses that are frequency dependent. This lowers the efficiency, causes
torque pulsations, and produces higher audible noise emissions in machines.
Moreover, certain harmonic pairs tend to create mechanical fluctuations in gen-
erating station turbines. The other problems are:
● Poor PF.
● Injection of harmonics into the AC mains.
● Voltage distortion due to the voltage drop of harmonic currents flowing
through system impedances.
● Capacitor bank overloading due to system resonance.
● Interference on telephone and communication lines due to noise induced from
the power conductors.
● Equipment damage from voltage spikes created by high-frequency resonance
resulting from notching.
● Secondary effects from the application of large harmonic frequency resonance
resulting from notching.
The effect of harmonics on transformers is twofold: current harmonics cause
an increase in copper losses and stray flux losses, and voltage harmonics cause an
increase in iron losses. The overall effect is an increase in the transformer heating.
So the reduction of harmonic currents becomes an important issue. The techniques
for harmonic reduction include:
● Use of filters: shunt, series, and hybrid of passive and active.
● Phase multiplication: It is most effective for an installation in which equal-size
converters with equal loading and phase retard are used.
● Harmonic compensation or injection: Harmonic currents can be eliminated by
inducing harmonic fluxes in the core of transformer with 180
phase shift from
the harmonic fluxes induced by the current flowing in the transformer
secondary.
Therefore, the PQ control for battery chargers must deal with these indices and
observed performance should be as per set national and international standards.
There are methods involving passive elements like inductors and capacitors only
known as passive methods. The other option is to have active control using fast-
switching devices used in various topologies known as active methods.
10.2.1 Passive methods
The passive methods involve the use of tuned filters consisting of inductors and
capacitors. The major drawback of these methods is a requirement of bulky inductors
and a number of filters for different harmonic frequencies. The losses in the passive
methods are also more and, in transient conditions, they may not be effective.
The multi-pulse AC–DC converters (MPCs) are the best choice as the passive
method, which employs suitable transformer connections along with converters [8].
Normally the power processor consists of 6-pulse diode bridge rectifiers as the
 Power quality control of battery charging system 233

Multi–pulse rectifier

Power
factor
correction
circuit

EV battery
Grid
Dual
active
bridge

AC–DC conversion DC–DC conversion

Figure 10.4 MPC topology for PQ improvement in battery charger

front end. In large power ratings, up to several thousand horse powers, controlled
bridges are used that too not essentially with isolation transformers. The bidirec-
tional power flow through a rectifier is possible by using a bridge rectifier having
thyristors while the diode bridges shall enable unidirectional power flow only. The
transformers employed at the front end essentially have multiple secondary wind-
ings which produce phase-shifted AC voltages feeding one or more six-pulse AC–
DC converter. These transformers help shape the current on the utility side and
additionally provide isolation of source to load. A number of multi-pulse topologies
have been presented in the literature [8]. One such topology is shown in Figure 10.4
for information of the readers.
For high-power applications, 3-phase bridge rectifiers are placed in most
industrial applications for AC–DC conversion. These rectifiers are also applicable
at the input of off-board EV battery charging stations which work at high voltages
for fast charging. The charging stations nowadays have provision for power flow
from either grid-to-vehicle (G2V) or vehicle-to-grid (V2G), thereby demanding
bidirectional power flow capability. At higher power ratings, the SCR/GTO-based
AC–DC converters are employed at the input for bidirectional power flow, while
for unidirectional power flow, diode-based AC–DC converters are used. The mul-
tipulse AC–DC conversion stage may additionally have transformers and inter-
phase reactors (IPRs) besides the bridge converters.

10.2.2 Active methods

The active methods of the PQ improvement involve the power electronic controller
with switching schemes to control the current or the voltage with a desired shape of
the waveforms. There are various topologies reported in the literature to have PQ
improvement at AC mains when connected to battery charging applications. A few
typical topologies are presented in Figure 10.5.
The suggested topologies are made to operate in a continuous conduction mode
with current multiplier control or discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) with
voltage follower control to efficiently and simply attain a PF that is close to unity.
Additional benefits of DCM operation include zero-current power switch turn-on,
234 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

zero-current output diode turn-off, and a reduction in the complexity of the control
circuitry.

10.2.2.1 Current multiplier control

The first control scheme shown in Figure 10.5 uses current multiplier control, in
which the input voltage template is used for the generation of current reference for
the DC–DC converter. This is an accurate method and requires more number of
sensors for the implementation of the control scheme.

10.2.2.2 Voltage follower control

The control scheme shown in Figure 10.5 as the second part uses voltage follower
control, in which the discontinuous conduction mode of operation is ensured for the
DC–DC converter. In this process, the current drawn from the input naturally fol-
lows the input voltage. This is an approximate method and requires less number of
sensors for the implementation of the control scheme.

10.2.3 PQ standards
Research reports state that with the increased use of power electronic equipment,
the PQ aspect needs immediate attention. To prevent the ill effects of harmonics on
the utility lines, an IEEE Standard IEEE-519 [9] was established in 1981 as the
“Recommended Practices and requirements for Harmonics Control in Electrical
Power System” giving limits on current and voltage distortion and revised in 1992.
The limit specified on current distortion for general distribution systems in voltage
range of 120–69,000 V is applicable for the fast-charging stations of higher power
ratings, and the THD is desired to be less than 5% at the input.
The electrical equipment is categorized into four groups, classes A, B, C, and
D, for the purpose of harmonic current limitation in the IEC 61000 [10]. The
balanced three-phase equipment falls under class-A category, and the engineers
must follow the limits (in Amperes) on odd harmonic currents specified by it.

10.3 Topologies for PQ control of battery charger

The topologies for PQ control of battery chargers may include unidirectional or
bidirectional power flow. To facilitate power flow from V2G with voltage and
current regulation during peak load hours of the grid, bidirectional converters are
employed. Bidirectional converters provide the function of transfer of power
between grid and battery sources in either direction. It plays a crucial role in
facilitating the interaction between the vehicle and the grid as an energy interface.
Therefore, the bidirectional converter must be reliable, cost-effective, and efficient.

10.3.1 Uncontrolled rectifier topologies

The main power sources of EVs are rechargeable batteries, which confer power to
the vehicle. These rechargeable batteries (nickel–cadmium, nickel–metal hydride,
lead–acid, and lithium-ion battery) are usually recharged through a conventional
 DBR DBR

DC–DC DC–DC
converter converter

Ref.
current PWM current PWM current
generator controller controller

PI PI
controller controller
PFC control PFC Control

Figure 10.5 Topologies for PQ improvement in battery chargers

236 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

DBR SEPIC converter Flyback converter

D1 D3 L1 Da ib
C1 Dfb

Lo vdc Cfb
vac Co vb
Sw
Do
D2 D4 Sfb

Sw Sfb ib
PWM PWM Current ieb
generator generator controller
Sawtooth
generator i*b
Voltage
controller Sawtooth Voltage veb
generator controller
vdc_ ref
Control unit of BL - converter Control unit of flyback converter vb_ ref

Figure 10.6 DBR-based battery charger topology with BL PQ converter

battery charger, which consists of a DBR to alter the AC mains into DC voltage
[11,12] as represented in Figure 10.3. But due to the nonlinear behavior of diodes,
severe harmonics appear at the input mains, raising PQ issues. These PQ indices do
not adhere to the IEC 61000-3-2 guidelines [13], which affects the performance of
other equipment. For PQ control at the input, many PQ improvement techniques for
single or double-stage converters are discussed in [14,15], but none have concentrated
on efficiency improvement. The uncontrolled rectifier topologies may have a similar
approach as shown in Figure 10.5. other than these, there may be options for
bridgeless (BL) topologies as shown in Figure 10.6. The BL converter reduces the
conduction losses and desired results are obtained with improved efficiency.

10.3.2 Controlled rectifier topologies

The controlled rectifier topology may have single-stage as well as double-stage
converters. A single-stage converter topology is shown in Figure 10.7. It has a
small range of control as it has to control the voltage at DC link as well as the PQ at
the input mains.

10.3.3 Bidirectional converter topologies

The bidirectional converter for EV charger uses two-stage topologies as shown in
Figure 10.8. The architecture is capable of operating in G2V and V2G modes. The
system has two conversion stages: AC–DC and DC–DC. An AC–DC converter is
interconnected with the grid by boost inductors (Lr ¼ Ly ¼ Lb ¼ Ls ), while the
DC–DC converter is coupled with DC-link capacitor (Cdc ). In each of these stages,
a variety of active and passive components like capacitors, inductors, and
 Power quality control of battery charging system 237

S1 S3

DC–DC converter
Electrical
grid L
C

S2 S4

Figure 10.7 Single-phase EV charger with controlled rectifier

Figure 10.8 Circuit configuration of three-phase EV charger

semiconductors are used. Inductors used on the grid side minimize ripples in the
grid currents and help to achieve sinusoidal current. The second-stage functions as
a bidirectional buck–boost converter, acting as a buck converter while charging and
a boost converter during discharging (i.e., G2V conversion). Active–reactive power
command scenarios are handled by the charger architecture. The THD of AC drawn
by the battery charger must not exceed 5% irrespective of the battery’s state of
charge (SoC). Inductor design and grid-side current controller design play an
important role in achieving it.
Bidirectional chargers are capable of transferring active power in both direc-
tions, so they can work both as G2V and V2G chargers. It allows both active and
reactive powers to be controlled. In V2G technology, EV customers are able to
transfer the battery energy to the distribution grid and to other vehicles during peak
hours, a process also known as V2V sharing. EV chargers that are bidirectional are
designed to exchange both active and reactive powers between the vehicle and the
grid. As a result, the EV can supply active power to the grid whenever demand
increases suddenly and absorb surplus power if surplus power is available.
The control scheme for the bidirectional EV charger is shown in Figure 10.9.
The controller has two main functions. The first one is that it charges the EV
battery by utilizing active power from the grid (G2V), and the second function is it
238 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Figure 10.9 Control topology of bidirectional EV charger

sends active power back to the grid when needed or performs a V2G operation. The
control function follows the charging power command P* and maintains UPF at its
input. In this operating mode, the reactive power command Q* = 0. During char-
ging, the charger operates as a buck converter by controlling the switching of SW 7
to control the battery charging current.
Second, it supplies the reactive power to the grid when requested from the
utility grid. During this mode, the AC/DC bidirectional converter is controlled to
maintain 180
phase shift between EV current and grid voltage by setting the
reference power command P* to be negative valued and Q* = 0.

10.3.3.1 Performance during G2V mode of operation

The performance evaluation of the bidirectional EV charger during the G2V mode
of

operation is discussed here. The simulation results of grid side currents
ir ; iy ; and ib , DC link voltage ðvdc Þ, battery voltage ðvb Þ, battery current ðib Þ,
measured active power (P), and reactive power (Q) are studied during all operating
modes. In the G2V mode of operation, the charger draws the required active power
from the grid for battery charging. Figure 10.10(a) and (b) shows the simulated
dynamic performance of the proposed bidirectional EV charger, which is obtained
during the step change in the input voltage at rated condition. Grid currents are
sinusoidal and in phase with grid voltages. As shown in these figures, a limited
overshoot or undershoot in DC link is obtained during a step change in grid voltage,
and the DC link voltage is maintained at the desired value. As the input voltage
changes, the output battery charging voltage and current remain constant, demon-
strating the G2V mode’s satisfactory operation.

10.3.3.2 Performance during V2G mode of operation

EV chargers operate in the V2G mode, delivering stored energy from the bat-
tery to the utility grid. When delivering power to the grid, the injected current is
 Power quality control of battery charging system 239

(a)

(b)

Figure 10.10 Dynamic performance of PFC bidirectional EV charger in G2V mode

in the reverse direction of the grid voltage, which can be seen from 180
phase
difference. Each phase current is exactly out of phase with a respective phase in
the case of discharging. Figure 10.11(a) and (b) shows the simulated dynamic
performance of the proposed bidirectional EV charger, which is obtained dur-
ing sudden load variation from 3.3 to 2.65 kW at time 1 s, 2.65 to 2 kW at 1.5 s,
and sudden increase in load from 2 to 3.3 kW. During each case, a limited
overshoot or undershoot in DC link is obtained and the output voltage is almost
constant.
As shown in Figure 10.12(a) and (b), a unity PF and very low THD of supply
current are observed at the AC mains. The PQ indices thus achieved are within the
acceptable limits of IEC 61000-3-2 [13].

10.3.4 BL converter topologies

To improve this, BL PFC converter topology based on dual boost configurations is
deliberated as in Figure 10.13. The conduction loss reductions in the switches are
240 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies
500
vryb (V)

0
–500
500 500 500
0 0 0
–500 –500 –500
10
iryb (A)

0
–10
10 10 10
0 0 0
–10 –10 –10
vr (V),ir (A)

500
0
–500
500 500 500
0 0 0
–500 –500 –500
755
vdc (V)

750
745
740
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (s)
(a)

242
vb (V)

240
238
236
15
ib (A)

10
5
–1,000
P (W)

–2,000
–3,000
–4,000
400
Q (VAR)

200
0
–200
–400
0.5 1 1.5 2.0 2.5
(b) Time (s)

Figure 10.11 Dynamic performance of PFC bidirectional EV charger in the V2G

mode

presented by the elimination of DBR with ripple-free input current. The BL-PFC
topology reduces the conduction losses and the results are high efficiency as well as
power density.
It mainly consists of BL front-end, AC/DC power stage converter based on
SEPIC configuration and employing flyback converter to balance the charging
current at the time of constant. The front-end BL AC–DC converter is designed in
DCM to instate unity PF in an ingenious and emphatic mode. A DCM operation
consequence zero current turn-on switching, output diode soft turn-off as well as,
helps to degrade the complicacy of the control system due to single-voltage sensor
and the flyback converter is operated in DCM of switching. The control loops of
both converters are isolated from each other.
 Power quality control of battery charging system 241

(a)

(b)

Figure 10.12 Harmonic spectrum of grid current at AC mains for a bidirectional

EV charger operating at rated condition. (a) For G2V and (b) V2G
mode of operation.

10.3.4.1 Design of BL converter

The design of BL converter includes the detailed analysis of design equations for
calculating the values of different components used in their circuit configurations.
The introduced BL-SEPIC has a discontinuous current in output inductors
(Lp2 and Ln2 Þ. The input AC voltage vin is conferred as
pffiffiffi
vac ðtÞ ¼ vac pk SinðwL tÞ ¼ 220 2 Sinð314tÞ (10.1)
where vac pk is the peak input voltage and fL is the line frequency of input mains,
i.e., 50 Hz.
Average voltage of the supply mains
pffiffiffi
2 2vin 2  311:14
vac avg ¼ ¼ ¼ 198:06 V (10.2)
p p
242 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Flyback
Input filter BL-modified SEPIC converter converter
iLp_1 vcp iDp_2
iac ib
Single icp
Lac Lp_1 Cp
phase v Dp_2 Dfb
AC ac Cac iLn_1 vcn iDn_2
mains
Cfb vb
Ln_1 icn Dn_2
vsw1 vsw2 Lp_2 Ln_2 vdc Cdc
iLp_2 iLn_2
Dp_1 Dn_1
Sw1 S Sfb
isw1 w2 isw2

Sfb ib
Sw1–Sw2
PWM Voltage PWM Current ieb
generator controller generator controller
i*b
vdc_ref
Sawtooth Sawtooth veb
Voltage
generator generator controller
Control unit of BL-modified SEPIC vb_ref
converter Control unit of flyback converter

Figure 10.13 BL converter-fed EV charger configuration and control

Therefore, the estimation of duty ratio, D, is articulated as

vdc
D¼ ¼ 0:6688 (10.3)
vac avg þ vdc


Estimated value of input inductors Lp1 ; Ln1 for the allowed ripple current of x
as 30% of Im is calculated at DC link voltage vdc ¼ 400 V and expressed as
   
vac min 2 1 vdc
Lp 1; Ln 1 ¼ ¼ 1:979 mH (10.4)
Pin 0:2fs vin min þ vdc

Designed value of output inductor in the DICM mode is calculated as

   
vac min 2 vdc vdc
Lp 2; Ln 2 ¼ ¼ 0:3108 mH
Pin 2vin min  fs vin min þ vdc
(10.5)
vdc  D
Cp ; Cn ¼ ¼ 1:308 mF (10.6)
gfs Cp fs Rdc

Where permitted ripple voltage of g% ði:e: ¼ 10%Þ

The DC link capacitor, Cdc is,
 
Pin
vdc
Cdc ¼ ¼ 1:37 mF (10.7)
2pf Dvdc
 Power quality control of battery charging system 243

To alleviate higher order harmonics, a LC filter is employed at the input pro-

viding 40 dB attenuation,
pffiffi 
2Pin
vs tan f
Cac ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 2:296 mF (10.8)
2pf  2vs
The filter inductor is selected to mitigate high-order harmonics,
1
Lac ¼ ¼ 1:363 mH (10.9)
4ðpfr Þ2 Cac
where fr is the resonant frequency.

10.3.4.2 Flyback converter design

vb
Duty cycle Dfb ¼   ¼ 0:375 (10.10)
vdc þ vb
ns
np


Transformation ratio ns =np ¼ N is set as 9 to confer the control output voltage
of 48 V.
The optimum value of magnetizing inductance Lfb to deliver a maximum
power for battery charging in operating conditions of discontinuous operation is
obtained as

2
vdc Dfb
Lfb   0:1125 mH (10.11)
2vb  ib  fsf
Dfb vb
Output capacitor; Cb ¼  2 ¼ 217:1 mF (10.12)
fsf P c  vb
vb

where c is 3% and takes into account of the output ripple voltage.

10.3.4.3 Performance simulation of single-phase BL EV

charger
The MATLAB models of single-phase BL EV charger are developed using
Simulink and Sim Power Systems (SPS) toolboxes to simulate the performance of
this EV charger in single phase.
The presented EV charger is powered by a single-phase supply of 230 Vrms
where sinusoidal grid current iac in phase with the supply voltage is observed which
shows a unity PF at AC mains. Figure 10.14(a) shows the simulated steady-state
behavior of the BL EV charger at the rated load with a charging voltage ðvb Þ of 48
V and a charging current ðib Þ of 41.67 A. The input inductors current in CCM is
depicted in Figure 10.14(b), where the output capacitor maintains a constant DC of
400 V. The current waveforms of output inductor in positive and negative half-line
cycles represent its conveniences for the DCM operation. The peak input current of
the converters is evaluated to 14.3 A. Both converter switches (Sw1 and Sw2) are
Figure 10.14 Performance of introduced system at steady-state conditions
 Power quality control of battery charging system 245

operated asymmetrically in each half-cycle. This performance validates the feasi-

bility of BL configuration and its operation with reduced stress of voltage and
current across all the switches.
It is observed from Figure 10.14(g) that the source voltage and current are in-
phase resulting in enhanced PQ parameters with low THD of the line current which
is verified through the harmonics spectrum analysis. Current THD is below 5% and
the PF is 0.998, which complies with the required IEC 61000-3-2 norms. The
individual dominant harmonics (3rd, 5th, and 7th) are also within IEC 61000-3-2
norms as shown in Figure 10.14(g). The efficiency of the EV charger is 91.74%
because the input power drawn by the EV charger is 2.18 kW whereas the output
power is 2 kW.
The improved efficiency is a result of current conduction through the lowest
number of components in each cycle and, therefore, they have high efficiency due
to lower losses associated with them.

10.3.5 Dual active bridge converter topology

The dual active bridge (DAB) converter topology is a specific topology which is
capable of bidirectional power flow. One such topology is shown in Figure 10.15
which is used for battery charging while utilizing grid and photo-voltaic (PV) array. It
consists of a single-phase AC source that feeds a nonlinear load. The DAB converter
system is designed for charging low-rating batteries using solar PV and grid power.
The grid side VSC is controlled with the help of an adaptive filter algorithm
and thus maintains the DC link voltage at the specified reference value. The PV
source is created by connecting several modules in series and parallel, and PV
voltage and current are determined for the PV array using the perturb and observe
(P&O) method. The solar PV array is connected at the point of common coupling
and feeds solar power utilizing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control.
MPPT control is also used to generate the reference DC link voltage for the DC link

Figure 10.15 Control schematic of a DAB converter for battery charging

246 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

capacitor. After the DC link capacitor, the DAB DC–DC converter is connected,
the DAB control is executed while utilizing the phase shift modulation technique.
The DAB converter ensures that the voltage and the current are maintained at a
specified value required for charging and discharging of the battery in the various
modes of operation that may be G2V, V2G, etc.

10.3.5.1 DAB controller design

DAB controller works on the principle of phase shift. When there is an adequate
phase shift between the primary and the secondary switches, then the transfer of
power takes from the leading phase shift side to the lagging phase shift side. This is
the same as the power transfer between two buses in a power system. For the primary
and secondary voltages, V1 and V2, respectively, the phase shift d is obtained as
 
Pw L
d¼p 1
V1 V2
where w is the switching frequency and L is the inductive reactance between the
two sides.
To control the DAB converter, the difference between the battery current and
the reference battery current is taken as
eðtÞ ¼ Iba ðtÞ  Iref ðtÞ
This error signal is then passed to the PI controller whose output is given as
 
Kt
pðaÞ ¼ kp þ  eðtÞ
s
A signal is produced as an output and is multiplied by the constant a for the
intended design values of Ki and Kp. Where a is defined as
where Ts= 1/25,000 is the time period for the specified switching frequency of
25 kHz
 
1
a¼  0:5 pðaÞ  a ¼ pref
25; 000
This obtained signal acts as a time delay which provides the required phase
shift needed between the primary and the secondary switches

10.3.5.2 Operation in charging mode (G2V)

In the charging mode of operation, the battery gets charged through the power sup-
plied from the grid. In this mode, the primary portion of the DAB converter leads to
the secondary and thus the power is supplied from the primary to the secondary.
Figure 10.16 shows the control configuration of DAB charging converter.

10.3.5.3 Operation in discharging mode (V2G)

In the discharging mode of operation, the power is sent back from the battery to the
grid. In this mode, the primary segment of the DAB converter leads the secondary
 Power quality control of battery charging system 247

Figure 10.16 Control schematic of a DAB charging controller

NOT SD3
SD1
SD2
Delay
β SD4
ˆ
E(s)
Ib* y(t)
PI(s) SD6
Ib1 x(t) Delay Delay
α SD8
NOT SD9
SD7
DAB Discharging Controller

Figure 10.17 Control schematic of a DAB discharging controller

portion and the power is transferred from secondary to primary. Figure 10.17 shows
the control configuration of DAB discharging converter. The operation of the DAB
converter is obtained and presented in Figure 10.18 in both the modes (charging as
well as discharging). DAB converter has a point of transition at 0.5 s between the
charging and discharging modes. While the power is transferred from the grid to
the battery in the time zone of 0–0.5 s, the primary of the DAB converter leads the
secondary, resulting in power transfer from the primary to the secondary or from
G2V, as observed in Figure 10.18. At the instant of 0.5 s, there is a change in
operation from G2V to V2G, the primary starts to lag behind secondary after the
0.5 s and the power starts to transfer from the secondary side to the primary
or V2G.
248 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Figure 10.18 Performance simulation of a DAB controller

10.4 Multi-pulse and multi-level topologies

For power quality improvement of battery charging systems, the AC-DC converters
can have multiple winding transformer-based configurations known as multi-pulse
converter configurations and multiple switching pulses with variable voltage level
switching known as multi-level converter configurations.

10.4.1 Multi-pulse converters

When the static rectifiers are used, the output voltage pulsates integer multiple
times the input frequency and the input current is also multi-step. By popular use in
the power electronics industry, a multipulse converter mean “a three-phase con-
verter that produces more than six ripples of DC voltage per cycle” or alternately “a
three-phase converter having steps in AC more than that of a 6-pulse bridge rec-
tifier.” The advantage of multipulse technique is that it acts as AC and DC side
filter in a single unit.
The multipulse converters require separately wound transformers with the
rectifiers mainly for:
● Stepping up or down the available utility supply voltage to desired levels.
● When the increase in the number of phases or phase shifting is needed, i.e.,
phase multiplication is required separately wound star/star-delta transformers
are commonly used to obtain 3 to 6-phase conversion.
● For eliminating neutral conductor, star-delta transformers are used.
 Power quality control of battery charging system 249

AC-DC converters with reduced harmonics

Controlled (bi-directional)
Uncontrolled (uni-directional) MPCs
MPCs

Non-isolated Isolated Non-Isolated Isolated

MPCs MPCs MPCs MPCs

Figure 10.19 Classification of MPCs

● Saturation in the transformer core is useful in short-circuit conditions, i.e., it

acts as isolation between the supply and the load side.

10.4.1.1 Classification of multi-pulse converters

The most popular AC–DC converters are diode-based or thyristor-based bridge-
type converters although half-wave converters are also used in some specific
applications. In the applications like DC motor drives and CSI-fed AC motor
drives, the thyristor-based AC–DC converters having firing angle control are used
for DC voltage/current control and bi-directional power flow. The diode-based
bridges are commonly used in VSI-fed AC motor drives and power supplies. The
above discussion leads to the classification of multi-pulse converters with the
reduced harmonics as shown in Figure 10.19. The isolated MPCs shall be discussed
here that are connected to the utility for EV charging.

10.4.1.2 Arrangement of MPCs

A number of researchers have investigated the multi-pulse AC–DC converters, many
giving simulation and experimental results and also new concepts. The isolated uncon-
trolled rectifiers and isolated controlled rectifiers have been discussed here as isolation
and harmonic reduction at input shall be possible simultaneously at the utility end.
The five important parts of these MPCs which are important for their suc-
cessful operation and decide its characteristics that are: (i) transformer, (ii) inter-
phase reactor (IPR), (iii) zero-sequence blocking transformer (ZSBT), (iv) bridge
configurations, and (v) high-pass filter.
Transformers
The different three-phase transformer winding arrangements possible are shown in
Figure 10.20. These isolated transformers may have more than one primary or sec-
ondary winding, arranged in D, Y, zigzag (ZZ), polygon, extended D, and hexagon
shape. The full-wave (FW) MPCs generally have transformers with Y-connected
secondary winding, while the primary may be D, Y, zigzag (ZZ), polygon, and
extended D. At times, Tee-connected (Scott connected) windings are also employed,
mainly due to the fact the even number of single-phase transformers is required.
250 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

(a)

idc
7 6
5 -
a 8
9 4
10 3
b 11 vdc
2
c 12 1

(b)

idc
+
Cx

vdc
Aux.
Cy Tr.

(c)

Figure 10.20 (a) Bridge rectifier-based isolated MPCs – 12-pulse MPC. (b) 12-
pulse MPC with non-isolated secondary winding. (c) Improved 6-
pulse MPC. (d) 12-pulse controlled MPC. (e) 18-pulse MPC with a
single primary. (f) 24-pulse MPC with two primaries. (g) 24-pulse
MPC with pulse doubling. (h) 12  3 MPC. (i) 48-pulse (12  4)
MPC. (j) Another 48-pulse (12  4) MPC.
 Power quality control of battery charging system 251

T 3 T1 idc
C +
N2 T2
2 N0 N1
ij T1 T3
N11
ij Vdc

N0 N1

C -

(d)

+ idc
+20°
- +
a
+
vdc
b -
c
+ -
–20°
-

(e)

idc
+ +
-
–22.50°

+
–7.50° - vdc

+
-
+7.50°

+ -
+22.50° -

(f )

Figure 10.20 (Continued )

252 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

+ idc

+
-

vdc
+ Cdc

(g)

+
+

0° - vdc
+ Ld

30° -
(h) -

Transformer +
+

0° - vdc
+ Ld

30° -
(i) -

Transformer idc
Cp +

Transformer

vdc
Cq

-
(j)

Figure 10.20 (Continued )

 Power quality control of battery charging system 253

IPR
The IPRs are employed to absorb the instantaneous voltage difference between the
bridge outputs. Tapped IPRs are used to help the pulse multiplication by absorbing
the ripple currents and injecting it back into the input thereby reducing the har-
monics. An arrangement of IPR windings for pulse doubling and tripling is shown
in Figure 10.21.
The value of voltage difference at the terminals of a tapped IPR is given by
Vm ¼ 0:0814 V0
And the voltages V1, V2, and V3 can be written in terms of the Vm as
V1 =Vm ¼ V2 =Vm ¼ ðNo 2Nt Þ=2=No ¼ 0:2543:
And V3 =Vm ¼ 2Nt =N0 ¼ 0:4914:
Therefore, the value of V1, V2, and V3 is:
V1 ¼ V2 ¼ 0:2543; Vm ¼ 0:021V0
V3 ¼ 0:4914;Vm ¼ 0:04V0
Io1;rms ¼ Io2;rms ¼ 0:567Io and so Io3;rms ¼ 0:232Io
The Volt-ampere rating of the tapped IPR becomes
VAIPT ¼ 0:0165Po
The formulas used for designing of transformer are the following:
● The voltage induced in a transformer winding with T turns,
p p

Et ¼ K Q; where K ¼ 4:44f ; jm :103 =ðA TÞ
Tp ¼ Vp =Et and Ts ¼ Vs =Es
Ap ¼ Ip =d and as ¼ Is =d
● Total area of copper,
Core area; Ac ¼ Tp :ap þ Ts :as ¼ 2:TP :Ip =d ¼ 2AT =d
But Q = 2.22. f. jm. Ac.d  103 kVA
● Maximum flux, jm = Q/(2.22. f . Ac. d  103)
● Core area, Ai = jm/Bm
● The space factor for transformer window is Kw = area for conductors in win-
dow/window area = Ac/Aw
ZSBT
For the independent operation of the two-diode bridge rectifiers fed from non-
isolated secondary windings, zero-sequence currents must be blocked. This
blocking transformer must offer high impedance to unwanted currents and pro-
motes 120
conduction for each device in bridge. The arrangement of windings is
254 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Figure 10.21 Pulse multiplication concept for Interphase Reactor – (a) An IPR
tapped with two diodes for pulse multiplication 12  2, to get 24
Pulse AC/DC Converter (b) An IPR tapped with three thyristors for
pulse multiplication 12  3, to get 36 Pulse AC/DC Converter. (c)
The sequence of turning-ON tapped thyristors with reference to
bridge output voltages
 Power quality control of battery charging system 255

+150

–150

Figure 10.22 Arrangements of ZSBT and IPT windings

shown in Figure 10.22. The voltage across the ZSBT (VZSBT) is obtained as


VZSBT ¼ Vp Vq Vm
¼ ðVa1 Va2 Þ for 8=12f to 11=12f
and ðVb1 Va2 Þ for 11=12f to f
where f is the fundamental frequency of Va1.
The ZSBT contains only triple-frequency voltage components and is expressed
in the Fourier series as

VZSBT ¼ VLL  ð0:25  cos ð3wtÞþ0:07  sin ð6wtÞþ0:03  cos ð9wtÞ þ . . . ::Þ

So, we have
VZSBT ¼ 0:185VLL and Io1;rms ¼ 0:567Io
Therefore, the VA rating of this transformer (VAZSBT) is
VAZSBT = 0.075*Pout where Pout is the output power.

Bridge configurations
Six-pulse full-bridges may be arranged in series or in parallel with IPRs at the
output. Three-phase inputs are shifted by 60
/n where n (n > 1) is the number of 6-
pulse bridges used. If n = 2, the phase shifting between inputs is 30
(or 15
). If n
= 3, the phase shifting between inputs is 20
(20
, 0
,20
). If n = 4, the phase
shifting between inputs is 15
(22.5
, 7.5
, 7.5
, 22.5
). Figure 10.20 shows the
isolated bridge-based MPCs which are most popular for uncontrolled/controlled
rectification. When full-wave converters are employed, the phase shifting between
the inputs to 6-pulse rectifiers is 120
/n.
256 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

High-pass filter (HPF)

The commutation overlap is observed in the line currents and voltages when more
than two devices in a rectifier bridge conduct. The duration and the magnitude of
overlap vary with firing angle, load current, and source inductance. It incites six
notches per cycle in the input voltage waveform of a 6-pulse thyristor converter. To
mitigate this deviation, tuned passive filters and high-pass filters (HPF) at the point
of common coupling (PCC) are required. In general, the first-order tuned and HPFs
can be employed but these are susceptible to changes in the supply frequency
besides being bulky involving more components.
The multipulse AC–DC converters inherently have higher order characteristics
harmonics causing higher frequency but lesser depth commutation notches in vol-
tage waveform. Their elimination is possible by employing a second-order HPF as
the current waveform has low amplitude 23rd and 25th order (35th and 37th for 36
pulse converter) dominant harmonics for a 24-pulse converter.
The harmonic pattern without any passive filter at the input of an MPC helps
determining the indices of an HPF to be employed. The HPF must offer a capaci-
tive reactance (XC,1) and a low-value dominant resistive impedance (Zn) over
fundamental and higher-order frequencies, respectively.

10.4.2 Multi-level converters

Owing to many advantages of multilevel converters, such as less-voltage stress across
switches, low harmonics, and high efficiency, the concept is used in battery charging
applications also. One such topology is presented in Figure 10.19. This configuration is
created using two different configurations namely using level-shifted duty control
multilevel converter and ZVS phase-shift full bridge converter. In a level-shifted duty-
controlled multilevel converter, there are two active switches ðSW 1 and SW 2 Þ, two
diodes (D1 and D2 Þ, one bidirectional switch (SW3), and two split capacitors
ðC1 and C2 Þ coupled through a DC link. This constant DC voltage ðvdc Þ feeds to a ZVS
phase-shift full-bridge converter at the output of the level-shifted multilevel converter.
The ZVS phase-shift full-bridge converter consists of four active switches
ðSa ; Sb ; Sc ; and Sd Þ at the primary side of the high-frequency transformer (HFT).
The secondary of the transformer is connected to four diodes ðDa ; Db ; Dc ; and Dd Þ
and output capacitor Cf . PSFBC is controlled using a voltage controller so that the
output DC voltage can be altered and controlled. The DC-link capacitor balances
the charges CCCV operation.
The connections of bidirectional switch between leg y and split DC-link
capacitor, as shown in Figure 10.23, provide various paths for current to achieve a
five-level voltage profile at the terminals of the adopted converter, which results in
low-voltage stress on the switching devices. The drawn line current by the five-
level AC–DC rectifier is sinusoidal and in phase with input voltage to attain the
UPF and THD of input current as per the international PQ standard IEC-61000-3-2
[13]. One important prerequisite of this control is that the DC link voltage should
have a value higher than the peak voltage of AC mains, whereas lower than twice
of AC mains voltage, i.e. vðgðmaxÞ<vdc <2vðgðmaxÞ . The DC link voltage, vdc of this
Figure 10.23 Level-shifted PWM five-level PFC rectifier-based EV battery charger
258 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

discussed topology is applied to the input of high-frequency PSFBC. The battery

charging current during the switching period is maintained constant by the output
filter inductor Lo and capacitor Co . The control loops and power circuits of these
converters are isolated individually.
The current directions and different operating modes are shown in Table 10.1,
which are produced by semiconductor switches.
To obtain this five-level pattern at the front-end rectifier with low THD and
UPF, a level-shifted PWM scheme is applied to produce appropriate switching
pulses. The overall control schematic of the level-shifted duty-controlled multilevel
charger, as depicted in Figure 10.24, initiates DC-link voltage sensing and voltage-
error generation between the reference voltage and the sensed voltage. The
obtained error is sent to the outer loop of the low bandwidth voltage controller. The
output of this controller is multiplied with the unit sinusoidal signal obtained from
the phase-locked loop (PLL) circuit to generate the reference sinusoidal current ig .
To interconnect the battery charger to AC mains, the grid frequency must be
accurately estimated. The grid estimation in a single-phase system cannot be
determined directly, hence, phase shifting is required to construct orthogonal

Table 10.1 Operating modes of level-shifted PWM five-level rectifier

Switching Sign of ig Switching signals vx y

states
SW1 SW2 SW3
1 >0 ON OFF OFF þvdc
2 >0 ON OFF ON þvdc =2
3  0 and  0 ON ON OFF 0
4 <0 OFF OFF ON vdc =2
5 <0 OFF ON OFF vdc

v*q=0
kTs
vα vq
vg k ωo αβ Voltage
Z-1
vβ vd LPF
dq
controller

kTs ωo ωo
Z-1

Sin θ kTs
Z-1
vdc_ref v*dc i*g
Voltage Current Level-shifted
controller controller PWM generator Sw1-Sw3

vdc ig
Multiple carrier
triangular generator

Figure 10.24 Block diagram of an implemented controller for the five-level converter
 Power quality control of battery charging system 259

components. The frequency is calculated from the q-axis component in a single-phase

PLL system using a discrete-time integrator and a PI controller. The second-order
filter is used to estimate the ab-components, which then leads to the computation of
the dq-axis components using the line frequency as the correction factor.
The line current of the adopted five-level converter is compared with reference
sinusoidal current and sent to the inner loop of the high bandwidth current con-
troller, which is processed through a level-shifted PWM comparator to produce the
switching pulses. The level-shifted PWM strategy has a low and fixed switching
frequency carrier waveform of 5 kHz as shown in Figures 10.25(a) and (b),
respectively, which ensures the generation of gating signals to control the power
switches that reduce the switching losses, harmonics, and device stresses as com-
pared with traditional multilevel converter.
Due to this five-level converter, the sizes of passive components are smaller,
light-weighted, and cost-effective in comparison to conventional rectifiers. As shown
in Figure 10.25(a), four vertically shifted triangular carrier waves with the same
frequency and amplitude (Cw1 ; Cw2 ; Cw3 ; and Cw4 ) are used to modulate the sinusoi-
dal reference waveform ðUref Þ and generate fixed frequency switching pulses for
five-level control of rectifier. Figure 10.25(b) depicts the logical operation block.
The output voltage of the level-shifted PWM converter is processed by a DC–
DC converter operating in a continuous conduction mode. The gating signals with
dead time for switching devices converter Sa  Sb and Sc  Sd are retained on for
180
. Therefore, switching pulses of Sa  Sd and Sb  Sc are square pulses with a
50% duty cycle. These pulses are generated by a PWM generator by comparing the
voltage reference signal to a sawtooth carrier. The output of the full-bridge is
connected to the HFT. This high-frequency AC is rectified by a diode bridge rec-
tifier D1  D4 . The output inductor Lo delivers continuous current and filter capa-
citor Co limits the output ripple voltage. Finally, a voltage feedback controller is
used to alter and control the output DC voltage.

Figure 10.25 (a) Switching pattern of 4-carrier level-shifted PWM technique.

(b) Fixed frequency switching pulses as per switching Table 10.1.
260 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

10.4.3 Design of single-phase multilevel EV charger

The improved PQ 3.3kW level-shifted PWM five-level EV battery charger is
designed for an output of 48–72 V DC, 150 Ah battery with UPF at 220 V input AC
supply. Its simulated performance is shown in Figure 10.26, which demonstrates
the achievement of desired parameters.
(A) Five-level converter design
The input AC voltage Vin to the five-level converter is conferred as
pffiffiffi
vg ðtÞ ¼ vg pk Sinð2pfs tÞ ¼ 220 2 Sinð314tÞ (10.13)
The input inductor (L) filters out the input mains ripple current, expressed as
vdc
L¼ 2
¼ 0:53 mH (10.14)
4  fc  DigppðmaxÞ

The values of DC-link split capacitors, C1 and C2 , are calculated for per-
missible ripple in DC-link voltage (10%)
Po
C1 ; C2 ¼ ¼ 103:12 mF (10.15)
4  fc  fvdc 2  ðvdc 2  Dv2 Þg
(B) DC–DC converter design
The ZVS-PSPWM DC–DC full-bridge converter provides
48–72V DC for a dif-
ferent range of EV battery charging. The turns ratio N, i:e:; ns ⁄np is taken as 4.49
to obtain the range of 48–72 V output. ib and vb are nominal current and voltage
output, respectively, at the rated power. The duty cycle Df is calculated to have
minimum switch stress in the desired voltage range
0:5vb 0:5  72
Df ¼
 ¼ ¼ 0:404 (10.16)
ns =np vdc ð1=4:49Þ  400
The maximum average current of output inductor, Lo , is given as

Pomax 3:3  103

ibmax ¼ ¼ ¼ 69:75A (10.17)
vbmin 48
The output inductor, Lo ; is selected to maintain current ripple within the
desired limits (i.e., 3% of average charging current)
vbmax ð0:5  DÞ 72ð0:5  0:404Þ
Lo ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:134 mH (10.18)
Dib  fs 2:0625  25  103
The value of the output capacitor is calculated for the designated ripple in
output voltage as,
ib max 68:75
Cf ¼ ¼ ¼ 143:22 mF (10.19)
8fs  Dvco 8  25  103  2:4
where 〖Dv〗co is 5% and taken into account as an output ripple voltage.
 Power quality control of battery charging system 261
400
200 400

vsw2 (V)
vg (V)
0 200
–200
–400 0
30 40
15

isw2 (A)
ig (A)

20
0
–15 0
–30 –20
500
250
vxy (V)

400

vd2 (V)
0
–250 200
–500 0
410
40
vdc (V)

id2 (A)
400
20
390
0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0
Time (s) 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38
Time (s)
(a) (d)

400
vsw1 (V)

50
200
0 vb (V) 48
40
isw1 (A)

20 46
0 71
–20
ib (A)

69
400
vd1 (V)

200 67
0
0.996
40
id1 (A)

0.9955
pf

20
0 0.995
0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.3 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38
Time (s)
Time (s)
(b) (e)

200 30
vsw3 (V)

15
ig (A)

0 0
–200 –15
30 –30
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
isw3 (A)

15
0
–15 Time (s)
–30
220
Fundamental)

2 Fundamental (50Hz) = 21.97 A

vc1 (V)

Mag (% of

200 THD= 4.28%

180 1
220
vc2 (V)

200 0
0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
180
0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 Harmonic order
Time (s)

(c) (f )

Figure 10.26 Simulated performance of battery charging at an output voltage of

48V Dc. (a) Grid source voltage vgd, source current ig, voltage vxy
at rectifier input, and dc-link voltage. (b) Voltage and current
profile of switches Sw1 and D1. (c) Voltage and current profile of
switches Sw2 and D2. (d) Peak voltage, current across switches
(Sw3), and voltage across capacitor (C1 and C2). (e) Charging
voltage vb, current ib of battery, and measured pf of the converter.
(f) Harmonic spectrum of source current.
262 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

10.4.4 Modeling, simulation, and performance of single-

phase multilevel EV charger
Another multilevel configuration shown in Figure 10.27 is a three-phase five-level
AC/DC rectifier with an IBC fast EV charger. The level-shifted duty control is used
in a three-phase, five-level AC/DC rectifier, which contains 6 active switches
ðSW 1 ; SW 2 . . . . . . ; and SW 6 Þ, 12 diodes (D1 ; D2 . . . : and D12 Þ, and 2 split capacitors
ðC1 and C2 Þ connected through a DC connection. The three-phase converter per
phase legs is connected using three boost inductors, designated Lr ; Ly ; and Lb , and
acts as an input filter inductor. This DC link voltage ðvdc Þ feeds to a novel parallel
IBC, which is suited for the EV charger applications.
The proposed interleaved buck DC–DC converter with zero resonant current
switching is suitable for low-voltage and high-current applications. The circuit can be
derived from the standard buck converter where two pairs of switches are connected
in parallel for sub-converter I similarly connected in parallel for sub-converter II. All
the inductors L1 ; L2 ; L3 ; and L4 are identical (L1 ¼ L2 ¼ L3 ¼ L4 = Lb ). To eliminate
harmonics and DC ripple, the carrier signals for switches (SW 7 and SW 8 ) and (SW 9 and
SW 10 ) are 180
phase shift. The duty cycle for each switch is less than 0.5.
The buck resonant converters are used for resolving the high switching fre-
quency losses, reducing the circuit volume, and controlling the switches with ease.
Therefore, they control the output voltage via switching frequency. At the input
side, a five-level voltage waveform is generated, thus reducing voltage stress on the
switching power devices. The five-level voltage ðvab Þ at converter input is decided
according to AC mains current variation and line voltage. In accordance with the
international PQ standard IEC-61000-3-2, the proposed EV charger draws a sinu-
soidal line current in phase with an input voltage to achieve UPF and THD of grid
current. Parallel IBCs are integrated with DC-link voltages of the five-level AC/DC
rectifier topology that keeps the battery charging current constant. Each converter’s
control loop is isolated from the other.

Multilevel AC/DC converter D11

D9 Sub-converter 1

D7 iL1 L1
iLr D1–D2 ib
Sw7 Sw9
a
Lr C1 vc1
iLy D3–D4 iL2 L2 vb
vr Sw1 Sw3 Sw5 Sw8 Sw10
b Cb
vdc
Ly Sw2 Sw4 Sw6
vb vy iLb D5–D6 iL3 L3 Battery
C2 vc2 Sw13
c Sw11
Lb
L4
D8 iL4
D10 Sw12 Sw14 Sub-converter 11
D12

Figure 10.27 Three-phase multilevel AC/DC converter fed with two-phase

parallel interleaved DC–DC converter
 Power quality control of battery charging system 263

10.4.5 Operation of three-phase multilevel EV charger

The operation of a three-phase multi-level EV charger may be discussed in two
parts: front-end AC/DC converter and interleaved DC–DC converter.

10.4.5.1 Three-phase front-end AC/DC converter

During the positive cycle of the line current, when high-frequency switches Sw1 ,
Sw2 , diode D1 , and diode D2 conduct, i.e., zero level is generated by a short circuit
between points a and b. Following a linear increase in the inductor current iL r, the
inductor is fed with grid power. As the demand current is continuous supplied to the
battery, the energy stored in the capacitors (C1 and C2 ) discharges.
When switching device Sw1 is on and Sw2 is off during the same positive half
cycle of the input mains, the energy is transferred from inductor Lr through diodes
D1 , D8 ; while D2 is conducting to the output capacitor C2 . The voltage across an
inductor Lr is jvr j  vc2 . Split capacitors C1 and C2 have respective charging and
discharging currents of idc and iLr  idc .
When switching device Sw1 is off and Sw2 is on, diodes D1 , D7 ; and D2 are
conducting. The resulting voltage across inductor Lr is jvr j  vc1 . Capacitor C1
charging current is iLr  idc , and capacitor C2 discharging current is idc . In this
mode, the DC bus voltage vab is vc1 .
When high-frequency switches Sw1 and Sw2 are off, and diodes D1 , D7 , D8 and
D2 are on, then capacitors C1 and C2 are being charged at a rate of iLr  idc . The
voltage across inductor Lr is jvr j  vdc . The charging current of capacitors C1 and
C2 is iLr  idc . In this state, voltage vab at the converter input terminal is vc1 þ vc2 .
Similarly, leg r has four operational modes for its negative half-cycle.
In comparison with a conventional PWM rectifier with the same switching
device voltage rating, the rectifier output voltage is twice as much as the DC bus
voltage. Another key benefit of the suggested design is that the DC bus-connected
diodes prevent the shoot-through current even while both switches are turned on.
As a result, the rectifier has a high degree of reliability, simple to operate, and
produces a high output of DC bus voltage.

10.4.5.2 Interleaved buck DC/DC converter

When switches Sw7 and Sw10 are energized it increases the leakage inductor current
iL1 . On the other hand, the inductor L2 current iL2 decreases when SW 8 and SW 9 are
turned off.
When switches Sw8 and Sw9 are turned on and iL2 that flows through L2
increases, iL1 decreases. When switches Sw8 and Sw9 are activated, current iL2
flowing via inductor L2 rises while iL1 falls.
With the activation of Sw7 and Sw8 , the currents IL1 and IL2 start to rise as a
consequence of the increased load changes. The inductive current rises linearly as
vd c stores energy in L1 and L2 .
The load variation is decreased, current iL1 and iL2 start decreasing. Sw7 and Sw9
are not functional. In contrast, Sw8 and Sw10 are enabled.
264 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

All the working modes of sub-converter II are identical as sub-converter I. The

outputs of both the converter are parallelly connected, which increase the charging
current and maintain the output voltage constant.

10.4.6 Hardware parameter design

The EV charger design details of inductor selection and output capacitor selection
are outlined here for an output of 200400 V wide-range DC voltage.

10.4.6.1 Three-level converter design

The input inductor (Ls ), filters out the input mains ripple current, expressed as,..
The values of DC-link split capacitors, C1 and C2 , are calculated for permis-
sible ripple in DC-link voltage of 5%,
Po
C1 ; C2 ¼ ¼ 826:44 mF (10.20)
4  fc  fvdc 2  ðvdc 2  Dv2 Þg

10.4.6.2 Two-phase IBC

The two-phase IBC provides 200–400 V DC for different ranges of EV battery
charging for an input DC voltage 1,100 V:
vb
Duty ratioðDÞ ¼ ¼ 0:181 to 0:363 (10.21)
vc
Po
Output current ðib Þ ¼ ¼ 250 Amax (10.22)
vb
ib
Inductor current iL1 ¼ iL2 ¼ iL3 ¼ iL4 ¼ ¼ 125A (10.23)
2
 
ib
DiL1 ¼ DiL2 ¼ DiL3 ¼ DiL4 ¼  5% ¼ 6:25A (10.24)
2
 
vdc  voðminÞ
Value of inductor L1 ¼ L2 ¼ L3 ¼ L4 ¼  D ¼ 1:045 mH
DIL  n  fs
(10.25)
The value of the output capacitor is calculated for the designated ripple in the
output voltage as,
ibðmaxÞ 250
Cb ¼ ¼ ¼ 208:33 mF (10.26)
8  fs  Dvcb 8  25  103  6

10.4.7 Performance simulation of three-phase multilevel EV

charger
The MATLAB models of a three-phase multilevel EV charger is developed using
Simulink and Sim Power Systems (SPS) toolboxes to simulate the performance of
this EV charger.
Figure 10.28(a–d) shows the simulated performance of a multilevel AC/DC
converter fed two-phase parallel interleaved DC–DC converter for fast EV charger
 Power quality control of battery charging system 265
400
vryb (V) 220

vb (V)
200
0 200
–200 180
–400 260

ib (A)
100 250
iryb (A)

0 240
150

iL1 (A)
–100
100
1,120 50
vryb (V)

1,100
1,080 150

iL2 (A)
48 100
idc (A)

46 50
44 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8
Time (s)
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time (s)
(a) (c)

1,000 100
vab (V)

ir (A)
0
–1,000 0
1,120
–100
vdc (V)

1,100 0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35

1,080 Time (s)
700
vc1 (V)

600 100
500 Fundamental (50 Hz) = 100.2 A
Fundamental)

400 THD = 2.81

Mag (% of

700 50
vc2 (V)

600
500
400
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0
Time (s) 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Harmonic order
(b) (d)

Figure 10.28 Simulated performance of multilevel AC/DC converter-fed two-

phase parallel interleaved DC–DC converter for a fast EV charger
at an output voltage of 200 V dc. (a) Grid source voltage vryb,
source current iryb, dc-link voltage, and dc-link current; (b) voltage
vxy at rectifier input, dc-link voltage, and voltage across capacitor
(C1 and C2); (c) charging voltage vb, current ib of battery, inductor
current of DC–DC converter (L1 and L2); (d) harmonic spectrum of
r phase.

operating 230 V phase to neutral at rated load condition with an output of 200Vdc .
As shown in these figures, the DC-ink voltage (vdc ) is 1; 100Vdc and voltage across
split capacitor (C1 and C2 ) is 550Vdc . The drawn line current by the five-level AC–
DC rectifier is sinusoidal and in phase with the input voltage to attain the UPF.
However, peaky current from the supply system (iryb ) is drawn, which does not
deteriorate the PQ performance of the fast EV charger. The THD of input current is
2.57%, which satisfies the international PQ standard IEC-61000-3-2 [13].
The performance realization is deemed satisfactory and complies with the PQ
criteria. The suggested rectifier with three-voltage levels also minimizes electro-
magnetic interference, harmonic components, voltage ratings, and device voltage
and current stress when compared to standard PWM converters.
266 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

10.5 Summary
The purpose of this chapter is to present the PQ improvement aspects in a battery
charger used for EV applications. Featuring a near unity input PF and low THD on
the line, the input stage can have different converter-based PF correctors. The
converters can be single-phase-controlled and -uncontrolled converters followed by
DC–DC converters or multi-pulse converters or multi-level converters. The control
strategy can be used for bidirectional power flow in these converters and a special
DAB converter for V2G or G2V operation from a solar or any renewable energy-
based charger. Such chargers are considered as green chargers. To improve effi-
ciency and to increase switching frequency, a zero-voltage isolated full bridge/
interleaved DC/DC converter or zero voltage or zero current switching schemes can
also be employed. It can be summarized that the PQ improvement is an essential
requirement for any kind of chargers and it is implementable in many ways, as
demonstrated in this chapter but not limited to these methods only. The readers may
have various ideas on the basis of the presented concepts.

Symbols
Lp2 and Ln2 output inductors
Lp1 and Ln1 input inductors
vin input AC voltage
vac pk peak input voltage
supply frequency of input mains
D duty ratio
Vdc DC-link voltage
Cdc DC-link capacitance
Ldc filter inductor
fr resonant frequency
Il inductor current
Po output power

Glossary
AC alternating current
APF active power filters
BEV battery electric vehicles
BL bridgeless
CC constant current
CCM continuous conduction mode
CS charging station
CV constant voltage
 Power quality control of battery charging system 267

DAB dual active bridge

DBR diode bridge rectifier
DC direct current
DCM discontinuous current conduction mode
EV electric vehicle
G2V grid-to-vehicle
HEV hybrid electric vehicle
HPF high-pass filter
HFT high-frequency transformer
IBC interleaved buck converter
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
MLI multi-level inverter
MPPT maximum power point tracking
PF power factor
PFC power factor correction
PHEVs plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
P&O perturb and observe
PQ power quality
PSFBC phase-shifted full-bridge converter
PV photo-voltaic
PWM pulse-width-modulation
SEPIC single-ended primary inductance converter
THD total harmonic distortion
TLB three-level boost
UPF unity power factor
V2G vehicle-to-grid
VSC voltage–source converter
ZVS zero-voltage switching

References
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application,” PhD Thesis, SLIET Longowal, India, May 2023.
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Converters Applications and Design, 3rd ed. (An Indian Adaptation), Wiley,
New York, NY, 2022.
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[4] O. Garcı́a, J. A. Cobos, R. Prieto, P. Alou, and J. Uceda, “Single phase power
factor correction: a survey,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 18, no. 3,
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 Chapter 11
Wireless power transfer for electric vehicle
Sumit Pramanick1 and Anandarup Das1

11.1 Introduction
The adoption of electric vehicle (EV) has been steadily increasing throughout the
world and is expected to continue in the future. More and more countries, including
developing countries, are adopting this technology at a fast rate. One of the chal-
lenges of this process is, however, building the necessary charging infrastructure
for charging the EVs. This includes both adequate number of charging points in a
geographical region and simultaneous fast charging options. It may not be possible
to achieve both these objectives given the economic constraints in a country,
availability of a strong power grid, and large area of land available. For example,
there is an ever-increasing demand for the extension of a range of batteries from a
single-charge demanding higher size of batteries and initial cost.
Wireless power charging can play an important role in this scenario. Instead of
relying solely on development of better and compact battery technology, an alter-
native in the form of wireless technology is gaining attention. In this technique,
batteries can be charged by electromagnetic field in air with the vehicle stationary
or in moving condition [1–3]. It can be observed that many low-power devices like
smartphones and tablets are already being charged wirelessly; it is expected that
wireless power transfer in EVs will also play a significant role in near future.
A wireless power transfer system consists of a transmitter and a receiver. The
transmitter transmits electric power and is usually connected to the electrical grid.
A receiver receives the energy through an intermediate medium, usually air, and
delivers to the load. In case of EVs, the transmitter is often located buried inside the
road. The receiver is an electric circuit situated inside the EV and connected to the
electric motor and the onboard battery. Wireless power transfer can take place
while the vehicle is stationary or moving [4]. In the case of stationary vehicles
parked in a spot, wireless power transfer is very similar to wired electric charging
except that no physical cable needs to be connected to the vehicles. The char-
acteristic difference in wireless charging is the ability to charge a vehicle on the go.
With an adequate number of transmitters present inside the road, it may be possible

1
Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT Delhi, India
270 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

to continuously supply energy to the vehicle putting less requirement of battery in

the vehicle.

11.1.1 Wired charging and its challenges

Presently, most of the electric and hybrid EV in the world are charged through a
wire. Often these vehicles (cars and buses) contain a large onboard rechargeable
battery. Although battery technology has been steadily developing over the years,
but so is the increasing demand for these batteries in terms of size and delivering
capacity. Till a few years ago, overnight charging of the EV batteries was an
expected requirement. However, all modern manufacturers stress on fast charging
of EV batteries where the state of the charge (SOC) of the battery is expected to
increase up to 80% within 10–15 min of charging.
The ever-increasing requirement from the batteries puts additional stress on the
battery size, cost, charging time, and lifetime of the batteries. Additionally, the
charging infrastructure from the power grid needs to be adequately developed for
rapid charging of hundreds of EV in a region.

11.1.2 Potential gain with wireless charging

With a wireless charging infrastructure in place, the demand for the onboard battery
can be drastically reduced. There is a fundamental limit to the extent of battery cost
and size reduction. In addition, the total amount of Lithium that can be extracted is
also finite. With wireless charging, such challenges are less severe.
With wireless charging on the go, charging time can be reduced and the
anxiety to find a nearby location for charging can be substantially alleviated. In
addition, safety and convenience of charging while the vehicle is in the motion can
be attractive in an all-weather condition. In this way, wireless charging can be an
additional boost in adopting EVs on a mass scale.

11.1.3 Challenges with WPT

There are several technical challenges that WPT is currently facing for widespread
adoption. The efficiency of wireless power transfer is lesser than that of conductive
power transfer. Typically, the efficiency is of the order of 80–85% in wireless
power transfer where there is a scope for further improvement.
Environment often plays a crucial role in the efficiency of wireless power
transfer. Operating temperature, humidity, weather (snowfall, rain, etc.) can alter
the efficiency of power transfer. Note that the transmitter coils are buried inside the
road, which can be substantially heated up in a hot weather scenario.
EMI regulations also play an important role while designing WPT system.
Wireless power transfer involves energy transfer through magnetic and electric
fields distributed in the air gap near the road, in close proximity to pedestrians. One
important safety standard has been widely adopted in WPT called the International
Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) guideline. In this
guideline, safe values of magnetic field, electric field, and EM waves have been
suggested to follow.
 Wireless power transfer for electric vehicle 271

Wireless power transfer also involves substantial amount of initial investment.

This involves building the road with transmitter coils positioned in an accurate
fashion. It must be energized through a cable from the nearby substation which
supplies an embedded inverter. The arrangement must be adequately protected
against vibration and shock from heavy vehicles on road top. Note that, to improve
efficiency it is desirable to place the transmitter coils as close as possible to the
road surface. All this makes the initial cost of investment in wireless power
manifold; however, over a span of 25–30 years, it has been shown that wireless
power transfer can become substantially profitable.

11.1.4 Capacitive wireless charging

There are two types of wireless charging techniques: inductive type based on
magnetic induction principle and capacitive type based on electrostatic principle. In
inductive type, the energy exchange between the primary and the secondary takes
place through magnetic field coupling them. In the capacitive type, the energy
exchange takes place via the electric field that is established between them. The
two techniques can be compared in terms of power level, air gap length, cost, or
size of the equipment.
Over the years, however, inductive power transfer has dominated over capa-
citive power transfer technology. It has been found that for low-power range over
short distances, capacitive power transfer is attractive. For longer distances with
larger power transfer magnitude, inductive power transfer is more beneficial.

11.2 Inductive wireless power transfer

An inductive wireless power transfer (IWPT) system can be visualized as a power
transfer system through an air-core transformer. Unlike a transformer, the coils in
IWPT system are spatially separated as shown in Figure 11.1. A controlled high-
frequency AC supply is fed to the transmitter coil (Tx) which generates magnetic
flux in the air-gap. The magnetic flux lines generated by the Tx coil are linked
through the second coil which is called the receiver coil (Rx). Due to the time-
varying nature of the magnetic flux linked in the receiver coil, an emf is induced
across the Rx coil as per Faraday’s law. Thus, the Tx and Rx coils are magnetically
coupled through the magnetic flux lines in the air-gap. The AC voltage induced
across the Rx coil is rectified and fed to the DC output terminals where battery is
connected. This magnetic coupling between the Tx and Rx coils through the air-gap
enables transfer of electrical energy from the Tx to the Rx coil.
Designing an IWPT system requires quantification of the energy transfer
between the magnetically coupled coils. Further, the evaluation of the performance
of the IWPT system under various operating conditions would also require proper
understanding of magnetically coupled electrical circuits connected to the coils. In
Section 11.2.1 a methodology is explained to model the magnetically coupled coil
systems in IWPT systems. The influence of the air-gap and the magnetic flux
linkage between the coils on the electrical parameters of the coils has been
272 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Secondary HFAC–DC
compensation converter
DC Voltage Vbat
regulator Battery
Rx coil
Feedback
Air gap (Vbat’Ibat)
Wireless communication
Tx coil
DC–HFAC
AC–DC
Converter Vg
Vdc with PFC

Primary AC Grid Supply

Gate Driver Feedback
compensation
(Vdc’Idc)
DSP

Figure 11.1 IWPT system in an EV battery charging system

explained. Thus, an equivalent electrical circuit can be derived which can be ana-
lyzed to quantify the energy transfer from Tx to Rx coils.
The magnetic flux is generated from the Tx coil when it is connected to an AC
voltage source. The AC voltage source is controlled using a DC–AC power elec-
tronic converter. The current drawn by the coil from the AC source is dependent on
the impedance of the coil system at any particular operating condition. To reduce
the conduction losses in the coils and the power electronic converter at a particular
level of power transfer, it has to be ensured that the impedance offered by the
electrical system is such that minimum current is drawn from the controlled AC
voltage source. In Section 11.2.2, some compensation circuits have been explained
which are used in IWPT systems to ensure the above-mentioned condition.
The electrical model of the compensated coil system has been analyzed in
Section 11.2.3 to derive the expressions for power transfer and efficiency of the
power transfer through the coils. Further, some criteria have been derived to
understand the conditions at which maximum power transfer and efficiency can be
achieved through the coils. To ensure these conditions, the control of the power
electronic converter to generate the AC supply at Tx coil is explained in
Section 11.2.4. The control algorithm is explained by the help of MATLAB
/
Simulink
simulation in this section.

11.2.1 Modeling of coils

The coupled coil model representing the transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx) coils is
shown in Figure 11.2. The current source connected to the Tx coil (ip) represents
the AC current being supplied to the coil. A voltage vp is induced across the Tx coil
due to flux linking through it. Similarly, the current source (is) connected to the Rx
 Wireless power transfer for electric vehicle 273

Φps Φsp

ip Vp Φpp Np Ns Φss Vs is

Tx Φm Rx

Figure 11.2 Flux linkage between magnetically coupled coils through air-gap

coil represents the load current flowing through the coil when a load is connected
across the Rx coil. The voltage induced in the Rx coil is vs In case of the EV battery
charging system, the load connected across the Rx coil is the compensated AC–DC
converter connected EV battery. The coupled coils are considered to be asymmetric
with an unequal number of turns. The Tx and Rx coils are analyzed with Np and Ns
turns, respectively. The ratio of the number of Tx turns to Rx turns is represented
by n which is defined in (11.1):
Np
n¼ (11.1)
Ns
Applying Ampere’s law over a closed surface around coil with !
N turns, with
current i being flowing through it, the magnetic field intensity (H Þ can be deter- !
mined with (11.2). If the closed surface is through air, the magnetic flux density (B)
can be determined as per (11.2). The magnetic flux density is a measure of strength
of the magnetic field around the coil. It indicates the number of flux lines per unit
area perpendicular to the direction of the flow of flux lines:
Þ ! !
H  d l ¼ Ni
! ! (11.2)
B ¼ m0 H
It can be observed from (11.2) that the magnetic field generated through the
center of a current-carrying coil depends on the product of the number of turns in
the coil and the current flowing through the coil. This product (Ni) is called mag-
netomotive force (MMF), causing magnetic field to develop through current-car-
rying coil as shown in Figure 11.2. The magnetic flux (f) is determined by (11.3),
where R is the reluctance offered by the medium along the flux flow path. Similar
to resistance in electrical domain which obstructs the current flow through a path, R
offers resistance to magnetic flux in magnetic domain. It can be observed from
(11.3) that f / i. The total flux lines linked through the coil (l) is total flux lines
274 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

linked by all the turns in the coil and is expressed as shown in (11.3):
Ni
f¼
R (11.3)
l ¼ Nf
Observing (11.2) and (11.3), it can be concluded that due to flow of currents
through the coils in IWPT system flux lines are generated from Tx and Rx coils as
shown in Figure 11.2. Due to flow of current ip through Tx coil, some flux lines are
linked only by Tx coil itself which is indicated as fpp, while some of the flux lines
are linked with both Tx and Rx coils which are indicated as fps. Similarly, due to
flow of current is through the Rx coil, some flux lines get linked only with Rx coils
which is indicated as fss, while some flux lines are linked with both Tx and Rx
coils which are indicated as fsp. Using (11.3), the total flux linkages in each coil are
expressed in (11.4). For developing the model of the IWPT coils, it is assumed that
fps and fsp opposes each other. Expressions in (11.4) are written considering the
convention that current entering the dot terminal of the coil is considered positive.
From (11.3), it has been already observed that f / i, (11.4) has been expressed
accordingly:
lp ¼ Np fpp þ Np fps  Np fsp
(11.4)
ls ¼ Ns fss  Ns fsp þ Ns fps

Faraday’s law states that the voltage induced across a coil is equal to the rate
of change of total flux linkage through the coil. Since, f / i the induced voltage
can be shown to be proportional to the rate of change of current through the coil,
where the proportionality constant (L) shown in (11.5) is called inductance:

dl df N 2 di di
v¼ ¼N ¼ ¼L
dt dt R dt dt (11.5)
N2
L¼
R
From (11.4) and (11.5), the voltage induced across the Tx and Rx coils can be
expressed as (11.6). Where Rpp and Rss are equivalent reluctance to the flux paths
of fpp and fss, respectively, and Rps and Rsp are equivalent reluctance to the flux
paths of fps and fsp, respectively. Since the magnetic path length for the flux lines
linking both Tx and Rx coils are the same Rps = Rsp:

Np2 dip Np2 dip Np Ns dis

vp ¼ þ 
Rpp dt Rps dt Rsp dt
(11.6)
Ns2 dis Ns2 dis Ns Np dip
vs ¼   þ
Rss dt Rsp dt Rps dt
Considering (11.5), the voltage equations in (11.6) can be expressed in terms
of inductance and rate of change in current as shown in (11.7). Llk,p and Llk,s are
 Wireless power transfer for electric vehicle 275

leakage inductance of the Tx and Rx coil, respectively. Leakage inductance terms

contribute to the voltage induced across the coils due to the flux linked exclusively
by each coil (fpp and fss in Figure 11.2) due to the current flowing through it. Lm,p
and Lm,s are the magnetizing inductance of Tx and Rx coils, respectively. The
magnetizing inductance terms contribute to the voltage induced across each coil
due to the flux linked through the magnetizing path (ɸps and ɸsp in Figure 11.2)
between the two coils generated by the corresponding coil current. M is the mutual
inductance, which contributes to the voltage induced in each coil due to the flux
linked by it which is generated by the other coil current:
dip dip dis
vp ¼ Llk;p þ Lm;p M
dt dt dt
(11.7)
dis dis dip
vs ¼ Llk;s  Lm;s þM
dt dt dt
The instantaneous voltage equations in (11.7) capture the instantaneous beha-
vior of the coupled coils of an IWPT system, neglecting the resistance of the coils.
These equations can be used to realize the equivalent circuit model for the IWPT
coil system in Figure 11.3. Lp and Ls are the self-inductance of Tx and Rx coils,
respectively. Self-inductance of a coil is the sum of the leakage inductance and
magnetizing inductance of a coil (e.g., Lp = Llk,p+Lm,p). The model shown in
Figure 11.3(a) shows the instantaneous equivalent circuit of the coupled coils; the
dots above the variables indicate first derivative of a time varying quantity. If the
RMS of the first harmonic of the voltage and current are considered, the instanta-
neous model shown in Figure 11.3(a) can be redrawn as shown in Figure 11.3(b).

Figure 11.3 Equivalent circuit for the IWPT coil system. (a) Instantaneous model
and (b) fundamental RMS equivalent model.
276 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

⍵ in Figure 11.3(b) is the first harmonic frequency of the voltage and current in the
circuit.
The dependent voltage sources in the equivalent circuits shown in Figure 11.3
are similar to the reflected voltages from primary to secondary windings and vice
versa in transformers, hence, this model is also called transformer equivalent circuit.
Since the mutual inductance between the Tx and Rx coils is the main coupling factor
for the dependent voltage sources, this model is also referred to as the M-model.
The inductance terms in the voltage equations in (11.7) are expressed in terms of
the number of turns and reactance in (11.6). Observing the expressions in inductance
terms, the inductance for the Tx and Rx coils are related to each other by (11.8):

Lm;p ¼ n2 Lm;s ¼ nM (11.8)

Considering the relationship between the inductance of Tx and Rx coils, and
the transformation of Rx side current is to the Tx side, the instantaneous M-model in
Figure 11.3(a) can be realized as an equivalent transformer model as shown in
Figure 11.4.
For any coupled coil system, the magnetic coupling between the coils is
quantified by a parameter called coupling coefficient (k). It is defined by the open-
circuit voltage gain of the coil system. When the coil system is magnetized from the
Tx side, the open circuit voltage gain is defined as the ratio between the Rx coil to
Tx coil voltages, with no-load connected across the Rx coil. This ratio can be
obtained by solving the voltage equations for the equivalent circuit shown in
Figure 11.4 with is=0 as shown in (11.9):

vs  Lm;p 1
¼ (11.9)
vp is ¼0 Llk;p þ Lm;p n

Similarly, when the coil system is magnetized from the Rx side, the open-
circuit voltage gain is defined as the ratio between the Tx side voltage to the Rx
side voltage with Tx side current to be zero (11.10):

vp 
Lm;p

 ¼ n n2
L (11.10)
vs ip ¼0 Llk;p þ nm;p
2

Figure 11.4 M-model equivalent circuit with Tx side transformation

 Wireless power transfer for electric vehicle 277

From (11.9) and (11.10), the coupling coefficient can be expressed as per the
following equations:

  Lm;p
vs  vp  Lm;p 1 n2
k ¼ 
2
  ¼ n
vp is ¼0 vs ip ¼0 Llk;p þ Lm;p n Lm;p
Llk;p þ 2
n
Lm;p (11.11)
)k ¼
2 n2 
Llk;p þ Lm;p Llk;s þ Lm;s
M
) k ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Lp Ls

In the case of transformer, the primary and secondary coils are coupled through
a core made of ferromagnetic material. Hence, the leakage inductance of coils is
negligible compared to the magnetizing inductance (Llk,p << Lm,p and Llk,s << Lm,
s). Considering this approximation in (11.11) for transformers, coupling coefficient
 1. Unlike transformers, in the IWPT system, the leakage inductance is substantial
compared to the magnetizing inductance due the large air-gap between the Tx and
Rx coils. Hence, the coupling coefficient is lesser than unity. Higher value of
coupling coefficient indicates good coupling between the coils in IWPT system
which affects the power transfer between the coils. This will be discussed in further
sections of this chapter.

11.2.2 Compensation networks

In an IWPT system, the supply voltage to the transmitter coil is supplied by a DC–AC
converter. Similarly, in the receiver side, an AC–DC conversion stage is used to
regulate the output DC voltage or current to the DC load. The volt–ampere (VA)
rating of these power conversion stages is dependent on the impedance of the network
thus formed. At a specific power level, the VA rating of these power conversion
stages can be maximized if the impedance connected to these converters can be
minimized. Compensation networks are connected to the transmitter and receiver
coils to minimize the impedances. These compensation networks are realized with
resonant circuits which can be tuned to have minimal impedance at a specific reso-
nating frequency. The transmitter-side power converter can be controlled to generate
AC voltage supply (VP) with the resonant frequency determined by the compensation
network. The RMS equivalent circuit of the IWPT system is shown in Figure 11.5.
The model includes the transmitter coil resistance Rp and receiver coil resistances Rs.
In this section, the output impedance connected to the receiver coil Zs, reflected
receiver side impedance in transmitter side Zsr, and input impedance in the transmitter
side Zp will be analyzed to study the effect of different compensation networks. The
receiver coil will be connected to the load through a AC–DC converter. The load is
considered to be resistive load RL, and the equivalent load resistance as seen by the
receiver coil is expressed as Req as shown in Figure 11.5. Req is dependent on the
switching function of the AC–DC converter and RL.
278 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Figure 11.5 RMS equivalent circuit for the IWPT system with coil resistances.
Transmitter side input impedance, output impedance of receiver coil,
and reflected receiver side output impedance in transmitter side are
indicated as Zp, Zs, and Zsr, respectively.

By solving the voltage equation in the receiver side, circuit output impedance
of the receiver coil is expressed in (11.12). A relation between the transmitter and
receiver coil currents is derived in (11.13):
 
Zs ¼ Rs þ Req þ jwLs (11.12)
jwMIp ¼ Zs Is (11.13)
Using the relation between the receiver and the transmitter coil currents Is and
Ip from (11.13) in the transmitter side voltage loop, the transmitter side input
impedance is derived in (11.14). It can be observed that Zp expression includes a
term dependent on the receiver side parameters. This is the receiver side impedance
reflected in the transmitter side circuit. This is expressed by the term
Zsr ¼ Rs þRweqMþjwLs
2 2

  w2 M 2
Zp ¼ Rp þ jwLp þ
  Zs (11.14)
Zp ¼ Rp þ jwLp þ Zsr
By introducing appropriate compensation to the equivalent reactances in the
transmitter and receiver circuits, the Q-factor of the corresponding circuits can be
made to zero, thus ensuring zero-stored energy in the circuits which translates to
effective power transfer in the IWPT system. This reduces the VA rating of the
converters to be connected in the transmitter and receiver coils. The simplest way
to achieve Q=0 in the transmitter and receiver circuits is to connect series capaci-
tors as shown in Figure 11.6. The transmitter and receiver side series connected
capacitors (Cp and Cs, respectively) form resonating circuits by compensating for
the self-inductances of transmitter and receiver coils, respectively. Thus, by con-
sidering relations ⍵rLp =1=⍵r Cp and ⍵rLs = 1=⍵r Cs , the transmitter and receiver
side series capacitors can be sized for a specific design of the coils where ⍵r is the
resonant frequency of the circuits. This type of compensation network in the IWPT
system is called as SS compensation. Observing the nature of impedances in (11.15)
and the equivalent circuit in Figure 11.6 of an SS-compensated IWPT system, it can
be concluded that the power factor of the input supply to the transmitter side will be
 Wireless power transfer for electric vehicle 279

Figure 11.6 Equivalent circuit of the IWPT system with series-connected

capacitor compensation in transmitter and receiver side circuits (SS)

unity, and the receiver coil current will be phase shifted by p2 from the transmitter
coil current. Using (11.12) and (11.13) for an SS-compensated IWPT system Zp,
Zsr, and Zs can be expressed as shown in (11.15). It can be observed from (11.15)
that the impedances of the SS-compensated IWPT system are purely resistive since
all the reactance terms are compensated. SS compensation networks are extensively
used in IPWPT systems due to the simplicity in designing the resonant circuit to
achieve low Q-factor in the circuits. In Sections 11.2.3 and 11.2.4, SS-compensated
IWPT system will be considered for further analysis:

w2r M 2
Zp ¼ Rp þ
Rs þ Req
w2r M 2 (11.15)
Zsr ¼
Rs þ Req
Zs ¼ Rs þ Req
The compensation networks can also be realized by series and parallel con-
nection of passive elements to the coils in the IWPT system [5]. Some of the
possible compensation networks in IWPT system are shown in Figure 11.7. The
passive elements in the several compensation networks shown in Figure 11.7 can be
sized by ensuring low Q-factor in the resonating circuits connected to the coils. The
impedances of the IWPT systems thus formed can be obtained by solving the
resulting compensated equivalent circuits.

11.2.3 Power transfer and efficiency

For a generic IWPT system with compensation networks explained in
Section 11.2.2, the input power (Pin) to the transmitter coil can be determined by
calculating the real power drawn from the input supply Vp. Similarly, the output
power (Pout) transferred to the equivalent reflected load (Req) can be determined by
calculating the real power dissipated through Req. These real powers can be cal-
culated by analyzing the real components of the currents flowing through the
transmitter and receiver circuits. In this section the analysis for the power trans-
ferred to the output and efficiency of the IWPT system will be conducted with SS
280 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 11.7 Equivalent circuit of the IWPT system with possible compensation
networks. (a) Transmitter series capacitor and receiver parallel
capacitor (series–parallel). (b) Transmitter parallel capacitor and
receiver series capacitor (parallel–series). (c) Transmitter parallel
capacitor and receiver parallel capacitor (parallel–parallel). (d)
Transmitter LCC and receiver LCC (LCC–LCC).

compensation. The factors determining the efficiency of the coil-coil power trans-
fer and the maximum efficiency possible will be analyzed in this section.
For an SS-compensated system, the transmitter and receiver side circuits can be
solved using the impedances obtained in (11.15) to obtain Pin and Pout, respec-
tively, as shown in (11.16). It can be noted in (11.16) that the Tx coil copper loss is
deducted from the input power Pin to obtain the power transferred from Tx to Rx
coil, and the power transmitted to the equivalent load resistance (Req) is the output
 Wireless power transfer for electric vehicle 281

power Pout
 
w2 M 2
Pin ¼ Ip 2
Rp þ r
Rs þ Req
(11.16)
w2 M 2 Req
Pout ¼ Ip  r
2
2
Rs þ Req
For designing an IWPT system, expressing the power transfer (Pout) with
respect to the input and output voltage ratings of the system is essential. The power
transfer expressed in (11.16) considers the losses in coils, which is critical for
developing an understanding of the power transfer efficiency across the coils.
However, a designer may not be directly able to link the information about the
mutual coupling between the coils to the voltage specifications of the IWPT system
to be developed. This relation between the power transfer and the voltage ratings
can be developed by neglecting the copper loss of the coils assuming the coils are
of high quality factor. From (11.13), the Tx coil current (Ip) can be expressed in
terms of the output voltage Vs. Thus, the apparent power transfer (Sout) between the
input and the output of the IWPT system can be expressed by the following
equations. qps is the phase lag of Vs with respect to Vp:
Vs
Ip ¼ j
wM
Sout ¼ Vp Ip
Vp Vs jð90 qps Þ (11.17)
Sout ¼ e
wM
Vp Vs
Pout ¼ sin qps
wM
The efficiency (h) of the power transfer through the coils in the IWPT system
can be determined by finding out the ratio of Pout to Pin. For SS-compensated IWPT
system, h is derived in (11.18) from the input and output power expressions in
(11.16). Consider the receiver coil resistance Rs << Req, the approximate h is
derived in (11.19):
1
h¼ (11.18)
Rp ðRs þReq Þ
2

1 þ RReqs þ w2r M 2 Req

1
h R R
(11.19)
1þ Rs
Req þ wp2 Meq2
r

It can be observed from (11.18) that for a particular design of the transmitter
and receiver coils, the power transfer efficiency in a SS-compensated IWPT system
is dependent on the equivalent load resistance Req. To find the maximum power
transfer efficiency of a particular coil system, the derivative of the efficiency with
282 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

respect to Req is evaluated and equated to zero as shown in (11.20). Thus, the
optimal equivalent load resistance (Req,opt) at which maximum efficiency can be
achieved is derived in (11.20):
0 12
!
@h B C
B 1 C Rs Rp
¼B  2 C  2 þ 2 2 ¼ 0
@Req @ Rs Rp Rs þ Req A Req wr M
1þ þ (11.20)
Req w2r M 2 Req
w2 M 2
Req;opt ¼ r
Rs R p
Substituting the optimal equivalent load resistance (Req,opt) expression derived
in (11.20) into the approximate efficiency in (11.19), the maximum power transfer
efficiency (hmax) is derived in (11.21):
1
hmax ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (11.21)
Rp Rs
1 þ 2 wr M

The maximum power transfer efficiency of the system can be expressed in

terms of the coupling coefficient between coils derived in (11.11), transmitter coil
⍵L
quality factor (Qp = Rpp ), and receiver coil quality factor (Qs = ⍵L
Rs ), by rearranging
s

(11.21). The steps are shown in (11.22):

wr M
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
R p Rs
hmax ¼
wr M
2 þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
R p Rs
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
wr Lp wr Ls
k
R p Rs
) hmax ¼ sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (11.22)
wr Lp wr Ls
2þk
Rp Rs
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
k Qp Qs
) hmax ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 þ k Qp Qs
U
) hmax ¼
2þU
The maximum power transfer efficiency
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi of a SS-compensated IWPT system is
derived in terms of a variable: U= Qp Qs . This variable U is a figure of merit of
the design of a transmitter and receiver coil assembly in an IWPT system. It can be
observed that the figure of merit of the coil system is directly proportional to the
coupling coefficient (k) between the coils, transmitter coil quality factor Qp, and
 Wireless power transfer for electric vehicle 283

receiver coil quality factor Qs. From (11.22), it can be observed that higher value of
the figure of merit will lead to increase in the maximum power transfer efficiency
of the IWPT system. This relation of efficiency is an important design equation for
the designers of coils in IWPT system. To satisfy power transfer efficiency speci-
fication of an IWPT system at a specific power level, the designer has to optimize
the k, Qp, and Qs. Magnetic cores are used in the design of coil assembly to increase
the flux coupling between the coils. Similarly, high-quality factor coils are also
designed while optimizing on the use of copper for enhancing the maximum power
transfer efficiency of the IWPT system.

11.2.4 Converter control and MATLAB simulation of IWPT

system
In this section, the methodology of applying a variable voltage at the resonant
frequency of the compensated Tx coil will be discussed. For this discussion, an SS-
compensated IWPT system will be considered. Further, the voltage and current
waveforms of the IWPT system have been shown in this section by analyzing the
IWPT system in MATLAB/Simulink. The AC voltage applied to the compensated
transmitter coil vp is supplied from a full-bridge as shown in Figure 11.8. The
frequency of vp can be forced to be the resonant frequency of the compensated coil
such that the VA rating of the converter is reduced. The full-bridge is realized using
MOSFETs which can be switched at high frequency to generate voltage vp with a
frequency of (85 kHz). The supply voltage vp induces voltage across the coils

Figure 11.8 Power electronic converters connected to the SS-compensated IWPT

system and the control architecture of output voltage control
284 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

(vcoil) due to flux linkages between them. A diode bridge rectifier is connected to
the compensated receiver coil to rectify the induced AC voltage in the receiver coil
and supply to the output load (RL). A capacitor is connected in parallel to the load
such that the output voltage ripple is restricted. The formation of the simulation
model of the SS-compensated IWPT system in MATLAB/Simulink is explained in
the subsequent subsections. In the simulation, the IWPT system shown in
Figure 11.8 will be modeled. The explanation of the model is segregated into three
sections—power circuit and coil model, phase-shifted gate signal generation, and
output voltage controller.

11.2.4.1 Power circuit and coil

The SS-compensated IWPT system as shown in Figure 11.8 is modeled in
MATLAB/Simulink environment as shown in Figure 11.9. The model of the IWPT
system consists of three stages—Tx side full bridge, transformer equivalent model
of coils, and Rx side rectifier.
The Tx side full bridge is realized using generic MOSFET block available in
Simscape ! Electrical ! Specialized Power Systems ! Power electronics library
in Simulink Library Browser. The Rx side rectifier is realized using generic diodes
available in the Power electronics library. The input DC source Vp is realized using
DC voltage source block available in Simscape ! Electrical ! Specialized Power
Systems ! Sources. The current and voltage measurement blocks used are avail-
able in Simscape ! Electrical ! Specialized Power Systems ! Sensors and
measurements. The gate signal inputs to the MOSFETs are routed through Goto
and From elements in Simulink ! Dashboard ! Signal routing from the pulse
generation model explained in next subsection. The symmetrical Tx and Rx coils of
the IWPT system are modeled by the transformer equivalent circuit as shown in
Figure 11.9. The compensation circuits comprised of Cp and Cs in the Tx and the
Rx side, respectively, are connected between the coil and the converters in the
respective sides. The output load is modelled as resistance. Two parallel branches
of load resistances with one load resistance connected with a switch are shown in
Figure 11.9 to emulate the effect of step change in load for testing the closed loop
output voltage control. All these passive elements are available in Simscape !
Electrical ! Specialized Power Systems ! Passives. The simulation considers the
parameters for a symmetric coil system, which makes the coil parameters of both
transmitter and receiver coils equal. The various parameters used for the simulation
are shown in Table 11.1.
Since the Specialized Power Systems library is being used in the simulation,
the Powergui block has been included in this model. Under Powergui block, the
simulation type has been set to continuous which uses the simulation step type of
the MATLAB model settings. Additionally, in the preferences of Powergui block
snubber circuits, on-state voltage drop and on-state resistance of the devices have
been disables. Thus, ideal power device characteristics will be used for the simu-
lation. Under the Modeling tab of Simulink, the solver type and simulation step
time can be selected in Model settings. For the model of the IWPT system, the
solver type has been selected as fixed step and the step time has been selected as 10
 [Iload]

[S11] [S21]
[Vout]

D
D

g
g

[Ip] [Is]
v
S
S

Req1 Req2
Vp Cp Rp Lp-M Ls-M Rs Cs
1
M v T
[S12]
[S22]

1
g
D

D
g

[Vab]

2
S

Figure 11.9 MATLAB
/Simulink
model of the power circuit and coil model of SS-compensated IWPT system
286 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Table 11.1 Simulation parameters for the IWPT system

Power output P 3.3 kW

DC-link voltage VDC 200 V
Output voltage reference V0 72 V
Resonant frequency fr 85 kHz
Transmitter coil resistance Rp 0.369 W
Receiver coil resistance Rs 0.369 W
Transmitter coil leakage inductance Llk,p 48.513 mH
Receiver coil leakage inductance Llk,s 48.513 mH
Mutual inductance M 4.587 mH
Output filter capacitor Cf 107.8 mF
Resonant tank capacitor Cp, Cs 66 nF

ns, which is substantially lower than the fundamental period of the high-frequency
supply to the coil.
The model for the phase-shifted gate signal generation block has been developed
as shown in the right-hand side of Figure 11.10. The elements used for this block are
taken from the Simulink library. The a sawtooth carrier signal is generated using the
Simulink ! Sources ! Repeated sequence. The repeated sequence has been set to
change from 0 to 1 linearly during the period corresponding to 85 kHz. The PWM
logic is implemented using the Simulink ! Logic and bit operations ! Relational
operator. A constant value of 0.5 is compared to the carrier signal to generate the gate
signal for S1, and the complementary gate signal for S2 is generated using a NOT
logic available in Simulink ! Logic and bit operations ! Logical operator. For
generating the phase-shifted gate signals, the carrier signal needs to be shifted by
phase angle which is determined by the voltage controller. This is implemented by
using a delay element available in Simulink ! Continuous ! Variable time delay.
The first input to the delay element is the carrier signal generated by the repeated
sequence and the second input is the absolute delay in time which corresponds to the
phase shift which needs to be provided.
The variable voltage is generated by phase shifting the switching signals
between two half-bridge legs in the Tx side full bridge converter. In Figure 11.8,
one of the half-bridge legs is formed by MOSFETs (S1, S2) or S3, S4. The gen-
eration of the phase-shifted gate pulses in the full bridge is shown in Figure 11.11.
Two carrier signals (Vc1 and Vc2) are generated which are shifted by an angle a as
shown in Figure 11.11. Vc1 and Vc2 are two sawtooth signals with equal time per-
iods of Ts as shown in Figure 11.11. Ts is inverse of the frequency (in Hz) of the
voltage supply vp to be supplied to the compensated transmitter coil. A modulation
signal Vm of half the amplitude of the sawtooth carrier signals is compared with the
carrier signals to generate the gate pulses as shown by the following logic:

1 Vm  Vc1
VS1 ¼
0 Vm < Vc1
 0.5
[S11]

NOT [S12]

Sawtooth
carrier
[S21]

72 K 1/85e3 t0
NOT [S22]
Kp Phase Shift

1
10
[Vout] s
Ki Integrator
with saturation

Figure 11.10 MATLAB/Simulink model of the phase-shifted signal generation and the output voltage controller blocks of IWPT
system
288 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

α
Ts
1 VC1 Vm
0.5

0
Vc2
3.73 3.735 3.74 3.745 3.75 3.755 3.76 3.765
×10–3
1
0.8
0.6 VS1
0.4
0.2
0
3.73 3.735 3.74 3.745 3.75 3.755 3.76 3.765
α ×10–3
1
0.8
0.6 VS3
0.4
0.2
0
3.73 3.735 3.74 3.745 3.75 3.755 3.76 3.765
×10–3
200
100 Vp
0
–100
–200 α
3.73 3.735 3.74 3.745 3.75 3.755 3.76 3.765
×10–3

Figure 11.11 Waveforms of phase-shifted gate signal-generated obtained from

simulation in $MATLAB/Simulink

1 Vm  Vc2
VS2 ¼
0 Vm < Vc2
Following the above logic, the gate signals VS1 and VS3 are generated. VS2 and
VS4 are complementary to VS1 and VS3 signals, respectively. The signals VS1, VS2,
VS3, and VS4 are logic input signals to the gate drivers of MOSFETs S1, S2, S3, and
S4, respectively, as shown in Figure 11.8. It can be observed in Figure 11.11 that
the phase shift a in the carrier signals also results equal phase shift between the turn
ON events of switch S1 and S3, respectively. Thus, a quasi-square wave voltage vp
is generated between the switching midpoints (switching nodes) of the half-bridges.
The width of the positive and negative pulse is equal to a as shown in Figure 11.11.
It can be observed from Figure 11.11 that during positive pulse, switches S1 and S4
are turned on, and, during negative pulse, S2 and S3 are turned on. Hence, the
amplitude of the positive and negative pulses are VDC and VDC, respectively,
where VDC is the DC link voltage of the full bridge input as shown in Figure 11.8.
The fundamental component’s amplitude of vp can be expressed as shown in
(11.23). Thus, it can be concluded that by changing the period Ts and full bridge
phase shift a the frequency and fundamental magnitude of the transmitter side input
voltage supply vp can be controlled, respectively:
4
Vp;fund ¼ VDC sin a (11.23)
p
 Wireless power transfer for electric vehicle 289

11.2.4.2 Output voltage controller

From (11.16), it can be seen that the power transferred to the output is dependent on
the magnitude of Ip. For a series-compensated transmitter coil, the input impedance
Zp obtained in (11.15) is fixed for a particular alignment of the coils. The current Ip
can then be controlled by changing the phase shift angle a, since supply voltage
fundamental Vp,fund varies with a as shown in (11.23). The output voltage Vo can
thus be regulated by controlling the transmitter full bridge phase shift angle a. For
the output voltage regulation, the output voltage feedback is subtracted from the
reference output voltage Vo,ref to determine the error. This error is given as an input
to a linear controller to generate a, which determines the phase shift between the
two carrier signals to generate switching signals for the MOSFETs in the trans-
mitter full bridge.
The implementation of the control architecture in MATLAB/Simulink is
shown on left-hand side of Figure 11.10. The elements used in the control archi-
tecture implementation are available in Simulink ! Commonly used blocks/
Continuous libraries. The error in the reference input (72 V) and the output DC
voltage feedback is obtained Sum element, where the second input has been
changed to  sign. The error is then fed to a proportional gain (Kp) and integrator
block after a gain of Ki as shown in Figure 11.10. The integrator output is saturated
to a value of 0.5 which corresponds to the maximum phase shift possible (180 ).
The saturation block in the integrator emulates anti-windup action which needs to
be implemented in practical implementation of an integrator. The output of the
proportional gain path and the integrator path are added to obtain the controller
output. The controller output is also routed through a saturation block which
saturates the output to an upper bound of 0.5 and lower bound of 0. Since the
controller output is equal to the fraction of the period corresponding to the phase
shift angle, the controller output is multiplied with the period of voltage supply to
the coil before being connected to the time delay block in phase-shifted gate signal
generation module explained in the last subsection. For the simulation model being
explained, the Kp and Ki values have been set to 0.001 and 10, respectively. The
analysis of controller tuning is not explained in this chapter; however, readers can
refer to [6–9] to analyze controller tuning for an IWPT system to satisfy certain
stability criterion.
The steady-state simulation waveforms at full load are shown in Figure 11.12.
The series resonant capacitors Cp and Cs are selected such that the self-inductances
of the coils are compensated to form resonant circuit at 85 kHz. With the para-
meters of the coils provided, the coupling coefficient of the IWPT system can be
calculated to be k ¼ 0:0864 following (11.11). A quasi-square wave voltage vp is
generated by phase shift control of the full-bridge converter with a fundamental
frequency of 85 kHz. It can be observed that transmitter coil current ip is purely
sinusoidal and in-phase with the fundamental component of the supply voltage vp
because of resonance at 85 kHz. As a result, the voltage induced in the coil vcoil and
the receiver coil current is are also sinusoidal. The controller action can also be
observed in Figure 11.12, the steady-state average output voltage vo is closely
290 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

vp
200
100 ip
0
–100
–200
3.185 3.19 3.195 3.2 3.205 3.21 3.215
×10–3

50
is
0
–50
3.185 3.19 3.195 3.2 3.205 3.21 3.215
×10–3
200
100 vcoil
0
–100
–200
3.185 3.19 3.195 3.2 3.205 3.21 3.215
×10–3
72.4
vo
72.2 vo,ref
72
71.8
71.6
3.185 3.19 3.195 3.2 3.205 3.21 3.215
×10–3

Figure 11.12 Steady-state simulation waveforms of the SS-compensated IWPT

system obtained in MATLAB/Simulink

80 Vo,ref

60
Vo
40

20

50
40
30 Io,
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
×10–3

Figure 11.13 Transient simulation waveforms of the SS-compensated IWPT

system obtained in MATLAB/Simulink
tracking the reference output voltage vo,ref = 72 V. The output filter capacitor
restricts the output voltage ripple within 0.6 V.
The transient response of the IWPT system is shown by the simulation wave-
forms in Figure 11.13. The load is increased from half-load to full load while
 Wireless power transfer for electric vehicle 291

Primary side converter

Secondary side converter Sensing board
Cs
Cp

Secondary controller board

Primary controller board

Circular power pads

Figure 11.14 Prototype of a 3.3-kW IWPT system for charging 72 V battery,

developed in IIT Delhi standards related to magnetic field wireless
charger

maintaining vo,ref = 72 V. It can be observed that the controller quickly changes the
phase shift angle a such that vo is restored to 72 V within 1.5 ms. The steady-state
error is brought back to zero due to controller action.
The readers can form an idea of an actual IWPT system developed in our
research laboratory from Figure 11.14. In the prototype, it can be seen a circular
coil is designed for Tx and Rx side coils. The details of the design and optimization
of the geometry are done in [10]. The Tx and Rx side converters, control boards,
and the series compensation capacitors can be seen in Figure 11.14.

11.3 Standards of wireless power charging

A few standards have been developed in wireless power transfer to maintain safety,
communication and interoperability among suppliers and end consumers. These are
detailed below.

11.3.1 IEC standard

The IEC technical committee has been developing the wireless power transfer
standard. One of the recommended standards for wireless power transfer is the IEC
61980:2020 standard. It replaces the first edition published in 2015. This standard
applies to devices which can charge wirelessly electric road vehicles for voltage
levels up to 1,000 V AC or 1,500 V DC. The standard also includes plug in hybrid
vehicles.
The standard is divided into three parts. Part 1 (IEC 61980-1:2020) discusses
about safety standards, efficiency and alignment requirement and specific EMC
requirements. Part 2 (IEC 61980-2:2020) specifies the standards related to com-
munication between the road vehicle and the off-board wireless charger. Part 3
292 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Table 11.2 Classification of WPT system as given in SAE J2954 standard

WPT1 WPT2 WPT3 WPT4

kVA input 3.7 7.7 11.1 22
Minimum efficiency at nominal alignment 85% 85% 85% TBD
Minimum efficiency at offset position 80% 80% 80% TBD

(IEC 61980-3:2020) specifies this standard suggests the usage of 85 kHz band
(81.38–90 kHz) as the system frequency for passenger cars.

11.3.2 SAE J2954 standard

The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), based in the United States, is an inter-
national organization developing standards with emphasis for the transport sector. They
have developed several wireless power transfer standards, collectively under SAE
J2954 over the years. As of 2022, the J2954/2_202212 is the most current standard.
The aim of these standards is to enable any BEV/HEV customer to seamlessly
park and charge the vehicle in a J2954 compatible parking space.
In these standards, four different classifications are made depending on the
power level and the charging speed. These are termed as WPT1, WPT2, WPT3, and
WPT4. The power levels are indicated in Table 11.2.
To maintain interoperability, a system complying with these standards should
have its primary and secondary coils compatible with each other. For example, if
the primary coil is of class WPT1, then the secondary coils should be compatible
with WPT1 and WPT2; however, it is optional for the secondary coils to be of class
WPT3. More detailed information is available in [11].
In addition to the power level, the standard also defines the ground clearance
distances for testing and operation. The standard describes two parts: a charger
station with induction pad which is called the ground assembly (GA) and a vehicle-
mounted section called the vehicle assembly (VA). SAE-J2954 defines three clas-
ses of operation classified as Z-classes. In the Z-1 class, the air gap ranges from 100
to 150 mm. In the Z-2 class, the distance can be between 14 and 210 mm. Z-3 class
allows a distance variation of 170–250 mm.
The communication among different subsystems in a wireless charging system
is being covered under standards SAE J2847/6, SAE J2931/6, and SAE J2836/6.

11.3.3 ISO 19363 standard

The International Standard of Organization (ISO) has also developed a wireless power
transfer technical standard which outlines the specifications to be followed for charging
of EVs. This standard is named as “Electrically propelled road vehicles—Magnetic
field wireless power transfer—Safety and interoperability requirements.” This standard
addresses safety requirements, efficiency, ground clearance, and test procedures for
wireless power transfer. Most of the specifications are very similar to IEC and SAE
standards. Bidirectional power transfer and vehicles in motion are, however, not cov-
ered in this standard.
 Wireless power transfer for electric vehicle 293

11.4 Summary
In this chapter, a comprehensive understanding of inductive wireless power transfer
(IWPT) system has been given for the readers. The IWPT system is a promising
technology which can be utilized for contactless charging of EV battery. This
enables the ease of usage of EV, and fully autonomous operations of EV. This
technology is also being envisaged to power up drones, UAVs, electric boats, etc.
In this chapter, the principle of operation of IWPT system has been discussed in
detail to form the basis of further discussion which is crucial for the design of an
IWPT system. Following are the different aspects which have been discussed in this
chapter:
● The promise of wireless charging and its usefulness in EV charging has been
discussed. Various standards that determine the design of IWPT system for EV
battery charging applications have been explained.
● The physics of energy transfer through the air-gap between two systems has
been explained in detail. The equivalence of IWPT system to a transformer
without a magnetic core has been discussed. The flux linkages through the
coils which culminates into several inductances have been described.
● The mathematical model of IWPT system has been described in this chapter.
This enables the designer to form electrical equivalent circuits which is critical
for the design of the compensation network and quantifying the power transfer
and efficiency of the system.
● The role of compensation network to reduce the VA ratings of the converters in
the IWPT system has been discussed. Various compensation methods have
been shown, and analysis of the system with SS compensation has been
described in detail.
● The analytical derivation of power transfer and efficiency of IWPT system has
been given in this chapter. The dependence of efficiency on the quality factor
and coupling coefficient of the coils has been established.
● Control methodology of the converter in the IWPT system has been shown.
The results of steady-state and transient simulations of an IWPT system in
MATLAB/Simulink have been shown in this chapter.

Symbols

ip Transmitter coil current

is Receiver coil current
vp Voltage induced across transmitter coil
vs Voltage induced across receiver coil
Np Number of turns in transmitter coil
Ns Number of turns in receiver coil
n Transmitter to receiver coil turns ratio
294 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

fpp Self-induced flux in the transmitter coil

fss Self-induced flux in the receiver coil
fps Flux linked through receiver coil due to ip
fsp Flux linked through transmitter coil due to is
Rpp Reluctance of path of fpp
Rss Reluctance of path of fss
Rps Reluctance of path of fps
Rsp Reluctance of path of fsp
Llk,p Transmitter coil leakage inductance
Llk,s Receiver coil leakage inductance
Lm,p Transmitter coil magnetizing inductance
Lm,s Receiver coil magnetizing inductance
Lp Transmitter coil self inductance
Ls Receiver coil self inductance
M Mutual inductance between the coils
w Electrical angular frequency of coil voltage supply
k Coupling coefficient
Rp Transmitter coil resistance
Rs Receiver coil resistance
RL Load resistance
Req Equivalent load resistance
Zs Output impedance connected to receiver coil
Zsr Receiver side impedance reflected to transmitter side
Zp Input impedance of transmitter coil
Cp Series compensation capacitor in transmitter side
Cs Series compensation capacitor in receiver side
wr Resonant electrical angular frequency
Pin Input power to the IWPT system
Pout Output power to the IWPT system
Sout Apparent power transferred by the IWPT system
qps Phase shift between the transmitter and receiver coil voltages
h Efficiency of the IWPT system
hmax Maximum efficiency of the IWPT system
Req,opt Optimal equivalent load resistance to achieve maximum efficiency
Qp Transmitter coil quality factor
Qs Receiver coil quality factor
U Figure of merit for maximum efficiency
 Wireless power transfer for electric vehicle 295

Glossary
WPT Wireless Power Transfer from charging circuit to the battery through
electronic circuits
SOC State of the Charge in the battery
EMI Electromagnetic Interference to the nearby circuits
IWPT Inductive wireless power transfer for charging a battery
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

References
[1] J. Gozalvez, “WiTricity – The Wireless Power Transfer [Mobile Radio],”
IEEE Vehicular Technology Magazine, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 38–44, 2007.
[2] J. M. Miller, P. T. Jones, J.-M. Li, and O. C. Onar, “ORNL Experience and
Challenges Facing Dynamic Wireless Power Charging of EV’s,” IEEE
Circuits and Systems Magazine, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 40–53, 2015.
[3] G. A. Covic and J. T. Boys, “Modern Trends in Inductive Power Transfer for
Transportation Applications,” IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected
Topics in Power Electronics, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 28–41, 2013.
[4] I. Hwang, Y. J. Jang, Y. D. Ko, and M. S. Lee, “System Optimization for
Dynamic Wireless Charging Electric Vehicles Operating in a Multiple-
Route Environment,” IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation
Systems, vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 1709–1726, 2018.
[5] W. Zhang, S. Wong, C. Tse, and Q. Chen, “Analysis and Comparison of
Secondary Series- and Parallel-Compensated Inductive Power Transfer
Systems Operating for Optimal Efficiency and Load-Independent Voltage-
Transfer Ratio”, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 29, no. 6,
pp. 2979–2990, 2014.
[6] Y. R. Kumar, D. Nayak, M. Kumar, and S. Pramanick, “The Effect of Cross-
Coupling on the Dynamic Performance of a Dual Phase-Shift Controlled
BiWPT System,” IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification,
vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 1–1, 2023.
[7] H. Li, J. Li, K. Wang, W. Chen, and X. Yang, “A Maximum Efficiency Point
Tracking Control Scheme for Wireless Power Transfer Systems Using
Magnetic Resonant Coupling,” IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics,
vol. 30, no. 7, pp. 3998–4008, 2015.
[8] A. Berger, M. Agostinelli, S. Vesti, J. A. Oliver, J. A. Cobos, and M.
Huemer, “A Wireless Charging System Applying Phase-Shift and
Amplitude Control to Maximize Efficiency and Extractable Power,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 30, no. 11, pp. 6338–6348, 2015.
[9] W. Zhang, S.-C. Wong, C. K. Tse, and Q. Chen, “Design for Efficiency
Optimization and Voltage Controllability of Series–Series Compensated
296 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Inductive Power Transfer Systems,” IEEE Transactions on Power

Electronics, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 191–200, 2014.
[10] Y. R. K. S. Pramanick, D. Nayak, and M. Kumar, “Optimization of Circular
Coil Design for Wireless Power Transfer System in Electric Vehicle Battery
Charging Applications,” Transactions on Indian National Academy of
Engineering, vol. 6, pp. 765–774, 2021.
[11] Wireless Power Transfer for Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicles. https://www.
sae.org/standards/content/j2954/2_202212/
 Chapter 12
Grid integration of electric vehicles
Bindeshwar Singh1, Pankaj Kumar Dubey1, Varun Kumar1
and Mukesh Kumar2

In urban areas, emissions of greenhouse gases from oil-based fuel cars with internal
combustion engines (ICEs) are still a challenge. Electric vehicles (EVs) will ulti-
mately be the most cost-effective method of transportation due to their significant
benefits of using versatile fuels, convenience, secure charging, excellent perfor-
mance, and cost benefits. The location and the size of aggregated EVs, on the other
hand, could compromise power system reliability. As a consequence, to guarantee
power network dependability, efficient charging point planning is vital. On the
other hand, potential charging station placements should include city traffic con-
ditions as well as electricity distribution facilities. This study provides a thorough
examination of several optimization strategies for the appropriate location and
sizing of EVs in smart power grid networks (SPGNs) with load models.
For EV planning, the optimization strategies are classified into different types:
traditional, optimization, artificial intelligence, hybrid, and current optimization
strategies. Various network characteristics are taken into account for EV planning
with various objective function perspectives, such as minimizing the system’s
actual and imaginary power deficits. This comprehensive survey chapter also
includes an overview of current frameworks and strategies for organizing, evalu-
ating, and dividing up current and upcoming research advancing in the field of
electric cars. The editors are confident that this chapter will be of great assistance to
researchers, industry professionals, academics, and scientists looking for relevant
references on the best positioning and scalability of EVs in intelligent power grid
infrastructure.

12.1 Introduction

EVs have become a potential answer in the fight to reduce carbon emissions and
open the door for a future of sustainable mobility. The power grid load produced by

1
Electrical Engineering Department, Kamala Nehru Institute of Technology, Sultanpur, India
2
Electrical Engineering Department, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology (MANIT) Bhopal,
India
298 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

EV charging scenarios potentially exceeds acceptable limits when multiple EVs fill
their batteries at once. EVs, their components, classification, charging schemes and
infrastructure, control systems, and grid integration will all be discussed here.
One or more electric motors provide the power for an EV. Due to the type of
car, the mobility is provided by wheels, spinners, or, in the case of track-follower
cars, straight motors. This could be powered by a bank of cells or a collector system
that draws power from the vehicle’s exterior (this is recharged from time to time by
PV arrays or transformed to electricity by fuel cell (FC) technology or generators).
It has an electric motor for propulsion and a battery pack. When you press the
pedal, the battery is used to power the controller, the controller supplies the correct
quantity of electrical energy to the motor, electric engines turn electricity into
mechanical power, and the cars move as the wheels turn.
In Figure 12.1, the basic element of EVs is discussed:
(a) Battery: It is used to drive electric motors. The capacity is measured in a unit
called Ah. A battery’s design entails a series of complex calculations that
assess charge distribution, charging ability, power density, lifespan, security,
form factor, price, and adaptability for several types of batteries.
(b) Power converter: The electric power in a battery should be transformed to
adjustable DC or changeable AC depending on the kinds of electric engines
used to move the tires.
(c) Electric motor: DC series and induction motors were formerly used. Now the
concentration is on specialized electrical machines.
(d) Clutch: The clutch disconnects the engine from the wheels, allowing it to
change from low-speed to high-speed ratios.
(e) Transmission: The gearbox, often known as the transmission, is a device that
permits power to be transferred from the engine to the wheels.
(f) Drivetrain: The electric motor, clutch, and gearbox make up the drivetrain.
Chatzikomis et al. [1], for driverless EVs, route monitoring and torque vec-
toring actuators are contrasted. Wang et al. [2] presented an application of the
extension Taguchi method to stand-alone power system capacity planning.

Drive
Source charger control
signals
Drive train

Energy Transmission
Power Electric Wheels
source drive shaft
converter motor
(batteries)

Figure 12.1 Block diagram of EVs

 Grid integration of electric vehicles 299

Hur et al.’s [3] proposed the representation of the product and desirability functions
of electric car models for flow dispersion improvement in multi-channel con-
ditioning circuits of power inverters. Duan et al. [4] proposed an optimal EV dis-
patching using smart contracts and the IoT. Saski [5] suggested the current and
future IoT big data analytic systems survey. Chiang et al. [6] addressed next-
generation networks and smart data pricing. Cai et al. [7] have devised a stream
function-based 3D obstacle detection system for portable Automatic unmanned
vehicles (AUVs), and the Internet of underwater things has been suggested.
The fundamentals of multi-access edge computation in 5G and later technol-
ogies were discussed by Pham et al. [8], along with technological innovation and
conditions. Pohan et al. [9] investigated the fusion of the swiftly expanding random
tree and ant colony platforms as a route routing method. Park et al. [10] utilizing a
dispersed ADMM technique, a non-myopic path routing for multi-target monitor-
ing was proposed. Li et al. [11] suggested route-planned assessment technologies
for self-driving underwater vehicles. Drake et al. [12] addressed the path planning
by a mobile robot with a moving goal. Ding et al. [13] have formulated an EV
recharging alert and course-planning mechanism based on sparking. Yu et al. [14]
suggested that for a driverless electric bus, a path planning and navigation control
system should be designed. Cabrera et al. [15] designed and implemented a cheap
wireless charging facility for electric bicycles.
Wang et al. [16] presented China’s smart grid technology and development.
Haus et al. [17] proposed centroid vectoring for trajectory tracking of floating-
based robotics for applications ranging from marine to aviation. Wang and Wang
[18] proposed that to reduce grid power peaks and fill valleys, vehicle-to-grid
systems are used. Ogaili et al. [19] discussed the constraints and suggestions for
planning, clustering, and prediction systems for EV charging. Yagmur et al. [20]
presented the DSO’s view on blockchain-based energy applications. Hu et al. [21]
suggested that to evaluate battery-swap stations for EVs, as well as cooperative
optimization of decentralized planning, blockchain consensus protocols are used.
Huang et al. [22] proposed that the LNSC is a blockchain-based safety method for
managing EVs and charger piles. Lasla et al. [23] address the smart city’s
blockchain-based trading system for EVs recharging.

12.1.1 Categorization of EVs

EVs are divided into five categories:
(a) Battery EVs (BEVs)
High-potential batteries, one or more electric drivetrains (either AC or DC),
and a controller to regulate the power electronics are the essential components
of a BEV as shown in Figure 12.2. Electric motors, unlike ICEs, can deliver
steady and greater torque beyond a range of velocities beginning at 0 mph;
thereby, most BEVs do not require a minimization gearbox or the extremely
sophisticated engine control systems that have been incorporated into ICEs
and their transmissions meet emission regulations while still allowing them to
operate.
300 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

(b) Hybrid EVs (HEVs)

A hybrid electric car has an electric motor as well as traditional ICEs as
shown in Figure 12.3. In comparison to a traditional car, this one is thought to
have higher performance and fuel economy.
(c) Plug-in hybrid EVs (PHEVs)
In PHEVs, the battery operates a motor, while the other energy, such as petrol,
drives an engine. The car usually operates on electric power till the batteries
are nearly depleted, at which moment, it changes to an ICE. Plug-in hybrids
combine a battery and an electric motor with gasoline, diesel, or an alternative
fuel engine as shown in Figure 12.4. When you connect to the mains, you
might get a wider range of electric-only power. The batteries have a larger
storage capacity than a current hybrid vehicle.
(d) Range extension type of EVs (Rx-EVs)
Range-extended EVs are EVs with a gas or diesel generator to replenish the
battery when the charge runs low as shown in Figure 12.5. Range extension,
on the other hand, can be performed using either series or parallel hybrid
layouts. In a series-hybrid arrangement, the petrol engine powers an electric
generator rather than powering the tires immediately. The generator charges
batteries to supply power for the electric motors.
(e) FC EVs (FCEVs)
An FCEV is an electric car that uses an FC to operate its electric engine
onboard, sometimes in confluence with a cell or ultracapacitor. FCs in
automobiles produce energy by compressing oxygen from the air. It has a
propulsion system that is similar to that of EVs, in which H energy is stored
and converted to electric power using an FC (shown in Figure 12.6). The
Table 12.1 presents a comparative analysis of the above categories of EVs.

12.1.2 Charging station

The equipment utilized to replenish plug-in electric cars is called a recharging
terminal. It is also referred to as an EV charger or an EV providing basic hardware.
The bulk of EV power packs have an integrated AC-to-DC converter that enables
them to be plugged into a regular household AC outlet even though EV battery

Battery charger Battery bank Power converter M

Transfer
gear

|D

Wheels

Figure 12.2 Block diagram of BEVs

 Grid integration of electric vehicles 301

Power Internal
management combustion
engines

Torque Vehicles
Battery & DC-DC Motor & coupler dynamics
converter generator drives

Figure 12.3 Block diagram of hybrid EVs

Charging Small motor

interfacing module

Battery Converter Big motor Mechanical Vehicle

transmission drive

Small motor
Battery discharge mode

Internal combustion Battery charge mode

Fuel tank engine

Figure 12.4 Block diagram of PHEVs

Range extender EV
Supercapacitor
Fuel tank pack

Internal
control unit

combustion
Motor Electric Final Differential
Central

engine
controller motor gear gear
Electric
generator

Figure 12.5 Block diagram of range extension type EVs

packs can only be recharged with a DC supply. AC power will also be provided by
AC charging points, which are inexpensive and low-public charging stations. To
enable larger power charging, which requires significantly larger AC-to-DC con-
verters, the inverter arrangement is put within the power outlet rather than the car.
302 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Vehicle speed
reference
Energy management system

DC bus

Fuel cell DC/DC

Motor & Gear Differential & EV body
controller wheels
Battery

Signal transfer in energy management Electrical energy transfer Mechanical energy transfer

Figure 12.6 Block diagram of FC EVs

Table 12.1 Comparison between different EVs

S. Parameter HEV PREV BEV FCEV

no.
1 Capacity 5–15 8.0–18.0 40.0–100.0 1.0–2.0
of battery
(kWh)
2 Traveling Possible Possibly Never feasible Feasible
with a
seriously
low battery
3 Peak reach On fossil fuel, Mobility of a Peak battery On hydrogen
with full 300.0–500.0 km battery-powered mobility is fuel,
tanks. vehicle is 100.0–300 km 350.0–700.0 km
50.0–180.0 km, and
on fossil fuels,
250–500 km

The infrastructure now directly supplies DC power to the automobile, bypassing the
automobile’s built-in converter. “DC charging stations (CS)” is the name given to
them (Figure 12.7).

12.1.2.1 Charging technologies for EVs

Level 1 EV charging
The voltage for level 1 EV charging is 120 V. Every electric car comes with the
necessary hardware, which consists of a cord with an attached control box. Simply
put the device into a three-pin (grounded) electrical outlet. Depending on the
capacity of the vehicle’s batteries, this charging method takes 16–20 h to fully
charge them. The benefit of this charging method is that it does not necessitate the
addition of any additional hardware. To use the charging cable, simply park near a
three-pin wall outlet and plug it in. The drawback of this type is that charging the
battery takes so long.
 Grid integration of electric vehicles 303
Public charging EV chargers Battery
2kW to Level 1 & monitoring
20kW Charging Level 2 AC BMS
1 or 3 station chargers Controls
phase AC
supply Fixed AC Safety Power
supply interlocks Rectifier control Protection Battery
AC unit /de-de circuits
Level 1 & 2 DC converter Variable DC CCCV
charged
20kW to
240kW Public charging
Level 3 DC BMS
1 or 3
phase chargers
Charging Controls
AC station
supply Power
Variable control Protection Battery
Safety
DC unit /de-de circuits
Level 3 supply interlocks Variable DC CCCV
converter Variable DC charged

Figure 12.7 Block diagram of electrical parts used in levels 1, 2, and 3 charging

Level 2 EV charging
240 V is the standard for level 2 charging for EVs. This form of charging neces-
sitates the use of extra hardware. When a customer buys an electric car, certain
manufacturers will install an AC wall-box charger at their home and, in some cases,
at their workplace, either for free or at a reduced price, to enable level 2 charging.
An EV can be fully charged in as little as 6 h or a little more with this method,
depending on the battery capacity. In comparison to level 1 charging, level
2 charging is much faster. Not only that but it’s also supposed to be more energy
efficient. However, due to the utilization, this charging approach is pricey.
Level 3 EV charging
Level 3 charging is available at public charging stations for EVs. It transforms AC
into DC for direct storage in EV batteries and is known as DC rapid charging.
Normally, it is rated at 480 V. An electric car can be charged to 80% capacity in
less than an hour using a DC fast charger. Within half an hour, Tesla superchargers
may reach the same charging capacity. The necessary hardware is relatively costly
and can usually be found at public charging stations. It is necessary to pay a fee to
the service provider to use them.

12.1.3 Grid integration of EVs

An electric grid is a synchronized system of electricity producers and consumers
linked by transmission and distribution systems and managed by one or even more
command centers. In this integration process, EVs are linked with the grid network
as a load and as a piece of equipment to improve various system parameters. Two
forms of grid integration occur with EVs.
G2V: grid-to-vehicle = employing energy from the grid to charge an
automobile.
V2G: vehicle-to-grid = returning much of the power that has been preserved to
the grid.

12.1.3.1 V2G integration

V2G refers to “vehicle-to-grid,” and it is a technique that lets power from an EV
battery be sent back to the power grid. A key fact to remember when using V2G in
304 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

practice is that EV drivers have quite enough power in their battery packs whenever
they need it. When they go to work early, the automotive batteries must be properly
charged to drive passengers to and from the office. This need must be reached by V2G
or any charging technique. Whenever an EV operator wishes to remove the vehicle,
they ought to be able to communicate how charged up the batteries are. V2G has
several benefits. Electric cars are a less expensive way of travel for customers because
power costs less than gasoline. It generates increased income for the car’s proprietors.
It lowers emissions by limiting the usage of renewable resources. Residences,
parking lots, employers’ workplaces, and community charging points can all be
part of the V2G ecosystem. V2G has several drawbacks, including the fact it is not
an inexpensive form of energy when compared to huge energy plants. The wide-
spread use of these cars may cause technical issues. When small-scale generators
are used with huge power generators, compatibility issues may occur.

12.1.3.2 G2V integration

It is a method wherein the electricity is transferred from the grid to EVs, with the
latter acting as a demand. A network operator must assume that most automobiles
are parked and possibly connected at any given time of the day to arrange elec-
tricity delivery. The ordinary private car is on the street for 4–5% of each day,
which indicates that the automobiles remain parked for the rest of the time. Even
during rush hour, about 90% of the total private cars are stationed.
Customers might gain from the usage of EVs because electrical is more
inexpensive than gasoline for equal spacing driven, according to the advantages of
G2V. Customers who want to resell electricity back to the grid could benefit from
EVs in a V2G setup. The power grid could design and develop a great deal of the
power required to fuel the country’s automobiles at just the minimal price of fuel,
other than during peak demand hours.
Due to the smaller level of production by each car, integration with current
systems depending on huge power generation may be hard.

12.1.3.3 G2V and V2G rechargeable configuration for solar-

powered EV charging station
Three bidirectional DC-to-DC charging converters, a bidirectional DC-to-AC
converter, a distribution transformer, and a PV system MPPT boost converter make
up the charging station [24] (as shown in Figure 12.8). An energy storage unit with
a bidirectional DC-to-DC converter and a distribution transformer connects the
microgrid to the AC utility grid.
Its block diagram model is shown in Figure 12.9. The roles of each element in
the solar-powered CS are listed below.
Solar PV framework
It consists of solar units that are wired together either in parallel or in series. With
the help of DC-to-DC converters, the PV module converts solar energy into DC
power, which is then linked to the DC bus. In this project, four 250 W panels are
connected in a 1
4 arrangement to create a 1,000-W total output. A variable-step
 Grid integration of electric vehicles 305

PV DC common bus Grid

DC-DC converter Inverter
with MPPT (bi-directional)

Central Electric vehicle

DC charger
controller (EV)
(bi-directional)
Energy storage unit DC charger
(ESU) (bi-directional) V2V

Battery management Electric vehicle

system (BMS) (EV)

Figure 12.8 Grid interconnection with EVs

DC microgrid

PV array Interleaved DC load

BUCK converter

MPPT controller Interleaved

BOOST Electric vehicle
converter

Bidirectional
BUCK BOOST Electric vehicle
converter

Battery

Figure 12.9 Block diagram of a grid interactive microgrid system

P&O MPPT controller is utilized to maximize the output of the PV system. The
primary power source for the CS is a solar PV (SPV) system.
Electric drivetrains
One EV has a G2V system that is unidirectional, while the other has both G2V and
V2G arrangements that is bidirectional and can be used for electric vehicle-to-
vehicle (EVV) power transfer also. The main objective of this study is to use an
SPV system to charge an EV and, if the SPV system is unable to provide enough
power, to store energy in the EV battery. EVV functions as a standby reserve in a
DC microgrid [25].
306 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Bidirectional DC-DC Converter

The two-phase interleaved buck converter that powers the SPV technology has a
122.8-V input and a 48-V DC microgrid attached to its output. Interlaced buck
converters reduce power to the required amount. Based on the circumstances, the
bidirectional buck–boost converter will either charge or discharge the EV battery
(in boost mode), while the two-phase interleaved boost converter will raise the grid
voltage to 72 V.
DC load
The SPV scheme, the reserve batteries, or a mixture of the two will provide the
DC load.

12.1.3.4 Converters and controllers for grid integration

A grid-connected EV charger facility, as illustrated in Figure 12.10, was made up
of three primary components: a variety of EV chargers, a power converter for the
grid side, and a regulator for systems development. The EV-side converter is a
PWM DC/DC voltage source converter that is found in each EV charging con-
troller. A 3 three-level rectifier/inverter converts the three-phase voltage level to a
DC voltage (see Figure 12.10).
EVs are provided by the DC via EV chargers and are placed in parallel. The
EV-side controllers, grid-side interface regulators, and centralized charging reg-
ulator levels make up the charging point control scheme. To conduct the charging
/discharging operation of battery systems, every EV is charged/discharged through
a DC/DC converter at the EV-side regulator. The 3-level AC/DC converter is
regulated at the grid-side controller by maintaining a steady DC-bus potential and
adjusting reactive power provided to/from the grid via the 3-phase three-level
(TPTL) rectifier.
Three-level PWM bidirectional rectifier/inverter
Reverse AC–DC converters are the fundamental link across networks and EVs. In
the EV charging process, this converter acts as a rectifier, transforming the AC
power from the utilities to a DC bus. It works as an inverter in the V2G mode,

3 Ph 3 level
ACIDC converter

dc link Distribution
network
Grid filter PCC Grid
EV1 Bidirectional R L R1 L1
DC-DC

abc PLL
dq
PWM & Load
Vdc
EV2 gate drive
Ibat PWM Id, Iq
Vdc Id ref
regulator Decoupled dq
Charge frame current Vd, Vq
discharge Vdc_ref control
regulator
Vbat Iq_ref
Vdc_ref

Figure 12.10 Grid-connected charging station

 Grid integration of electric vehicles 307

Id

Va La Ia N Vdc
S S

Vb Lb Ib
S

Vc Lc Ic

Figure 12.11 TPTL AC–DC converter

changing DC power to AC voltage and resupplying power to the grid. A multiple

three levels (TPTL) voltage origin inverter (VSI) premised on a diode-clamped
technique is employed to further reduce harmonic components of the inverter-
mode/mains voltages, as shown in Figure 12.11.
A grid-side filter of a tiny quantity can decrease harmonic currents caused by
the operating frequency. Aside from the positive and negative DC-bus voltages, the
neutral point voltage is also essential for voltage creation in TPTL. As an outcome,
all power semiconductor converters are exposed just to halves of the line voltage,
resulting in a two-fold decrement in energy switching losses. As an outcome, the
capacity of the system is increased, the heat sink is reduced, and the converter
energy density is increased even more.
EV side converter
The charging point investigated here is capable of charging/discharging EV energy
storage systems for both G2V and V2G modes, implying the use of bi-directional
converters. Some charging points only charge an EV battery in the G2V mode,
which may require a unidirectional converter. Even though the V2G method is
projected to be widely used in electric cars and HEVs in the future smart grid, it is
unlikely that people can accept energy recycling at a wayside charging point. In a
3-level converter, the load voltage on active switches and diodes is 1/2 that of a
half-bridge converter.
The current load of energy in active and passive devices is also comparable to
that of three-level and half-bridge converters. The operating frequency of the TPTL
converter can be substantially lower than in the half-bridge power converter in
terms of maintaining the same inductance ripple-current ratio (e.g., 30%). As a
308 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

result, the inductance dimension in the TPTL converter is substantially smaller than
in the half-bridge converter, for example, 1/3. The suggested bidirectional PWM
DC/DC converter can be used to charge and discharge the EV battery, with a high
voltage level of Vd.
The effectiveness of that power converter will deteriorate if Vd is minimal.
Since the duty ratio is low, the current ripple in the inductor will grow, and the
converter effectiveness will be worse because the output power is reduced but the
power losses do not fall accordingly. An adjustable frequency control system is
used to solve this problem. In both buck and boost different modules, it is clear that
the TPTL converter has better performance effectiveness. However, when all of the
evaluations of these two converters are taken into account, the three-level DC/DC
converter outperforms the two-level DC/DC converter on practically every
condition.
As a result, it will be used to charge and discharge EVs. The TPTL power
converter has a distinct disadvantage in that it needs four switches, whereas the
half-bridge power converter just wants two. In the half-bridge arrangement, how-
ever, the voltage impact on switching devices is double that of the TPTL
converters.
Control approach for charging infrastructure
In EVs, the battery is a critical component. Through recharging, batteries can col-
lect electricity into kinds of chemical energy, which can then be released through
inner chemical processes during the discharge phase. Many parameters, such as
concentration of reactants, temperatures, and reaction ranges, can determine the
charging and draining operation of a battery system. As a result, a charging or
discharging power management plan should always be followed and created to
enhance the lifespan of the EV battery and keep it running at a higher level. Three
main techniques are commonly utilized for recharging controls of an EV’s battery
for change management. Fixed current, constant voltage (CV), and taper-current
recharging are three of these recharging strategies.
Constant current (CC) recharging essentially means that the charger delivers
current at a roughly constant rate, independent of battery temperatures or charge
conditions. This charge methodology aids in the reduction of cell and series-
connected battery instabilities. Determining the battery charging current rate, on
the other hand, can be difficult. A charged current that is too short cannot fulfill the
recharge time rate need, and a particularly high charging current can quickly cause
massive harm to the battery’s electrolyte throughout the gasification charging
period. CV recharging guarantees that the battery receives nearly the same input
voltage all through the charging cycle, irrespective of its charge state.
Due to the obvious large voltage differences between the batteries and the EV
chargers, CV chargers generally provide a large starting current to the EV battery.
The charging current reduces according to the EV battery’s terminal voltage rise in
a taper-current charging technique. In most cases, the CC and CV recharging
techniques are implemented during the recharging phase. CC recharging is used till
its EV battery voltage exceeds the charge reference voltage, after which CV
 Grid integration of electric vehicles 309

charging is used, enabling the charge flow to taper until it achieves a very tiny
amount. During the charging period, it is suggested to maintain the charging cur-
rent, which reflects the ideal current where the battery must be recharged first (to
around 770% state-of-charge) underneath the CC recharging system before con-
verting to the CV charging strategy.
Control of EV side converter
This ESC charger may be fitted into each EV to allow for individual charging
methods based on the EV’s needs. The CC and CV control techniques were used in
this part, and they were then integrated to meet the criteria of the EV battery
charging/discharging operation. The ESC processor has two control cycles: a rapid
current inner loop (PIc) and a slow voltage outer loop (OSV) (PIv). Only the CV
management method requires this nested-loop charging control mechanism, pre-
suming that the current going into the EV battery is positive.
The voltage of the battery Vbat is matched to the value of the battery voltage
reference Vbat, and the outcome is sent to the voltage loop regulator PIv. The battery
is charged if Ibatt > 0; otherwise, it is depleted if Ibatt = 0. The switching cursor in
Figure 12.12 goes via the beginning or the end depending on the control input.
The SOC current standard Iref(soc) and the CC modes reference current Iref(sat) in the
center define this input. As a result, depending on the SOC and indications, the
system operates in one of the three different ways (Iref):
Case 1: The switches are in the lowest position in the condition of Iref<0, and the
circuits are regulated to work in the CC discharging process. The batteries send the
power to the power grid or other EVs. By controlling and modifying the present
baseline, this can be accomplished. The voltage signal is produced by the current
controller, which is retained between Vtri and +Vtri through a saturation column,
where to prevent the DC–DC converter from operating in a non-linear modulating
state, Vtri corresponds to the magnitude of the triangle carrier PWM waveform.

Bidirectional DC-DC converter

DC
bus L

Bat.

Vd Ibat
PWM Vbat

– Vbat*
– Plv
Plc
Iref(soc)
Iref(sat)
f(Vd)

Figure 12.12 A CC and CV control approach is used to charge and discharge an

EV battery
310 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Case 2: The switching is in the lowest position, and the EV-side converter runs in a
CC charging cycle if the current standard Iref > 0 and the EV battery SOC is less
than 70%.
Case 3: The switches are shifted to the leading position and the EV-side converter
changes to CV charging mode if the current standard Iref > 0 and the EV battery
SOC is greater than 70%. As a result, the current-loop controller receives a refer-
ence current from the voltage regulator loop. In this example, the current-loop
controller regulates battery charging by operating the DC/DC power converter at
the specified current standards.
Fuzzy logic controller
Because of the non-linear nature of EV chargers and distribution systems, a standard
control method must be replaced with the use of creative passion fuzzy logic con-
trollers (FLCs). The controller is critical in distribution systems because it ensures that
EV chargers operate efficiently, reliably, and with greater power quality. A fuzzifi-
cation section, a base rule facility, and a defuzzification component are the three major
elements of an FLC controller. FLC is used to manage the charging/discharging rates.
In this case, the charge controller’s input variables include the SOC for each EVs and
the voltage at the nodes that connect the charging stations to them.
The EV battery will charge if the SOC is small and the node voltage is large,
but it will discharge if the SOC is large and the node voltage is small. However,
there are situations in which both the nodal voltages and the SOC are strong or
weak. In these circumstances, a particular charge/discharge pace is used. As a
result, the FLC should be changed to account for important situations to keep
voltage variations at the distribution energy node below acceptable levels. The truth
values of the fuzzy logic parameters might range from 0 to 1, which is known as
their degree of membership.
Through a simple IF–THEN rule-based method, fuzzy logic can deal with the
ambiguities in the EV charging system, removing the need for a statistical model of
the regulated environment. This is especially beneficial in complex mechanisms
that are challenging to quantitatively measure [26]. The amount of inputs and
outputs, on the other hand, significantly changes the nature of a fuzzy logic-based
system (Figure 12.13).

0.5

Slider
gain 2
1 MUX
0.2 1/s 1
In 1 Derivative
Fuzzy logic Slider Integrator Out 1
i dt 0.25
controller (PI) gain
Slider
gain 1 Mux 1

Figure 12.13 Block diagram of a fuzzy logic based PI controller

 Grid integration of electric vehicles 311

12.2 Case study of analysis of EVs planning in 16 bus

systems for ZIP-LDMs

The basics of the planning structure for EVs were covered in the section above, but
this section describes the mathematical modeling of the planning and results for
EVs. Here, an investigation of how EVs interact with the distribution system to
improve performance characteristics is conducted using simulation.

12.2.1 Mathematical modeling of EVs planning

The functioning of EVs is crucial in the power grid procedure. Sections 12.2.1.1–
12.2.1.2 cover the design of planning problems, objective functions, and restric-
tions for these EVs [27].

12.2.1.1 Problem formulation

The following are the mathematical problem formulations for EV planning offered
in this segment:
The total MVA intake without EVs (OPWOEVs ) for the main substation is
provided by (12.1):
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
OPWOEVs ¼ APG 2 þ RPG 2 (12.1)
The total MVA intake of the main substation with real-power EVs (OPWEVs ) is
given by (12.2):
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
OPWEVs ¼ ðAPG  APEVs Þ2 þ ðRPG  RPEVs Þ2 (12.2)

Four quadrants are used to drive various sorts of EVs. Table 12.2 shows the
actual and reactive power values of several EVs.
Goal functions
Two-goal functions are presented in (12.3) and (12.4) and can be used to formulate
optimum EV scheduling.
This target function lowers the system’s overall actual energy loss from the
standpoint of active power loss minimization. Eq. (12.3) represents the APL in the

Table 12.2 Actual and reactive power values of various

EVs

EVs Actual power Reactive power

BEVs APBEVs -
PHEVs APPHEVs RPPHEVs
Ex-PHEVs APExPHEVs RPExPHEVs
FCEVs APFCEVs -
312 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

system:
AP2 þ RP2
APL ¼ 2
rij bus for i; j 2 N (12.3)
j Vi bus j

TheAPL is determined by the total network active power loss and resistances
in lines rij bus .
This objective serves to decrease the device’s total reactive energy loss from
the aspect of reactive power loss reduction (RPL). Eq. (12.4) represents the RPL in
the scheme:
AP2 þ RP2
RPL ¼ 2
xij bus for i; j 2 N (12.4)
j Vi bus j

The RPL is determined

 by the total system bus potential ðVi bus Þ, and resis-
tances in lines xij bus . The total loss is primarily determined by the voltage pro-
file. The total loss is primarily determined by the voltage profile. The total loss is
primarily determined by the voltage profile.
Restrictions on equality and restrictions on inequality
The preceding is the EV scheduling equality constraints:
● The combined power generation of conventional and EV must be sufficient to
provide both the whole expected load requirements and any power disruptions.
The following are the inequality requirements for EV planning:
● The bus voltage at the bus I is constrained by its maximum and lowest limits
for all buses.
● The bus voltage angle at bus m is constrained for all buses by its upper and
lower restrictions.
● The power of a conventional generator must be constrained by its lowest and
greatest limits.
● The lower and maximum limits of each EV set a restriction on how much
power it can produce.
● The system line deficit must be less with EVs than the overall line losses.
The formulas for the ZIP-LMs’ real and reactive power [22] are given in (12.5)
and (12.6):
  
Vi Vi
AP ¼ AP0 Zp þ Ip þ APp (12.5)
V0 V0
  
Vi Vi
RP ¼ RP0 Zq þ Iq þ APq (12.6)
V0 V0
The actual and reactive powers at working potential are AP and RP, respectively
(Vi); the actual and reactive powers at nominal voltage are AP0 and RP0, respectively
(V0); Zp, Ip, and Pp are the ZIP-LMs coefficients for actual power; and Zq, Iq, and APq
are the ZIP-LMs coefficients for reactive power. Tables 12.3 and 12.4 discuss the ZIP-
LDMs [25] and their coefficients for actual and reactive powers, accordingly.
 Grid integration of electric vehicles 313

Table 12.3 ZIP-LMs and their behaviors

ZIP-LDMs Equipment ZIP-LMs are contrasted

LDM1 Air Conditioner Low inductive load
LDM2 Lift Highly capacitive load
LDM3 LED Bulb Dynamic resistive load
LDM4 Micro Owen Highly inductive load
LDM5 Fridge Middle Inductive load

Table 12.4 Coefficient values for ZIP-LDMs that are actual and reactive (100 V
cut-off voltage) [25]

ZIP-LDMs Equipment AP RP

Zp Ip APp Zq Iq APq
LDM1 Air conditioner 1.159 1.8489 1.660 15.669 27.150 12.469
LDM2 Lift 0.409 0.7489 1.320 3.7700 5.740 2.9799
LDM3 LED bulb 0.589 1.1489 0.7089 1.7900 0.8009 0.0199
LDM4 Micro Owen 1.379 1.950 1.5689 50.0599 93.500 44.50
LDM5 Fridge 1.159 1.820 1.6600 7.06899 10.940 4.8699

With EVs scheduling, the following system performance indices are described:
● Actual power loss index (ILAP): The index of actual power loss is defined by
(12.7):
jAPWEV j
ILAP ¼
100 (12.7)
jAPWOEV j
Where APWEV represents the actual power loss with EVs and PWOEV is the actual
power loss without EVs. The lower value of this index gives a greater advantage
with respect to actual power loss minimization due to EV placement and size.
● Reactive power loss index (ILRP): In (12.8), the coefficient for a reactive
power outage is calculated:–
jRPWEV j
ILRP ¼
100 (12.8)
jRPWOEV j
Where RPWEV is the loss of reactive power with an EV, and RPWOEV is the loss
of reactive power without an EV. Because of the positioning and scale of EVs,
this score has a small value, indicating better performance in terms of reducing
reactive power loss.
● Voltage deviation index (VDI): One of the advantages of the proper size and
location of different EVs kinds is an enhancement in the voltage level. This
index is penalizing the SDG–LDG pair that gives the nominal higher voltage
314 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

deviations (V1 =1.03 p.u.). As a result, whenever the indices are near 0, the
network performance will improve. It is the maximum voltage drop for each
node as well as the root node. The VDI could be described in (12.9):
!
V 1  V m bus EVs
VDI ¼ max
100 for m bus ¼ 2 to NB (12.9)
V1

Where V 1 is the voltage of a slack bus and V m bus EVs is the voltage with EVs
at the ith bus. The voltage constraints (Vmin  Vm bus  Vmax ) for a certain bus
are commonly referred to as technical limitations; therefore, the IVD value is
typically modest and within acceptable bounds.
● Short circuit current (ISC): Electricity flow can be reduced in some elements
of the network, allowing for additional capacity by bringing power closer to
the demand. The ISC index is given by (12.10):
!
S mn bus EV
ISC ¼ max
100 for mn bus set ¼ 1 to NL (12.10)
CS mn bus

Where CS mn bus is the capability of the MVA line without DG and S mn bus EV is
the capability of the MVA line with EVs. Due to the obvious load end power
source, MVA rates may decrease in certain parts of the circuit, resulting in
more capacity, while in others, they may rise to levels exceeding distribution
line constraints.
The index gives essential information about the distribution lines’ maximum
capacity for the numbering of power flows that pass through the network. It
contains information on a network line that requires to be upgraded. Greater
than unity index values (estimated MVA flow value higher than capacity
MVA) indicate a capacity sum breach inline low, while smaller values indicate
the available space.
The benefit of using different types of EVs in a network for discharged line
capacity is evaluated by comparing the IC of the system with and without EV.
The reduction of flow at the flow boundary is an essential parameter since it
indicates how much time order should be adjusted, and, hence, how much
period should be increased cost. On the subject of boosting the current transfer
rate in the transmission system, the IC value may not be successful. In general,
these limits (Sðm;n busÞ  Sðm;n busÞmax ) at the specified line are regarded as
limitations, so the IC level ought to be positive as well. The lower the index
value is, hence, the more the space is accessible. Overloaded lines have index
values greater than 100%.
● Actual power penetration of EVs: The ratio of EV actual power injected into
the system to the sum of EV real power and without EV is indicated in (12.11):
PIWEV
%PIEVAP ¼
100 (12.11)
PIWOEV þ PIWEV
 Grid integration of electric vehicles 315

● Reactive power penetration of EVs: In (12.12), the number of EV reactive power

put into the system is divided by the quantity of reactive power with or without EV:
PIWEV
%PIEVRP ¼
100 (12.12)
PIWOEV þ PIWEV

12.2.1.2 GA implementation
The multiple steps for GA techniques for optimum position and dimension for EVs
utilizing ZIP-LDMs, starting from the platform’s minimal total real power, are as
described in the following:
1. Describe as from bus system, load data from ZIP-LDMs, and statistics
from EVs.
2. Execute load flows for the base scenario, i.e., the starting fitness choice, and
evaluate parameters like (percent ILAP, percent ILRP, percent VDI, percent
ISC, percent PIWEVAP, and percent PIWEVRP). Make a note of the properties of
the basic instance.
3. Statistics from the bus network, ZIP-LDMs, and EVs are binary-coded.
4. Establish a financial rate for the basic demographic and fitness component:
obtain a randomized populace with n chromosomes (an appropriate solution to
problems): in a specified range of SEV–LEV couples of EVs, dynamically
acquire SEV–LEV pairings of EVs using ZIP-LDMs.
5. Calculate fitness mechanism values [f (x)] for each SEV–LEV in the populace
of different types of EVs (chromosome) x: for each SEV–LEV pair, run load
flow and evaluate indices like percent ILAP, percent ILRP, percent VDI,
percent ISC, percent PIWEVAP, and percent PIWEVRP in consistent load cases.
The variables and their relevant SEV–LEV pairings are included in the
program.
6. Repeat the steps below to create another population until it is complete.
● Choose a pair of chromosomes from a team based on how fit they are (the
better fitness; the greater probability of becoming chosen).
● A new progeny is created by the parent due to crossover likelihood (chil-
dren). The offspring will be a replica of the parent if there is no overlap.
● Using this mutation probability procedure, new offspring mutates (chil-
dren) on each locus (in chromosome location).
● In the new population, fresh offspring are used.
● Examine whether this satisfies limitations such as the thermal max capa-
city, the power flow preservation constraints, and the voltage deviation
limit. Otherwise, proceed to Step 6.
7. Use the recently created populace to run the program. With every SEV–LEV
combination for EVs, execute for load flow and assess a new fitness alter-
native (chromosome). Further, evaluate the respective indices. such as %
ILAP, % ILRP, % VDI, % ISC, % PIWEVAP, and % PIWEVRP. A comparison of
the current fitness solution with the characteristics of the base case is
performed.
316 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

8. If all of the conditions for stopping are met, pause and decide which possibility
is best for the current population.
9. The parents and children come from a more recent generation, making up the
most recent population size. Does exist a minimized MOPIF (multi-objective
performance indices function)? If not, set I = i+1 for a generation. Go on to
step 6 now.
A flowchart is shown in Figure 12.14 for an approach such as GA-based multi-
objective optimum of EV scheduling in distribution networks with ZIP-LDMs from
the least total real and reactive power losses for the network.

Generate GA population

Pick one chromosome

Initialize the capacity of all 16

buses, DGs, and EVs data

Pick the different ZIP load

models
Remove buses, DGs, and EVs
according to MCS

Yes
Islanding?

No
Yes
Outage of slack Assign new slack generator
generator?
No

Run economic load dispatch and

define power generation at all PV

No Run for power flow

Finished MCS? Save the power flow and status of DGs with EVs
Yes
No Yes
Computes minimum power
ZLMs=5 loss

No
First Iteration? Computes minimum power loss

Yes
No
Congestion probabilities of line and Satisfy?
from RW Yes

Rotate RW and update capacity Save minimum power loss

No
Last Chromosome?

Yes
Yes No
Optimal solution Termination criterion for GA

Figure 12.14 Illustrates the steps for multi-objective GA-based EV planning in

distribution systems using ZIP-LDMs
 Grid integration of electric vehicles 317

12.3 Result and discussion

12.3.1 Equations relying on several objectives functions
To achieve an optimum organization, the advancement of a digital model neces-
sitates the use of the corresponding computational modeling, the evaluation of the
display destinations, and the repetitive modification of the conceptual model ele-
ments. Streamlining challenges with many targets are common in the design sector.
Even though it would be ideal to streamline the desired capacities simultaneously,
this is not always possible, thus the enhancement procedure must seek the best
possible trade-off configuration. The main objectives of a multi-target challenge
configuration are as follows:
(a) to continue gaining computational ground in the target area as it approaches
the Pareto front; to maintain non-attention ruled on the target space while
connected accord’s concentration is on protecting the favored space.
(b) the Pareto front and Pareto ideal frameworks should be focused on different
(option space);
(c) Pareto prefers to focus on estimating to offer the leadership, the designer, a
suitably large but fixed number.
The multi-index for measuring the performance of distribution networks
considers all repeatedly described indicators by tactical weight when preparing
EV location and size with LDMs. All impact output indices have been standar-
dized, thus it should be possible (values ranging from 0 to 1). In this sort of issue,
(12.13) provides the GA-based multi-objective output index function (MOF)
(12.14):

MOF ¼ b1 ðILAPÞ þ b2 ðILRPÞ þ b3 ðVDI Þ þ b4 ðISC Þ þ b5 ðPIWEVAP Þ

þ b6 ðPIWEVRP Þ
(12.13)
where
X
6
br ¼ 1 ^ br 2 ð0 1Þ (12.14)
r¼1

The parameters are compared by their importance in the output indexes dis-
persion scheme. Distinctiveness is valued highly, and the imports of a particular
output index get the top priority among the rest. The objective action indicated
above will be employed with GA in the latest project. The weights used in this
investigation are close to the values found in standard operators. Such values,
however, may change depending on an engineer’s priorities.
The ILAP and ILRP got appropriate 1st and 2nd weights of 0.40 and 0.30,
correspondingly, in this experiment. Because of its impact on power efficiency,
the VDI action receives the 3rd biggest weight of 0.10. Because it provides
318 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

essential data regarding the current flow in the distribution system around the
circuitry, including the entire thermal performance of the conductors, the ISC
was assigned the 4th substantial weight of (0.10). The 5th substantial weight was
given to the actual power EV penetration index (PIWEVAP) (0.05). The PIWEVRP
(reactive power DG penetration index) was given the 6th important weighting
(0.05).
To satisfy the electricity needs for the dispersion network, the multi-objective
function given in (12.13) is minimized and exposed to multiple operating para-
meters. There are a few restrictions that are discussed:
(i) Power flow conservation limits: The totality of all entering and exiting
power, comprising distribution system line losses, ought to be zero, as well
as the power generated by the EV units is provided by (12.15):
X
NB X
NL
Pss ðm; V Þ ¼ PD ðm; V Þ þ Ploss ðV Þ  PEVm (12.15)
m¼2 NB ¼1

Where there are several buses in the scheme, NL is the number of lines,
PD ðm; V Þ is the need for power (MW), Ploss ðV Þ is the system’s loss of power,
PEVm is the amount of electric power given to the system.
(ii) Short circuit current capacity: Any power flow through a distributed feeder
must meet the line’s thermal performance, as calculated by (12.16):
Sðm;nÞ  Sðm;nÞmax : (12.16)

(iii) Voltage deviation limits: The voltage lowering capacity is determined by

the distributing company’s voltage regulatory limits, which are defined by
(12.17):

jV1  Vn j  DVmax : (12.17)

However, when the voltage and MVA restrictions for a particular SEV–LEV
pairing in buses in the system are satisfied, approve the couple for the future gen-
eration’s populace; it eliminates the SEV–LEV duo, which would struggle to satisfy
voltage and MVA constraints in the upcoming generation.
For a minimum MOF, obtain a SEV–LEV combination. On all feasible gen-
erations, the optimal SEV–LEV couple verifies with operating restrictions,
ensuring that the dimension and positioning correspond to the minimal MOF.
Figure 12.15 and Table 12.5 illustrate the 16-bus test network single-line sche-
matic and data in order.
Now various comparison charts are present in Figures 12.16–12.23; such as a
comparison of the credentials of APL (p.u.) without as well as with EVs for ZIP-
LDMs, a contrast of the characteristics of RPL (p.u.) without but also with EVs for
ZIP-LDMs [28], a resemblance of the credentials of ILAP (percent) without but
instead with EVs for ZIP-LDMs, a contrast of the characteristics of ILRP (percent)
 Grid integration of electric vehicles 319

Figure 12.15 A single-line representation of a 16-bus test program (is a sub-

system of the 16-bus system)

Table 12.5 Information from the 16-bus test program (which is a sub-system of
the 16-bus network) [18,19]

From To Line impedance in p.u. Load on to node (p.u.)

Rp.u. Xp.u. L SL APL RPL

1 2 0.0005729 0.0002939 1 4.59 0.101 0.0599
2 3 0.003069 0.0015639 6 4.09 0.0901 0.0402
3 4 0.0022800 0.0011609 11 2.899 0.1199 0.0799
4 5 0.00237299 0.001210 12 2.899 0.059 0.0302
5 6 0.005099 0.0044019 13 2.899 0.059 0.0201
6 7 0.0011659 0.0038529 22 1.49 0.201 0.101
7 8 0.004429 0.0014639 23 1.049 0.201 0.101
8 9 0.0064129 0.0046079 25 1.049 0.059 0.0201
9 10 0.0065009 0.0046079 27 1.049 0.059 0.0201
10 11 0.0012239 0.0004049 28 1.049 0.0451 0.0299
11 12 0.0023309 0.0007709 29 1.049 0.059 0.0349
12 13 0.0091409 0.0071919 31 0.499 0.059 0.0349
13 14 0.0033719 0.0044389 32 0.4499 0.119 0.0799
14 15 0.00370 0.0032749 33 0.301 0.059 0.0101
15 16 0.0046469 0.0033939 34 0.249 0.059 0.0201
16 17 0.0080259 0.0107159 35 0.249 0.059 0.0201
320 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Comparison of APL(p.u.) without and with EVs for ZIP-LMs

0.16

0.14

0.12

0.1
APL(p.u)

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs
WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs
LDM1 LDM2 LDM3 LDM4 LDM5
ZIP-LDMs

Figure 12.16 For ZIP-LDMs, a comparative of the pattern of APL (p.u.) without
and with EVs

Comparison of RPL(p.u.) without and with EVs for ZIP-LDMs

0.14

0.12

0.1
RPL(p.u.)

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs
WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

LDM1 LDM2 LDM3 LDM4 LDM5

ZIP-LDMs

Figure 12.17 For ZIP-LDMs, a contrast of the contour of RPL (p.u.) without and
with EVs
 Grid integration of electric vehicles 321

Comparison of ILAP (%) without and with EVs for ZIP-LDMs

120

100

80
ILAP (%)

60

40

20

0
EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs
WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs
LDM1 LDM2 LDM3 LDM4 LDM5
ZIP-LDMs

Figure 12.18 Regarding ZIP-LDMs, a comparison of the ILAP (p.u.) pattern

without as well as with EVs

120 Comparison of ILRP (%) without and with EVs for ZIP-LDMs

100

80
ILRP (%)

60

40

20

0
EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs
WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

LDM1 LDM2 LDM3 LDM4 LDM5

ZIP-LDMs

Figure 12.19 Analysis of the ILRP profiles (percent) for ZIP-LDMs without but
instead with EVs
322 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Comparison of VDI (p.u.) without and with EVs for ZIP-LDMs

2.5

2
VDI (p.u.)

1.5

0.5

0
EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs
WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs
LDM1 LDM2 LDM3 LDM4 LDM5
ZIP-LDMs

Figure 12.20 At ZIP-LDMs, the pattern of VDI (percentage) without but instead
with EVs is compared

Comparison of ISC (%) without and with EVs for ZIP-LDMs

85.38

85.378

85.376
ISC (%)

85.374

85.372

85.37

85.368

85.366
EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs
WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

LDM1 LDM2 LDM3 LDM4 LDM5

ZIP-LDMs

Figure 12.21 Evaluation of the ISC (percent) pattern for ZIP-LDMs without as
well as with EVs
 Grid integration of electric vehicles 323

Comparison of PIWEVAP (%) without and with EVs for

120 ZIP-LDMs
PIWEVAP (%) 100
80
60
40
20
0
EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs
WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs
LDM1 LDM2 LDM3 LDM4 LDM5
ZIP-LDMs

Figure 12.22 Correlation of percent PIWEVAP profiles without but also with EVs
using ZIP-LDMs

Comparison of PIWEVRP (%) without and with EVs for ZIP-LDMs

120
100
PIWEVRP (%)

80
60
40
20
0
EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs

EX-REVs
WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

WOEVs

FCEVs
BEVs
PHEVs

LDM1 LDM2 LDM3 LDM4 LDM5

ZIP-LDMs

Figure 12.23 Comparing of percent PIWEVRP profiles without or with EVs in ZIP-
LDMs

without as well as alongside EVs for ZIP-LDMs, a correlation of the profile of

ILAP (percent), comparative of the VDI (percent) characterization without as well
as with EVs for ZIP-LDMs, contrast of the ISC (percent) characteristics without as
well as with EVs for ZIP-LDMs, compared of the characteristics of percent
PIWEVAP without but instead with EVs for ZIP-LDMs, and comparing of the cre-
dentials of percent PIWOEVRP without as well as with EVs for ZIP-LDMs. EV1
corresponds to Ex-EVs, EV2 corresponds to FCEVs, EV3 corresponds to BEVs,
and EV4 corresponds to PHEVs (Table 12.6).
Table 12.6 GA and systems efficiency metrics for various forms of EV scheduling using ZIP-LDMs

ZIP- WOEVs/ EVs OPEV EVs EVs APL RPL % ILAP % ILRP % VDI % ISC % PIWEVAP % PIWEVRP
LDMs WEVs (p.u.) PF Loc. (p.u.) (p.u.)
LDM1 WOEV – – – – 0.1400 0.1219 100 100 1.8900 85.3728 – –
WEV Ex- 0.5055 1.00 8 0.0429 0.0337 30.55 27.37 0.9021 85.3770 25.27 –
EVs
FCEVs 0.7140 0.86 ld 7 0.0307 0.0228 21.32 18.05 0.5432 85.3730 25.28 7.73
BEVs 0.4530 0.00 8 0.0524 0.0546 95.09 95.27 1.1018 85.3730 – 6.74
PHEVs 0.4426 0.86 lg 7 0.0500 0.0400 34.68 31.71 0.8743 85.3770 20.00 3.62
LDM2 WOEV – – – – 0.1400 0.1219 100 100 1.8400 85.3728 – –
WEV Ex- 0.5052 1.00 7 0.0451 0.0350 31.52 28.44 1.0141 85.3770 25.60 –
EVs
FCEVs 0.7253 0.86 ld 8 0.0309 0.0229 21.22 18.00 0.5413 85.3731 25.58 7.00
BEVs 0.4146 0.00 7 0.0625 0.0507 92.33 93.10 1.2200 85.3750 – 6.00
PHEVs 0.4028 0.86 lg 8 0.0511 0.0415 35.71 33.33 0.8374 85.3770 15.33 3.94
LDM3 WOEV – – – – 0.1400 0.1219 100 100 1.8400 85.3778 – –
WEV Ex- 0.4762 1.00 8 0.0458 0.0304 22.00 29.44 0.9500 85.3730 24.21 –
EVs
FCEVs 0.7149 0.86 ld 8 0.0308 0.0229 21.02 17.85 0.5422 85.3730 24.22 7.12
BEVs 0.4195 0.00 7 0.0524 0.0521 95.2 94.81 1.1794 85.3750 – 6.11
PHEVs 0.4105 0.86 lg 7 0.0537 0.0427 38.01 34.73 0.9520 85.3770 18.74 3.22
LDM4 WOEV – – – – 0.1400 0.1219 100 100 1.9400 85.3729 – –
WEV Ex- 0.4568 1.00 8 0.0509 0.0304 35.53 32.33 1.1131 85.3730 23.45 –
EVs
FCEVs 0.7228 0.86 ld 8 0.0305 0.0221 21.25 16.72 0.5413 85.3730 23.44 7.19
BEVs 0.3199 0.00 5 0.0721 0.0508 93.65 94.09 1.6345 85.3750 – 6.21
PHEVs 0.3121 0.86 lg 8 0.0639 0.0532 45.53 43.46 1.0833 85.3720 14.55 2.99
LDM5 WOEV – – – – 0.1400 0.1220 100 100 1.8400 85.3735 – –
WEV Ex- 0.5028 1.00 8 0.0414 0.0326 29.18 26.49 0.8601 85.3769 26.55 –
EVs
FCEVs 0.7165 0.86 ld 7 0.0308 0.0229 21.35 18.00 0.5432 85.3729 26.66 8.00
BEVs 0.4589 0.00 7 0.0721 0.0516 96.44 96.22 1.1685 85. 3730 – 7.00
PHEVs 0.4562 0.86 lg 8 0.0479 0.0369 32.94 30.42 0.8374 85.3730 20.22 3.55
 Grid integration of electric vehicles 325

12.4 Future aspects of grid integration EVs

Modernizing the load power chart, grid connection governance, overload mini-
mization on distribution systems, voltage regulatory oversight on distribution grids,
a decrease of “over a generation” by renewables, backstage amenities for con-
sumers, and the positive impact of ultra-adaptors for heavy vehicles are among
some of the major advantages suggested by recharging administration [29].
By properly and quickly interfacing PEVs with the grid, electricity providers
may “reduce peak energy requirements, regulate system frequency and voltage, and
control the unpredictable output power of distributed energy resources.” The
metering and communicative infrastructure of PEVs, which is necessary to supply
power to the grid, are well, standardized, and constructed with robust cybersecurity.
As the world’s population of automobiles grows, careful diagnosis and manage-
ment will increase the value of each alternative.
● Encouraging grid innovation: A modernized grid promotes long-term system
reliability, efficiency, robustness, and steady levelized pricing, all of which
increase the value of electricity as a source of energy and increase trust in a
dependable electricity supply.
● Information systems for power usage: The current tendency is to create built-in
wireless national PEV recharging systems that cut across utility lines. Large
amounts of data about electric mobility in a specific place are maintained by
these systems. While this information is transferred to electric providers, they
can contribute to enhancing grid effectiveness, load prediction accuracy, the
value of vehicle electrification, and customer perception.
● Smart cities: Smart cities are created metropolitan regions that excel in eco-
nomics, transport, environment, population, lifestyle, and governance to pro-
duce sustainable economic growth and a good standard of living.
Municipalities all over the world are working to become smart cities. The
effectiveness of a smart city is dependent on electricity, insight into traffic
flows, database administration, and data science. Electric utilities can be
important partners in PEV grid integration, with the added load and data vis-
ibility potentially compensating some of the grid upgrading expenses.
● Unregulated PEV recharging is expected to result in a small rise in power
usage. PEV charging, if properly managed, can give the electrical power net-
work the versatility it needs for active demand response and address a range of
difficulties, such as the integration of renewable energy sources.
● PEVs also are part of a vast database because of onboard connectivity systems
like General Motors’ OnStar. Customers’ data will also be collected and
managed by electric providers to calculate voltage requirements, distribution
system assessment, and consumer billing. Allowing these two systems to
interchange vital information will help PEVs, the grid, and customers. The
management of this “big data” presents possible market opportunities for
energy providers and others. Electric utilities are required by law to monitor
customer and framework operating data in an organized, private, and secure
326 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

manner, which makes them potentially well enough to retain PEV

charging data.
● The PEV may be a crucial element of any power management when linked to the
HAN network because it is one of the greatest energy consumers in the home.
● Grid modernization is strongly linked to the grid’s potential to become clean,
which has both medical and economic advantages. Clean energy generation
minimizes contaminants and greenhouse gases, resulting in considerable health
and environmental advantages. According to an Argonne assessment published
in June 2016, electrification cars would cut the grams of carbon dioxide
comparable per mile by 26% considering modern technology and as high as
91% assuming renewable energy as the power source. To realize this potency,
local, state, and federal energy policymakers must work together.
● Vehicle-to-home backup energy requirement: In the event of a power outage
due to weather, the PEV can offer backup generators to the home, particularly
to power smaller digitized loads in contemporary advanced homes.

12.4.1 EVs scenario in India

NMEM and NEMMP are two plans developed by the Government of India. The
Nationwide Plan on E-Mobility was established by the Government of India in
2011. As part of a mission, the Ministry of Industries has designed a plan.

12.4.1.1 FAME-India
Hybrid and EVs will be embraced and developed at a faster rate in India. From
2015 to 2017, Stage 1 of the NMEM will be deployed over two years. The four
main areas of attention are technological research, market generation, piloting, and
charging points. The Ministry of India’s National Electric Transportation Mission
Plan 2020, which was introduced in 2013, seeks to have 6.0–7.2 million hybrid and
EVs in India by 2020.
To boost eco-friendly automobiles, the administration has indeed been offering
discounts on electric and hybrid vehicles consisting of up to 29,000 rupees for
motorcycles and 1,38,000 rupees for automobiles under the FAME India scheme.
In the 2017–2018 budgets, 175 crore rupees were allotted to the FAME various
government schemes. On February 16, 2017, BHEL contracted a deal for the
construction of a bus launch vehicle with Ashok Leyland Ltd and Tata Motors Ltd.
Within this strategy, the first phase of FAME began in April 2015 and was
expanded until March 31, 2019.
By April 1, 2019, FAME II entered into force for 3 years. FAME is a
requirement incentive scheme (60% of overall spending), focusing on technology
innovations, infrastructure building, and need stimulating via incentives and pilot
initiatives. This regulation applies to all-electric and hybrid vehicles, namely
moderate hybrids, powerful hybrids, plug-in hybrids, and battery electrics. FAME
started with a capital of INR 8,950 million and gave a one-third discount on the
difference in cost between an electrical automobile and a corresponding gasoline
automobile in metropolitan areas. Incentives ranged from 1,800 to 2,000 INR.
 Grid integration of electric vehicles 327

Table 12.7 Electric bikes in India

S. Brand and model Range Maximum Charging Cost (Rupee)

no. speed time
1 LOHIA Oma star series 60 km 25 km/h 6–8 h 26,000–35,000
2 Hero-electric Optima 70 km 25 km/h 6–8 h 38,000–55,000
series
3 YO bikes 55–60 km 55 km/h 6h 36,000–55,000
4 BSA motor 70 km 25 km/h 6h 25,000–36,000

The cost for FAME II is INR 100,000 million, including 86% going to con-
sumption subsidies and 10% going to chargeable infrastructure spending. This
stage of the project will include incentives for 7,000 electric buses, 55,000 four-
wheeled passenger cars (including powerful hybrids), 500,000 tri-wheeled vehicles,
and 1,000,000 two-wheeled bikes. This policy also includes around 2,700 rechar-
ging points around the country, with a minimum of 1 charging point in every
3 km
3 km grid in the nation’s biggest cities, other towns with populations over a
million, smart cities, and urban areas in mountainous regions. In addition, rechar-
ging facilities will be constructed every 20 km on highways (Table 12.7).

12.5 Summary

The Summary in terms of conclusions and the future scope of the presented design
are dealt with in Sections 12.5.1 and 12.5.2.

12.5.1 Conclusions
This study presented the effect of properly located kinds of EVs with ZIP-LDMs
using GA from the standpoint of the system’s least overall active power loss. The
focus was on reducing this during the given time limit. The feasibility of this
approach is determined using the 16-bus testing system.
The total outcomes of this research have shown that comparing these four EVs
and five ZIP-LDMs separately is beneficial to society. The following are the
overall results of the comparisons for EVs and ZIP-LDMs separately:
(a) EVs: Generally, the system performance indicators improved when PHEVs
supplied active and reactive power to the grid at leading power factors of
0.80–0.99. For example, diesel and IC engines. While BEVs supply only
active power to the grid at zero power factor, the stem’s overall performance
measures improved. The system performance indices order of FCEV > Ex-
EVs > PHEVs > BEVs with ZIP-LMs.
(b) ZIP-LMs: Within the system, EVs with ZIP-LDMs (such as LDM1, LDM2,
LDM3, LDM4, and LDM5) perform differently. Whenever it relates to EV
scheduling, various ZIP-LDMs act differently. ZIP-LDMs such as LDM1
(low inductive load), LDM2 (highly capacitive load), LDM3 (dynamic
328 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

resistive load), LDM4 (very inductive load), and LDM5 (medium inductive
load) are considered in DG scheduling. The list consists of network perfor-
mance parameters in a set pattern: LDM4>LDM2>LDM5>LDM1>LDM3.
(c) Varied kinds of EVs with ZIP-LDMs display various behaviors for variables
like percent ILAP, percent ILRP, percent VDI, percent ISC, percent PIWDGAP,
and percent PIWDGRP. Finally, it is discovered that in distribution systems,
FCEVs perform better than BEVs, with ZIP-LDMs performing the poorest.
The following are the performance indices in order: FCEVs are superior to
Ex-EVs, PHEVs, and BEVs.
(d) New aspects of EV and grid interface with ZIP-LDMs are highlighted:
● In the case of EVs with ZIP-LDMs, FCEVs with ZIP-LDMs provide
excellent system performance measures, whereas BEVs with ZIP-LDMs
provide lower system performance parameters.
● According to the ZIP-LDMs scenario, FCEVs with LDM4 provide
superior network performance parameters, but BEVs with LDM3 provide
lower system performance indicators.
(e) For extremely limited DG allocating issues using ZIP-LDMs, GA-OPF is
recommended.
(f) The GA approach is more efficient than the GA-OPF approach in terms of
computation time speed.

12.5.2 Future scope

In the future, a suggestion for the extent of research design on this topic will be
included.
(a) Static load models (SLDMs), also known as realistic load models (RLDMs)
for superior performance measures, are frequently used for properly orga-
nized surveillance of EVs and FACTS controllers and their optimal position.
(b) For correctly integrated administration of EVs for their optimal location,
computationally methodologies with SLDMs and RLDMs within the network
for performance boost indices are frequently used.
(c) For practitioners, experimenting with integrating renewable resources and
creating future electric grids is generally recommended for the shape of future
projects, as well as numerous performance measures for financial assistance,
boosting technical difficulties, decreasing environmental pollution levels,
enhancing safety perceptions, and lowering economic cost.
(d) Specialists should strive with both renewable resource incorporation and, as a
consequence, the creation of potential power grids for upcoming work, as well
as a variety of performance indicators for correctly structured multiple EV
control and optimum system position.
(e) Because of the employment of specific kinds of EVs for system load
demands, the various types of EVs that are absorbed/delivered to the system
supporting actual and reactive power are characterized. As a result, specialists
must concentrate on combining renewable energy sources in the same way
that they are creating future power systems.
 Grid integration of electric vehicles 329

Symbols
APL actual power loss per unit
RPL reactive power loss per unit
ILRP reactive power loss index
ILAP actual power loss index
VDI voltage deviation index
ISC short-circuit current

Glossary
Name Description
ICEs internal combustion engines
EVs electric vehicles
SPGNs smart power grid networks
IoT Internet of Things
5G fifth generation
ADMM the alternating direction method of multipliers is an algorithm
techniques that solves convex optimization problems by breaking them into
smaller pieces, each of which is then easier to handle
BEVs battery electric vehicles
HEVs hybrid electric vehicles
PHEVs plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
Rx-EVs range extension type of electric vehicles
FCEVs fuel cell electric vehicles
PEMFC proton exchange membrane fuel cell
V2G vehicle to grid = returning much of the power that has been
preserved to the grid
G2V grid to vehicle = employing energy from the grid to charge a vehicle
PV photovoltaics is the conversion of light into electricity using
semiconducting materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect
MPPT maximum power point tracking is a technique used with variable
converter power sources to maximize energy extraction as conditions vary
VSI a voltage source inverter is a device that converts a unidirec-
tional voltage waveform into a bidirectional voltage waveform,
in other words, it is a converter that converts its voltage from DC
form to AC form
PWM pulse width modulation
TPTL three-phase three-level DC/DC converter
converter
330 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

FLC fuzzy logic controllers

NMEM Nationwide Plan on E-Mobility
FAME faster adoption and manufacturing of hybrid and electric vehi-
cles is a scheme launched by the Government of India to give a
boost to the development of electric vehicles
GA a genetic algorithm is a search heuristic that is inspired by
Charles Darwin’s theory of natural evolution
PWEVQ reactive power DG penetration index
PWEVP true power EV penetration index
ZIP-LMs constant impedance, constant current, and constant power
load models
PL real-power loss in per unit
QL reactive power loss in per unit
ILQ reactive power loss index
ILP real power loss index
IVD voltage deviation index
IC short-circuit current

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 Chapter 13
Regulations and standards of electric vehicles
Rahul Arora1, Paramjeet Singh Jamwal2 and
Ujjwal K. Kalla3

13.1 Introduction

For the commercialization of any product, the ease of operation and maintenance
and availability of its constituent components are essential, which can be ensured
by common standards across the country and the globe as well. Therefore, common
standards are required for the sustainable growth of the electric vehicle (EV) sector.
The EVs must support infrastructures, associated peripherals, and user-friendly
software globally [1]. EVs must comply with international standards and codes. A
summarized review is available in the literature [2] regarding the progress of EV
charging infrastructure, grid integration of EVs, impact of EV charging on the grid
with smart grid interaction performing two functions, i.e., vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
and grid-to-vehicle (G2V). An investigation on fast charging converters for xEVs is
reported in [3].
Based on the available literature, the EV standards, charging standards, grid
integration standards, and safety standards are summarized in this chapter. The EV
charging infrastructure, such as power, control, and communication infrastructure,
along with the impacts of EV integration on grid are discussed in view of the
developmental challenges of EV sector.
The decarbonization of the environment has led to a rapid growth of EVs. This
resulted in new ways of transportation in the form of different types of EVs such as
hybrid EVs (HEVs), all-EVs (AEVs), battery EVs (BEVs), fuel cell EVs (FCEVs),
and plug-in HEV (PHEV). These vehicles need refueling, i.e., charging after a
regular interval and the only charging source for these vehicles is the grid.
Therefore, the electric power industry shall also be subjected to enormous demand
in view of increasing number of EVs. To overcome any unwanted problem due to
EV technology, it is essential to have standards and operation codes, uniformly
across the globe.

1
Department of Electrical Engineering, MANIT Bhopal, India
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, NlT Hamirpur, India
3
Department of Electrical Engineering, NIT Delhi, India
334 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

There are various standards related to EVs and the associated infra-
structure [4]. The Government of India also introduced a type of approval
procedure for EV and HEV for pilot/demonstration projects intended for gov-
ernment schemes [5]. The regulatory bodies across the globe and their estab-
lished standards are summarized in the following sections. The standardization
of EVs is taken care of by International Organization for Standardization
(ISO). Other standards are on component-level specifications. These can be
classified into different categories such as EV charging component standards,
EV grid integration (EVGI) standards, and safety standards. Among the char-
ging component standardization of EV, the codes are country specific as well
as global.
The standards related to EV charging/discharging with the involvement of
the grid are included in grid integration standards. The EVs act like a dis-
tributed energy resource (DER) during charging/discharging from the grid,
therefore, the standards of DERs for grid interconnection also apply to EVs.
The grid interconnection standards are mainly prepared by the Underwriters’
Laboratories (UL) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE).

13.2 EV batteries standards

There are several standards issued by ISO, the Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE), and the United Nations (UN) for the batteries used in the EV (Table 13.1).
The ISO 12405 standard sets the specifications for the lithium-ion-based battery
packs and systems used in EVs. Various categories of ISO 12405 standards are
listed in the Table. 13.1. The SAE J2464 and J2929 standards ensure the safety of
EV batteries during charging. The UN 38.3 standard ensures the transportation
suitability of EV batteries.

Table 13.1 Standards for EV batteries

S. no. Standard Focus area References

1 ISO 12405-1:2011 High-power applications [6]
2 ISO 12405-2:2012 High-energy applications [7]
3 ISO 12405-3:2014 Safety performance requirements [8]
4 ISO 12405-4:2018 Performance testing [9]
5 SAE J2464 Rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) [10]
safety and abuse testing
6 SAE J2929 Battery system safety standard using [11]
lithium-based rechargeable cells
7 UN 38.3 Transportation testing for [12]
lithium-ion batteries
 Regulations and standards of electric vehicles 335

13.3 Grid interface standards

The IEEE1547 and UL1741 are two broad standards that are used for grid inter-
facing. The summary of all these standards and codes is given in the following
section. The IEEE1547 standard is used for the interconnection of distributed
resources (DR) and electric power systems (EPS). This standard is applicable to all
distributed energy resources technologies. This standard has a collective capacity
of 10 MVA or less at the point of common coupling. This standard covers the
requirements relevant to the performance, operation, testing, safety considerations,
and maintenance for the interconnection of DERs. This standard emphasizes on the
installation of distributed energy resources on primary and secondary network
distribution systems. There are several categories of IEEE1547 and UL standards,
which are listed in Tables 13.2 and 13.3.

Table 13.2 Categories of IEEE1547 standard

S. no. Category Details References

1 IEEE 1547.1-2020 Conformance test [13]
procedures for
Equipment interconnecting.
2 IEEE 1547.2-2008 Application guide. [14]
3 IEEE 1547.3-2007 Guide for monitoring, [15]
information exchange,
and control.
4 IEEE 1547.4-2011 Guide for design, operation, [16]
and integration of
island systems.
5 IEEE 1547.6-2011 Recommended [17]
practice for
interconnecting secondary
networks.
6 IEEE 1547.7-2013 Guide for conducting [18]
distribution impact
studies.
7 IEEE 1547.9-2022 Guide for interconnection [19]
of distributed
energy storage
systems.

Table 13.3 Categories of UL standard

S. no. Category Details References

1 UL 1741 Safety of inverters, converters, controllers, [20]
and interconnection system equipment.
2 UL 1741SA Renewable energy inverters. [21]
336 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

13.4 Charging standards

Several charging standards are available worldwide for the charging infra-
structure of EVs. In the United States, SAE- and IEEE-based charging standards
are used. In Europe, IEC-based charging standards are used. In Japan, they have
their own charging standards named CHAdeMO. In China, Guobiao (GB/T)
charging standard is used. This GB/T charging standard is issued by the
Standardization Administration of China and Chinese National Committee of
ISO and IEC for AC and DC charging. The GB/T AC charging standards are
similar to IEC standards. In this section, IEC- and SAE-based charging standards
are discussed. Tables 13.4 and 13.5 show a summary of the voltage and current
levels of IEC and SAE standards. The terms used in IEC61851 and SAE J1772
are almost the same. The term that differs in both these standards is the level of
power. This level of power is called as level and mode in SAE and IEC,
respectively.

13.4.1 IEC standards

The IEC standards are developed by the British standardization organization, which
develops standards for electrical, electronic, and other related technologies.

13.4.2 SAE standards

There are seven charging standards issued by SAE which are summarized in
Table 13.5.

Table 13.4 Summary of IEC standards

S. no. Standard Details References

1 IEC 61851-1:2017 ü Covers overall standard operation [22]
for EV conductive charging systems.
ü Applies to onboard and off-board
equipment for charging EVs/PHEVs.
ü Supply voltages up to 1,000 V AC
and 1,500 V DC.
2 IEC 61980-1:2020 ü A standard for WPT system. [23]
ü Applicable for a supply voltage
up to 1,000 V AC
and 1,500 V DC.
ü Also applies to WPT system
supplied by the on-site storage
systems.
3 IEC 62196-1:2022 ü A standard for plugs, socket outlets, [24]
vehicle connectors, and vehicle inlets
that are used for conductive charging
of EVs.
 Regulations and standards of electric vehicles 337

Table 13.5 Summary of SAE standards

S. Standard Details References

no.
1 SAE ü Establishes the requirement of OBC and [25]
J2293 OfBC equipment.
ü Has two sections: J2293-1 and J2293-2.
ü J2293-1 discusses the power requirements and
system architecture for conductive AC,
conductive DC, and inductive charging.
ü J2293-2 discusses the communication requirement
and network architecture for EV charging.
2 SAEJ1772 ü Discusses all the equipment ratings for EV charging [26]
including CB current rating, charging voltage rating,
and so on.
ü Defined for both AC and DC where each of them has
three levels.
3 SAEJ1773 ü Specifies the minimum requirements of inductively [27]
coupled charging scheme for EVs.
ü Establishes explicitly the requirement for manually
connected inductive charging systems
ü Elaborates the requirements of software interface.
4 SAEJ2847 ü Establishes requirements and specifications for [28]
communication between PEV and DC OfBC.
5 SAEJ2836 ü Establishes the instructions for the documents required [29]
for the variety of potential functions for PEV
communications, energy transfer options,
interoperability, and security.
6 SAEJ2931 ü Establishes the requirements for digital [30]
communication between EVs, EVSE, utility, energy
service interface, advanced metering infrastructure,
and home area network. To set up a communication
network in a smart grid environment for EV.
7 SAEJ2954 ü World’s first WPT specification and recommended [31]
practice (RP) for EVs.
ü Specifies wireless charging up to level 2 (7.7 kW)
but recently published RP version declared up to
level 3 (11 kW).
ü The updated version also provides a standardized testbed for
performance measurement and validation of new products
from EV manufacturers and infrastructure companies.
ü Includes driving assistance for seamless EV parking,
payment establishment, and autonomous charging.

13.5 Safety standards for charging infrastructure

The safety standards for EV charging infrastructure and grid integration are set by
the National Electric Code (NEC) and the National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA). However, other above-mentioned organizations have also defined the
safety standards (Table 13.6).
338 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Table 13.6 Summary of safety standards for charging infrastructure

S. Category Details References

no.
1. ISO 6469- ü Specifies safety requirements for rechargeable energy [32]
1:2019 storage systems (RESS) of EV for the protection of
persons.
2. ISO ü Specifies electric safety requirements for conductive [33]
17409:2020 connections of EV to an external electric power supply
using a plug or vehicle inlet.
3. IEC 61140 ü Provides protection against electric shock. [34]
ü Common aspects for installation and equipment.
4 IEC62040- ü Establishes the performance and test requirements [35]
3:2021 applied to movable, stationary, and fixed electronic
uninterruptible power systems (UPS).
5 IEC 60529 ü Rate and grade the resistance of enclosures of electric [36]
and electronic devices against the intrusion of dust and
liquids.
ü Rates how easy it is for individuals to access the
potentially hazardous parts within the enclosure.
6 IEC 60364-7- ü Applies to circuits intended to supply energy to EVs. [37]
722:2018 ü Applies to circuits intended for feeding back
electricity from EVs.
ü Applies to circuits covered by this document are
terminated at the connecting point.
7 SAE J1766 ü Recommended practice for EV and HEV battery [38]
systems crash.
8 ISO/IEC ü Provides the overview of information security [39]
27000:2018 management systems (ISMS).
9 AIS 156 ü Requirements of a vehicle about its electrical safety. [40]
ü Requirements of a rechargeable electrical energy
storage system (REESS) about its safety

13.6 International test standards for chargers

There are several international test standards for chargers issued by IEC.

S. Category Details References

no.
1. IEC 61851.1: ü Applies to EVSE for charging EV, with a rated supply [41]
2017 voltage of up to 1,000 V AC or up to 1,500 V DC and a
rated output voltage of up to 1,000 V AC or up to
1,500 V DC.
ü Covers the characteristics and operating conditions of
the EVSE.
(Continues)
 Regulations and standards of electric vehicles 339

(Continued)

S. Category Details References

no.
ü Covers the specification of the connection between the
EVSE and the EV.
ü Covers the requirements for electrical safety for
the EVSE.
2. IEC 61851- ü Gives requirements for conductive connection of an [42]
21-1:2017 EV to an AC or DC supply.
ü Applies only to on-board charging units either tested on
the complete vehicle or tested on the charging system
component level (ESA—electronic sub-assembly).
ü Covers the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
requirements for EV in any charging mode while con-
nected to the mains supply.
3. IEC 61851- ü Defines the EMC requirements for any off-board [43]
21-2:2018 components or equipment of such systems used to
supply or charge EV with electric power by conductive
power transfer (CPT), with a rated input voltage,
according to IEC 60038:2009, up to 1,000 V AC or
1,500 V DC and an output voltage up to 1,000 V AC or
1,500 V DC.
4. IEC 61851- ü Gives the requirements for DC EV charging stations, [44]
23:2014 herein also referred to as “DC charger.”
ü Provides the general requirements for the control
communication between a DC EV charging station
and an EV.

13.6.1 Standards and codes for connectors

To have generalized charging ports for various EVs, common standards are
required. There are several standards and codes for connectors issued by Chinese
Standard (GB/T) and IEC.

S. Category Details References

No.
1. GB/ ü Connectors for Conducting Charging for EVs – Part 1: [45]
T20234.1 General Requirements
2. IEC 62196- ü provides a general description of the interface between [46]
1:2022 an EV and a charging station as well as general
mechanical and electrical requirements and tests for
plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors, and vehicle
inlets that are intended to be used for EV charging.
3. GB/ ü Connectors for Conducting Charging for EV – Part 2: [47]
T20234.2 AC Charging Interfaces
4. IEC 62196- ü extends IEC 62196-1 and describes specific designs of [48]
2 plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors, and vehicle
(Continues)
340 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

(Continued)

S. Category Details References

No.
inlets that are intended to be used for AC charging of EV
in modes 1, 2, and 3 as described by IEC 61851-1.
5. GB/ ü Connectors for Conducting Charging for EV – Part 3: [49]
T20234.3 DC Charging Interfaces
6. IEC ü describes specific designs of vehicle connectors and [50]
62196-3 vehicle inlets that are intended to be used for DC char-
ging of EV in mode 4 as described by IEC 61851-1 and
IEC 61851-23

13.6.2 Standards and codes for communications

There are several standards and codes for connectors issued by ISO, IEC, SAE, and
Chinese standards.

S. Category Details References

no.
1. ISO 15118- ü Road vehicles—V2G communication interface is a [51]
20:2022 proposed international standard defining a V2G
communication interface for bi-directional charging/
discharging of EVs.
2. SAE J2847 ü Part 1: Communications between plug-in vehicles and [52]
utility grid.
ü Part 2: Communications between plug-in vehicles and
the supply equipment (EVSE).
ü Part 3: Communications between plug-in vehicles and
the utility grid for reverse flow.
3. IEC 61851- ü The requirements for digital communication between [53]
24:2014 DC EV charging station and EV for control of DC
charging is defined in IEC 61851-24.
4. GB/T ü Communication Protocol between Off-board [54]
27930-2015 Conductive Charger and BMS of EV
5. SAE J2931 ü Establishes the requirements for digital communication [55]
between PEV, EVSE, and the utility or service provider,
energy services interface (ESI), advanced metering
infrastructure (AMI), and home area network (HAN).
6. IEC 61850 ü An international standard defining communication [56]
protocols for intelligent electronic devices at electrical
substations.

13.7 Summary

This chapter presents a compilation of available standards across the globe for EVs
and associated infrastructure. There are many standards and codes under evolution
which may not be included in this chapter. Some standards may have
 Regulations and standards of electric vehicles 341

improvements during the course of implementation. This chapter is aimed to pro-

vide a generalized overview to the readers regarding the EV standards, worldwide.

Glossary
AEV all-electric vehicles
AIS automotive industry standards
AMI advanced metering infrastructure
BEV battery electric vehicle
BMS battery management system
CB circuit breaker
CPT conductive power transfer
DER distributed energy resource
DR distributed resources
EMC electromagnetic compatibility
EPS electric power system
ESA electronic sub-assembly
ESI energy service interface
EV electric vehicle
EVGI electric vehicle grid integration
EVSE electric vehicle supply equipment
FCEV fuel cell electric vehicle
G2V grid-to-vehicle
HAN home area network
HEV hybrid electric vehicle
ISMS information security management systems
ISO International Organization for Standardization
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
NEC national electric code
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
OBC on-board charger
OfBC off-board charger
PHEV plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
PEV plug-in electric vehicle
REESS rechargeable electrical energy storage system
RP recommended practice
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
UL Underwriters’ Laboratories
342 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

UN United Nations
USA United States of America
UPS uninterruptible power systems
V2G vehicle-to-grid
WPT wireless power transfer

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 Index

Abaqus 96 battery capacity 52

acceleration resistance 12–13 battery chargers 231
active cell balancing 65 active methods 233–4
active methods 232, 233 assessment of existing integrated
current multiplier control 234 charging circuits 208–9
voltage follower control 234 circuit 4
actual power loss index (ILAP) 313 classifications of 202–3
ADAMS 93 control strategy 216–18
aerodynamic resistance 12 design of battery-charging converter
aerodynamics modeling 89 212
computational fluid dynamics 89 aspects of passive component
cooling system optimization 90 selection 213–15
drag reduction 89 design of switching devices 213
underbody aerodynamics 90 size of capacitor (Cb) 215
virtual wind tunnel testing 90 size of capacitor (Cm) 215
wind noise and windshield wiper integrated charging system 204–7
aerodynamics 90 modified zeta-based integrated
air pollution (AP) 14, 84 converter for 209
air resistance force 92 passive methods 232–3
alkaline fuel cell (AFC) 48 standards 234
all-EVs (AEVs) 6, 73, 333 technology 6
ampere-hours (Ah) 151 working of integrated converter 209
Ampere’s law 273 charging through solar power 211
analog front end (AFE) 163–5 driving mode of vehicle 211–12
Ansys 96 PIC mode of operation 210
Ansys Fluids 95 regenerative braking mode 212
anti-lock braking systems battery electric vehicle (BEV) 6, 10,
(ABS) 84 14–15, 73, 148, 202, 299, 333
Automatic Start Stop system 147 battery management systems (BMSs)
axial-flux PM motor 64, 74, 78
(AFPMMs) 109 algorithms 173–5
348 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

for automotive applications 147 onboard temperature sensing 169

battery modeling techniques 176–7 pack voltage sensing and current
cell balancing 64 sensing 169
common concepts in 149 PDU 165–9
battery capacity 151 power supply section 162–3
C-rate 151 short-circuit protection 169
common Li-ion cell chemistries HW design considerations BMS
150–1 performance parameters 170
low voltage and high voltage accuracies of measurement 170
automotive systems 149 leakage currents 170
Li-ion battery pack structure response times 171
149–50 thermal performance 170–1
vehicle classification 149 measured parameters 151
functionalities 159 gas sensors 153
battery-inferred parameter inferred parameters 153–7
estimation 162 voltage, current, and temperature
cell balancing 160–2 measurement 151–2
fault management 160 power factor correction 78–9
isolation protection 160 SW architecture 171–3
over and under temperature system architecture 157
protection during centralized architecture 157
charging/discharging 160
communication requirements 159
over and under voltage protection
cost considerations 159
160
distributed architecture 157–8
over-charging and discharging
current protection 160 fault tolerance 159
over on-board temperature performance requirements 159
protection 160 scalability 159
pre-charge protection 160 vehicle type 159
reverse polarity protection 160 types of cell balancing techniques 64
short-circuit protection 160 active cell balancing 65
future trends in 179 operating principle 65–6
battery swapping 179 passive cell balancing 62
cloud-connected BMS 179 validation 178–9
switchable architecture 179 battery-operated vehicles 18
wireless BMS 179 battery swapping 179
hardware architecture 162 bidirectional charger 203
AFE 163–5 bidirectional converters 234
communications 170 bidirectional converter topologies
microcontroller 169–70 236–9
 Index 349

biodiesel 201 constant voltage (CV) mode 231, 308

bipolar plates 47 controlled rectifier topologies 236
Black–Scholes equation 95 control modules 98
BL converter topologies 239 communication and integration 99
design of 241–3 field-oriented control 99
flyback converter design 243 motor control unit 99
performance simulation of single- motor temperature and protection 99
phase BL EV charger 243–5 pulse-width modulation 99
Bluetooth 179 regenerative braking 99
boundary element methods (BEM) 87 torque control 99
buck–boost converter 205 control systems modeling 84
buck resonant converters 262 cybersecurity and fault diagnosis 85
16-bus test program 319 energy management system 84–5
Butler–Volmer equation 57 hardware-in-the-loop testing 85
Butler–Volmer relationship 56 powertrain control 84
safety systems 85
cadmium 41 vehicle dynamics control 84
calendric ageing 154 Coulomb counting 54
capacitive wireless charging 271 coupling coefficient 276–7
capacity fade 154 coupling path analysis 91
CarSim 93 C-rate 54, 151
cell balancing 62, 66, 160, 172 cybersecurity 85
active cell balancing 162 cycle life 54
passive cell balancing 161–2 cyclic ageing 154
cell balancing system 79
charge-sustaining mode 102 data analysis and diagnostics 102
charging stations (CS) 229 data logging and reporting 103
China’s smart grid technology 299 DC–DC converters 20, 76, 85, 183,
circuit-level modeling 90 231, 234, 266, 306
classic motor control model 100–1 multi-output DC–DC converter 76–7
climate change 84 multi-source converter 77–8
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) DC rapid charging 303
169 degree of membership 310
compressed air energy storage 34 depth of discharge (DoD) 55, 153
compressed natural gas (CNG) 201 diode-based AC–DC converters 233
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) diode bridge rectifier (DBR) 229
88 discontinuous conduction mode
constant current (CC) mode 231, 308 (DCM) 233
constant power speed range (CPSR) 107 displacement PF (DPF) 232
350 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

dissipative balancing 161 electric-circuit model 56

distance to empty (DTE) 153 electric drive mode 101
distributed energy resource (DER) 334 electric drivetrains 305
distributed resources (DR) 335 electric energy sources 31
drag reduction 89 electric batteries 34
drive motor 4 lead–acid batteries 39–40
driver-in-loop simulators (DILS) 97 Li-ion battery 43–5
dual active bridge (DAB) converter Ni–Cd battery 40–1
topology 245 nickel–metal-hydride battery 41–3
controller design 246 preliminaries 35–7
operation in charging mode (G2V) working of a cell 37–8
246 fuel cell 45
operation in discharging mode applications 49–50
(V2G) 246–8
definition 45–6
durability analysis 96
working of 46–8
storage devices 32
electrical grid 269
compressed air energy storage 34
electric batteries 34
electrochemical storage 32–3
available infrastructure 63
flywheel energy storage 34
cost and efficiency 63
pumped hydro storage 33–4
cycle life and durability 63
supercapacitors 34
energy and power requirements 62–3
ultracapacitors 50
environmental impact 63
electric grid 303
equivalent circuit model 56–9
electric motors 18–19, 73
fundamentals of 51
electric power systems (EPS) 335
battery cell structure 51–2
electric vehicles (EVs) 1, 9, 83, 148,
battery parameters 52–5 183, 201, 229, 297, 333
future developments 63 actual power penetration of 314
integration and compatibility 63 adoption of 269
lead–acid batteries 39–40 aerodynamics modeling 89–90
Li-ion battery 43–5 automakers legacy 20
Ni–Cd battery 40–1 batteries standards 334
nickel–metal-hydride battery 41–3 battery EVs 299
preliminaries 35–7 BMS 78
safety considerations 63 cell balancing system 79
technologies 59–62 power factor correction 78–9
temperature range 63 charging standards 336
voltage and capacity 63 IEC standards 336
working of a cell 37–8 SAE standards 336–7
 Index 351

charging station 300–3 dynamic responses and trajectory

condition monitoring 102–3 following 133–7
configurations of 16 economic and environmental impact
controller implementation of conventional vehicle leading
issues 128 to selection of 13–14
prevention of controller saturation economics and impact of 5
during field-weakening 129–31 electric motors 18–19
voltage compensation for avoiding electromagnetic interference
current controller saturation modeling 90–1
128–9 circuit-level modeling 90
control optimization 101–2 coupling path analysis 91
control systems modeling 84–5 electromagnetic field simulation
conventional vehicles and hybrid 91
EVs 3 standards and regulations 91
battery 4 energy sources 18
battery charging circuit 4 equations relying on several
drive motor 4 objectives functions 317–24
energy management system 5 evolution of IPM machines for EV
flywheels 4 application 109
power electronic converters 4 from FE analysis 112–13
regenerative braking system 5 fractional-slot concentrated
winding (FSCW) stator winding
supercapacitors 4
of 110–12
current controller gains for FOC
IPM rotor 110
IPMSM drives 131–3
steady-state performance from
DC–DC converter 76 measured stator parameters
multi-output DC–DC converter 113–17
76–7 fault–tolerant VSC topologies for
multi-source converter 77–8 189
design 91 three-level VSC topologies 190
aerodynamics performance 92 two-level VSC topologies 189–90
battery pack 92 FC EVs 300
EV safety 93 general EV setup 17
NVH performance 92–3 general vehicle dynamics 11–13
dynamic model and control of grid integration of 303
IPMSMs 117 converters and controllers for
dq current controls below base 306–10
speed and above with field G2V and V2G rechargeable con-
weakening 118–19 figuration for solar powered EV
power converters 119 charging station 304–6
torque control 119–20 G2V integration 304
352 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

V2G integration 303–4 control modules 98–9

grid interface standards 335 motor drives for 105
high-voltage system in 20 multibody dynamics modeling 88–9
history of 2–3, 9–11 need for 1
hybrid EVs 300 NVH modeling 87–8
important aspects of EV optimum control trajectories 120
technologies 5 characteristic current and flux-
battery charging technology 6 weakening control conditions
energy source technology 6 124–5
motor drive technology 5 condition for maximum torque per
ampere (MTPA) characteristic
vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
120–1
technology 6
crossover speed wc 122–4
integrated charging arrangement for
operation under current and vol-
204
tage limits 122
international test standards for
operation with MTPA and field-
chargers 338
weakening under maximum
standards and codes for current and voltage limits 124
communications 340
other applications 79
standards and codes for connectors
planning in 16 bus systems for
339–40
ZIP-LDMs 311
layout of 3
GA implementation 315–16
main configurations of 6
problem formulation 311–15
all EV 6
plug-in hybrid EVs 300
fuel cell EV 7
power electronic circuits in 73–4
gridable EV 7 range extension type of EVs 300
hybrid EV 6 reactive power penetration of 315
plug-in hybrid EV 7 safety standards for charging
and major components 3 infrastructure 337
market and technology trends for 21 selection of control modes 125
market and energy usage 21–3 MTPV trajectory control 127–8
technology trends 23–6 operation between base and
MCU 74 crossover speeds 126
condition monitoring and control operation with field-wakening
of electric motor 76 above crossover speed 126–7
regenerative braking of traction operation with MTPA below base
motor 76 speed 125–6
VSC 75–6 structural modeling 86–7
motivation for 1 thermal modeling 85–6
motor control 98 tools and techniques for modeling
classic motor control model 100–1 and simulation of 93
 Index 353

aerodynamics 94–5 FAME-India 326–7

control simulation and verification Faraday’s electrolysis law 56
97–8 Faraday’s law 274
finite element method 95–6 fault detection and predictive
MBD 97 maintenance 102–3
torque-speed capability requirements fault diagnosis 85
for 105–8 fault tolerance 159
types of 14 fault–tolerant (FT) operation 184
BEVs 14–15 faulty phase identification scheme 187
FCEV 16 FC EVs (FCEVs) 16, 300
HEVs 16 field-oriented control (FOC) algorithm
PHEV 16 75, 99, 117
variation of machine parameters and field weakening (FW) control 107
impacts 137–8 field weakening region 107
electrochemical capacitors 50 finite difference time domain (FDTD)
electrochemical cell 37 91
electrochemical impedance finite element analysis (FEA) 86
spectroscopy (EIS) 56, 59 finite element modeling (FEM) 88,
electrochemical model (EM) 175 95–6
electrochemical storage 32–3 first-order differential equation 58
electrolyte–electrode interface 56 flow batteries 33
electrolytes 37, 46 flywheel energy storage 34
electromagnetic interference 266 flywheels 4
empirical models 55 fossil fuels 31
Fourier technique 218
energy density 53
fractional-slot concentrated winding
energy management and optimization
(FSCW) stator winding 110–12
102
energy management system (EMS) 5 fuel cell 45, 73
energy sources 18 applications of 49–50
energy source technology 6 basic scheme of 47
equivalent circuit model 56 definition 45–6
impedance-based model 59 working of 46–8
simple battery model 57–9 fuel cell EV (fuel cell EV) 7, 73, 333
equivalent circuit models (ECMs) 56, fuel cell plug-in hybrid EVs (FC-
175 PHEV) 202
equivalent full cycle (EFC) 156 fuel cell (FC) technology 13, 298
equivalent transformer model 276 fuel cell vehicles 49–50
ethanol 201 functional mock-up interface
EV grid integration (EVGI) standards (FMI) 94
333 fuzzy logic controllers (FLCs) 310
354 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

gas diffusion layer 47 induction motor (IM) 4, 183

gas sensors 153 inductive wireless power transfer
geothermal power plants 32 (IWPT) system 271, 293
gradient resistance 12–13 compensation networks 277–9
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 6, 14 converter control and MATLAB
gridable EV 7 simulation of 283
grid integration 303 output voltage controller 289–91
converters and controllers for power circuit and coil 284–8
306–10 modeling of coils 272–7
EVs scenario in India 326 power transfer and efficiency
FAME-India 326–7 279–83
G2V and V2G rechargeable inferred parameters 153
configuration for solar powered state of charge 153–4
EV charging station 304–6 state of energy 157
G2V integration 304 state of health 154–6
V2G integration 303–4 state of power 156–7
grid interface standards 335 Institute of Electrical and Electronics
grid-to-vehicle (G2V) 79, 233, 303, Engineers (IEEE) 334
333 insulated gate bipolar transistors
integration 304 (IGBTs) 99, 184
mode 6 integrated charging scheme 205
ground assembly (GA) 292 integrated charging system 204–7
intelligent battery sensor (IBS) 147
half-cycle mean voltage (HCMV) 184 interior permanent-magnet (IPM)
hardware in the loop system (HILS) 94 motors 107
hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) testing 85, internal combustion engine (ICE) 1, 9,
97 73, 83, 91, 101, 147, 202
Hartley model 57 internal resistance 54
heating, ventilation, and air condition- International Commission on Non-
ing (HVAC) system 86 Ionizing Radiation Protection
high-frequency transformer (HFT) 231 (ICNIRP) 270
high-pass filter (HPF) 256 International Standard of Organization
(ISO) 292, 333
hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) 6, 9,
16, 42, 73, 202, 300, 333 interphase reactors (IPRs) 233, 253
hybrid mode 101 inverter 99
hybrid vehicles 83 ion diffusion 55
ionic conductor 62
IEC standards 291–2, 336 ionic liquids 50
IEEE1547 335 IPM synchronous motors (IPMSM)
inductance 274 109
 Index 355

iron–chromium flow battery (ICFB) multibody dynamics (MBD)

62 modeling 88
ISO 19363 standard 292 chassis and body dynamics 88
drivetrain and powertrain analysis 89
lead (Pb) 39 suspension analysis 88
lead–acid batteries 4, 18, 33, 39–40 vehicle dynamics and handling 89
lead dioxide (PbO2) 39 virtual prototyping and testing 89
lead sulfate (PbSO4) 39 multi-level converters 256–9
liquefied natural gas (LNG) 201 multi-output DC–DC converter 76
Li–S batteries 60–1 multi-pulse AC–DC converters
lithium cobalt-oxide (LiCoO2) 43 (MPCs) 232
lithium-ion batteries 4, 33, 35, 43–5, multi-pulse converters 248
147, 176 arrangement of 249
lithium-ion polymer battery (LiPB) bridge configurations 255
173 high-pass filter 256
lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) 150 IPR 253
lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide transformers 249–52
(LiNiMnCoO2) 150 ZSBT 253–5
LS-DYNA 96 classification of 249
multi-source converter 77–8
machine control unit (MCU) 73–4, 75
condition monitoring and control of Nafion 47
electric motor 76
Na-ion batteries 61
regenerative braking of traction
Nastran 96
motor 76
National Electric Code (NEC) 337
VSC 75–6
National Fire Protection Association
machine learning (ML)-based
(NFPA) 337
approaches 177
negative temperature coefficient
magnetic flux 272
(NTC) 152
magnetomotive force (MMF) 273 Nernst equations 57
manganese 43 Ni–Cd battery 4, 18, 33, 40–1
memory effect 41 nickel–cadmium (Ni–Cd) 33
metal–air batteries 4 nickel-metal-hydride (Ni-MH) 41–2
microcontrollers 2, 169 nickel–metal-hydride battery 41–3
module balancing 66 nickel oxide hydroxide (NiOOH) 40
molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) 48 Ni–iron battery 18
MOSFETs 165 noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH)
motor control unit (MCU) 99, 183 modeling 87
motor drive technology 5 battery system noise modeling 88
MTPV trajectory control 127–8 Cabin noise modeling 88
356 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

electric motor noise modeling 87 power density 54

structural dynamics modeling 88 power distribution, and monitoring unit
virtual prototyping and testing 88 (PDMU) 162
nominal capacity 151 power distribution unit (PDU) 154, 165
battery cut-off switch 165–6
ohmic resistance 58 closed loop–voltage feedback
open circuit voltage (OCV) 52–3 strategy 168–9
OpenFOAM 95 pre-charge circuit 166–8
OpenSim 93 switch monitoring unit 169
open switch 184 time-based strategy 168
power electronic converters (PEC) 4, 183
operating principle 65–6
power factor correction (PFC) 20, 78–9
original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs) 147 power fade 154
oxidation 37 PowerFLOW 95
power flow conservation limits 318
Pareto front 317 Powergui block 284
Park’s dq-transformation 117 power quality (PQ) control 230
passive cell balancing 62 for battery charger 231
passive methods 232–3 active methods 233–4
performance monitoring 102 passive methods 232–3
permanent magnet brushless (PMBL) standards 234
motor 4, 74 multi-pulse and multi-level
permanent magnet synchronous motors topologies 248
(PMSMs) 19, 74 design of single-phase multilevel
PF correction (PFC) controller 231 EV charger 260–1
3-phase bridge rectifiers 233 hardware parameter design 264
phase-shifted gate signal generation modeling, simulation, and
block module 289 performance of singlephase
multilevel EV charger 262–3
3-phase three-level (TPTL) rectifier
306 multi-level converters 256–9
phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) 48 multi-pulse converters 248–56
photovoltaic effect 31 operation of three-phase multilevel
EV charger 263–4
plug-in charging techniques 206
performance simulation of three-
plug-in hybrid EVs (PHEVs) 7, 16, 73, phase multilevel EV charger
202, 300, 333 264–6
point of common coupling (PCC) 256 topologies for PQ control of battery
potassium hydroxide (KOH) 40 charger 234
power converters 119 bidirectional converter topologies
power delivery unit 165 236–9
 Index 357

BL converter topologies 239–45 short circuit current capacity 318

controlled rectifier topologies short-circuit protection 169
236 SIMPACK 93
dual active bridge converter simplified Unnewehr universal model
topology 245–8 57
uncontrolled rectifier topologies Sim Power Systems (SPS) toolboxes
234–6 264
power supply section 162–3 single particle models (SPMs) 177
power technologies 49 single-phase multilevel EV charger
powertrain control 84 260
protection algorithms 172 DC–DC converter design 260–1
proton exchange membrane (PEM) 47 five-level converter design 260
proton exchange membrane fuel cell modeling, simulation, and
(PEMFC) 46–8 performance of 262
6-pulse diode bridge rectifiers 232 single-stage EV battery charging
scheme 202
pulse-width modulation (PWM) 99
smart cities 325
pumped hydro storage 33–4
Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) 292
range extension type of EVs (Rx-EVs)
300 software in loop (SIL) 97
reactive power loss index (ILRP) 313 solar panels 31
realistic load models (RLDMs) 328 solar PV framework 304–5
receiver coil (Rx) 271 solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) 48–9
redox flow batteries (RFBs) 61–62 solid polymer electrolytes 38
redox reactions 37 solid-state transformer 229
squirrel cage induction motor (SCIM)
regenerative braking mode 101
19
regenerative braking system 5
SS compensation 278
reluctance torque 120
STAR-CCM+ 95
remaining useful life (RUL) 55
starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI)
renewable energy sources 31 systems 40
road resistance 13 state estimation algorithms 172
rolling resistance 12 state of charge (SoC) 47–54, 153–4,
237
SAE J2954 standard 292 Coulomb counting method for 173–4
SAE standards 336–7 Kalman filter for 175
scalability 159 look-up table method for 173
self-discharge rate 54 state of energy (SoE) 157
sensor-based data collection 102 state of health (SoH) 55, 154–6, 173
short circuit current (ISC) 314 empirical model for 174–5
358 Electric vehicle components and charging technologies

Kalman filter for 175 torque control 99, 119–20

monitoring 103 total harmonic distortion (THD) 218,
state of power (SoP) 156–7 231
state of the charge (SOC) 270 Toyota hybrid vehicles (Prius I) 110
static load models (SLDMs) 328 transformer equivalent circuit 276
statistical energy analysis (SEA) 88 transformers 249–52
stress analysis 96 transmission 298
structural dynamics modeling 88 transmitter coil (Tx) 271
structural modeling 86 two-level VSC topologies 189–90
crashworthiness and safety 86 two-phase IBC 264
durability and fatigue analysis 87 two-stage EV battery charging scheme
finite element analysis 86 202
lightweighting and material
optimization 87 UL1741 335
noise, vibration, and harshness 87 ultracapacitors 50
virtual testing and validation 87 uncontrolled rectifier
supercapacitors 4, 34, 50 topologies 234–6
switched mode power supply (SMPS) 74 under voltage lockout (UVLO) 163
switched reluctance motors (SRM) 4, Underwriters’ Laboratories (UL) 334
19, 74, 109 uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
synchronous reluctance motor (SyRM) systems 33
4, 19, 74
vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB)
Tafel equations 57 62
taper-current charging technique 308 vehicle assembly (VA) 292
thermal modeling 85 vehicle dynamics control 84
battery thermal management 85 vehicle modeling 84
cabin thermal comfort 86 VehicleSim 93
electric motor cooling 86 vehicle-to-anything (V2X) 79
integration and co-simulation 86 vehicle-to-grid (V2G) 6, 79, 233, 237,
power electronics cooling 85 303, 333
thermal runaway analysis 86 integration 303–4
three-level PWM bidirectional voltage deviation index (VDI ) 313–14
rectifier/inverter 306–7 voltage deviation limits 318
three-level VSC topologies 190 voltage origin inverter (VSI) 307
three-phase multilevel EV charger 263 voltage source converters (VSCs)
interleaved buck DC/DC converter 74–6, 184
263–4 activation of additional phase
three-phase front-end AC/DC switches of 188–9
converter 263 identification of faulty phase in 187
 Index 359

isolation of faulty phase switches of potential gain with wireless charging

188 270
OC fault in 184–6 standards of wireless power charging
SC fault in 186 291
volt–ampere (VA) 277 IEC standard 291–2
ISO 19363 standard 292
Warburg impedance 57 SAE J2954 standard 292
Wi-Fi 179 wired charging and challenges 270
wireless BMS 179 wound rotor synchronous motors
wireless charging technology 6 (WRSM) 109
wireless power transfer (WPT)
capacitive wireless charging 271 zero current switching (ZCS) 76, 266
challenges with 270–1 zero prototypes 95
inductive wireless power transfer 271 zero voltage switching (ZVS) 76
compensation networks 277–9 zeta-base converter 218
converter control and MATLAB ZigBee 179
simulation of IWPT system zinc–air batteries 62
283–91 zinc–bromine flow battery (ZBB) 62
modeling of coils 272–7 ZSBT 253–5
power transfer and efficiency
279–83