UNIT – III:

Solid Based 3D Printing Systems: Introduction, Principle, Processes and

applications of Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) and Laminated Object
Manufacturing (LOM).
Solid Based 3D Printing Systems :-

Solid-based 3D Printing Systems are very different from the liquid-based

photo-curing systems. They are also different from one another, though some of
them do use the laser in the prototyping process.

The basic common feature among these systems is that they all utilize solids
(in one form or another) as the primary medium to create the prototype. A special
group of solid-based 3D Printing systems that uses powder as the prototyping
medium.

FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM) :-

There are several different methods of 3D printing, but the most widely
used is a process known as Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). FDM printers use a
thermoplastic filament, which is heated to its melting point and then extruded,
layer by layer, to create a three-dimensional object.

The technology behind FDM was invented in the 1980s by Scott Crump, co-
founder and chairman of Stratasys Ltd., a leading manufacturer of 3D printers.
Other 3D printing organizations have since adopted similar technologies under
different names. The Brooklyn-based company MakerBot (now owned by
Stratasys), was founded on a nearly identical technology known as Fused Filament
Fabrication (FFF).

Principle :-

The principle of the FDM is based on surface chemistry, thermal energy,

and layer manufacturing technology. The material in filament (spool) form is
melted in a specially designed head, which extrudes on the model. As it is
extruded, it is cooled and thus solidifies to form the model.

The model is built layer by layer, like the other 3D Printing systems.
Parameters which affect performance and functionalities of the system are
material column strength, material flexural modulus, material viscosity,
positioning accuracy, road widths, deposition speed, volumetric flow rate, tip
diameter, envelope temperature, and part geometry.
Processes :-

The schematic below shows a basic overview of an FDM printer. It consists

of two extruding nozzles on linear slides, a build platform on another linear slide
and supports for plastic filament spools.

Fig. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

 Schematic of a typical FDM printer

The extruders are called Model and Support extruders. As the name
implies, the model extruder prints the material for the 3D shape while the support
extruder prints the supports. They can either have the same material or different
materials. Hobbyist printers have a single extruder and use the same material for
both model and support.

Depending on the type and brand of FDM printer, the XYZ movement could
come from the extruders and the build platform. As the schematic shows, in this
version, the extruder head gantry moves in X & Y while the build platform moves
in Z-axis comes. In some versions, the print head moves in X and Z while the
build platform moves in Y.

FDM process steps :-

1. Part preparation

The first few steps are similar to any other additive manufacturing
technology and start with build preparation software. The initial stage is to import
the design file, then choose options for the build such as layer height, orientation
and infill percentage.

The software then computes sections and slices the part into several layers.
The program then creates extruder paths and building instructions based on the
sectioning data to drive the extrusion heads.
 Fig. FDM part

Depending on the printer and the manufacturer, the above process will be
different, but the core step 3D file conversion into layer-based information is the
same.

2. FDM machine set-up

Then printer is loaded with a thermoplastic filament spool for both model
and support extruders. Generally, the build platform is heated and maintained at
a higher temperature to control the cooling of the extruded material. Extruders
are heated and when the nozzle reaches the required temperature, the head will
start pushing and melting the filament into a small ribbon roughly the size of a
human hair.

Fig. FDM machine set-up step

3. FDM printing

The extrusion head gantry and the build platform are on a three-axis
system, which allows the nozzle tip to move in three directions in space. The
extruder will start depositing the material layer by layer in predefined areas to
cool and solidify. Sometimes the material cooling is assisted using cooling fans
mounted to the extrusion head.

Fig. FDM printing step - FDM part

Multiple passes are necessary to fill a region within a layer. When the gantry
completes a layer, the build platform or the heads will move the Z-axis by the
layer height. Then the above process starts again to deposit a new later. This
procedure continues until all the layers are built.

3. FDM part removal

Like any other 3D printing process, the next stage involves removing the
part from the build platform and cleaning them by removing all supports.

Fig. FDM part removal

4. Post-processing

Part can be then further processed remove any remaining supports and finish to
suit the end application.

Fig. FDM part

Characteristics of FDM :-
While FDM 3D printers vary in terms of their extrusion systems and the part
quality you get from various machines, there are common characteristics that you
can expect from every FDM printing process.

1. Temperature and build speed

The nozzle and build platform temperature, build speed, layer height and
cooling fan speed are all adjustable in most FDM systems. These are often set by
the printing service provider and varies with the material.

2. Build volume
Build volume is the biggest part the machine can build. A DIY 3D printer’s
build volume is typically 200 x 200 x 200 mm, while industrial machines can have
build volumes as large as 1000 x 1000 x 1000 mm.
Consider the build volume of the printer you will be using during the design.
Remember larger model can also be printed in smaller chunks and might be better
in terms of cooling.
3. Layer height
The layer height used in FDM ranges between 0.02 mm and 0.4 mm.
Reduced layer height generates smoother components and more correctly
captures curved geometries, but a larger layer height make parts print faster and
at a lesser cost.

FDM layer height – 0.05, 0.2 and 0.3 mm (from left to right)

Generally, a layer height of 0.2 mm is a good compromise between cost,

time and quality. For low fidelity rapid prototypes, the increased layer height
expedite the process.

4. Layer Adhesion
Secure adhesion between deposited layers of a part is critical in FDM. When
an FDM machine extrudes molten thermoplastic through the nozzle, this material
presses against the previously printed layer.
High temperature and pressure cause this layer to re-melt and enable it to
bond with this previous layer.
And since the molten material presses against the previously printed layer,
its shape deforms to an oval.
This means that FDM parts always have a wavy surface, no matter
what layer height is used, and that small features, such as small holes or threads,
may require post-processing.
 Fig. Layer by layer-construction FDM

Fig. The FDM material extrusion profile.

5. Support Structure
In FDM, geometries with overhangs will require a support structure. The
molten thermoplastic cannot be deposited in the absence of air. As a result, some
geometries necessitate support structures.

Fig. FDM Support structure

 Surfaces printed on supports will have lesser surface quality than the
remainder of the item. As a result, it is advised that the part be constructed in
such a way that the need for assistance is minimized.
Typically, support is printed using the same material as the print. In
industrial printers, there are other support materials available where it can
dissolve in liquid, however, they are mostly utilized in high-end desktop or
industrial FDM 3D printers.
Printing on dissolvable supports enhances the surface quality of the item
greatly but raises the total cost of a print due to the need for a dual head FDM
printer and the comparatively high cost of the dissolvable material.

6. Infill and Shell thickness

FDM pieces are typically not produced solid to save time and material.
Instead, the exterior perimeter, known as the shell, is printed using numerous
passes, and the inside with an internal, low-density structure, known as the infill.

Fig. Infill percentage ranging from 20% (left), 50% (center) and 75% (right)

The infill and shell thickness of a print influences the strength of a

component.
The default option for desktop FDM printers is 25% infill density and 1 mm
shell thickness, which is a fair balance between strength and speed for rapid prints.

7. Warping
Warping is one of the most common defects in FDM. When extruded
material cools during solidification, its dimensions decrease. Since different
sections of the printed part cool at different rates, their dimensions also change
at different speeds. Differential cooling causes the buildup of internal stresses that
pull the underlying layer upward, causing it to warp.
 There are several ways to prevent warping. One method is to closely
monitor the temperature of your FDM system, especially the build platform and
chamber. You can also increase the adhesion between the part and the build
platform to mitigate warping.
Making certain choices during the design process can also reduce the
likelihood of your part warping. Here are a few examples:
• Large, flat areas - like you’d see on a rectangular box - are more prone to
warping. Try to avoid these whenever possible.
• Thin protruding features - think of the prongs on a fork - are also prone to
warping. Adding extra guiding or stress-relieving material at the edges of
thin features to increase the area that makes contact with the build platform
helps to avoid this.
• Sharp corners warp more often than rounded shapes, so we recommend
adding fillets to the design.
• Every material has its own susceptibility to warping. For instance, ABS is
generally more sensitive to warping than PLA or PETG, for instance.

Fig. As newly deposited layers cool they shrink, pulling the underlying layer
upward resulting in warping.

Fig. FDM warping Source

MATERIALS FOR FDM 3D PRINTING :-
The variety of materials accessible is one of FDM’s primary features.
Commodity thermoplastics such as PLA and ABS to engineering materials such as
PA, TPU, and PETG. For prototyping, during embodiment stages of the new
product design, there are high-performance thermoplastics such as PEEK and PEI.

ABS
ABS-M30 is an excellent material for conceptual modelling, functional
prototyping, production tools, and end-use parts. ABS-M30, which is up to 70%
stronger than conventional FDM ABS, is perfect for production components,
thermoforming tools, lightweight jigs and fixtures, and concept models. This
thermoplastic has high tensile, impact, and flexural strength. Sparse or solid fill is
available.
• Pros – Offers good strength, good temperature resistance
• Cons – More susceptible to warping
PC
PC (polycarbonate) is widely used in the automotive, aerospace, and medical
industries, among many others. PC provides precision, durability, and stability,
resulting in sturdy parts that can resist functional testing. Rapid tooling, jigs and
fixtures for production
• Pros – Accurate, Rigid, Stable, RF transparent, High tensile and flexural
• Cons – Not widely available, higher cost
PC-ABS
PC-ABS combines the best qualities of both PC and ABS materials, such as
strong strength with the heat resistance of PC and the flexibility of ABS. PC-ABS
composites are widely used in automotive, electronics, and telecommunications
applications. Form fit and functional prototypes, low volume production parts
• Pros – High impact strength, High heat resistance
• Cons -Not widely available, higher cost
PLA
PLA is a bioplastic and is one of the standard materials for this technology,
along with ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene). Printing with PLA is relatively
easy and can produce parts with finer details.
• Pros – Excellent visual quality, Easy to print with
• Cons- Low impact strength
Nylon
Nylon is one of the most widely used commercial FDM materials and it
possesses a good combination of tensile strength and toughness. Generally used
for rapid prototyping concept validation models, prototype parts for visual design
validation, production toolings such as jigs, fixtures, and manufacturing aids. It
can also be used for low volume production parts with less demanding functional
parts.
• Pros – High strength, Excellent wear, and chemical resistance
• Cons – Low humidity resistance

PETG
Another alternative for desktop FDM printing is PETG, which is comparable to
ABS in its composition and how easy it is to print with.
• Pros – Food safe although grooves and grannies of notches between the
layers are a critical point for bacterial growth, good strength, easy to print
• Cons – Not widely available, higher cost

TPU
TPU 92A FDM Elastomer is a thermoplastic polyurethane substance used to
make long-lasting elastomer components. The material allows for the
development of high-functioning, long-lasting, and complicated parts with the
anticipated material features of an elastomeric material, such as enhanced tear
resistance, fatigue resistance, and memory recovery.
• Pros – Very flexible, good toughness, Durable, Abrasion resistance
• Cons – Difficult to print accurately

PEI
ULTEM Polyetherimide (PEI) is a high-performance polymer that is amorphous. It
offers superb thermal properties, a high-level of dimensional stability, extreme
flame retardancy and excellent resistance to a lot of chemicals.
• Pros – Excellent strength to weight ratio, Excellent fire and chemical
resistance
• Cons – High cost
 Printing in different materials will affect your part’s mechanical properties
and accuracy, as well as its cost. We compare the most common FDM materials
in the table below.

Material Characteristics
ABS + Good strength
+ Good temperature resistance
- More susceptible to warping
PLA + Excellent visual quality
+ Easy to print with
- Low impact strength
Nylon (PA) + High strength
+ Excellent wear and chemical resistance
- Low humidity resistance
PETG + Food Safe*
+ Good strength
+ Easy to print with
TPU + Very flexible
- Difficult to print accurately
PEI + Excellent strength to weight
+ Excellent fire and chemical resistance
- High cost
Post-processing for FDM 3D printing :-
FDM 3D printed parts can be finished to quite a high standard via several
post processing methods, including sanding and polishing, priming and painting,
cold welding, vapor smoothing, epoxy coating and metal plating.

Best practices for printing with FDM :-

• FDM can produce prototypes and functional parts quickly and cost
effectively.

• There is a wide range of materials available for FDM.

• Typical build size of a desktop FDM 3D printer is 200 x 200 x 200mm.

Industrial machines have a larger build size.

• To prevent warping, avoid large flat areas and add fillets to sharp corners.

• FDM is inherently anisotropic, so it is unsuitable for mechanically critical

components.

• The minimum feature size of FDM machines is limited by the diameter of

the nozzle and the layer thickness.

• Material extrusion makes it impossible to produce vertical features (in the

Z direction) with geometry smaller than the layer height (typically 0.1 - 0.2
mm).

• FDM typically can’t produce planar features (on the XY plane) smaller than
the nozzle diameter (0.4 - 0.5 mm).

• Walls have to be at least 2 to 3 times larger than the nozzle diameter (i.e.
0.8 - 1.2 mm).

• If you’re looking to produce smooth surfaces and very fine features, you
may need additional post-processing, like sandblasting and machining.
Another AM technology like SLA may be more suitable in this case.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The main advantages of using FDM technology are as follows:

(1) Fabrication of functional parts. FDM process is able to fabricate prototypes

with materials that are similar to that of the actual molded product. With ABS, it
is able to fabricate fully functional parts that have 85% of the strength of the
actual molded part. This is especially useful in developing products that require
quick prototypes for functional testing.

(2) Minimal wastage. The FDM process build parts directly by extruding semi-
liquid melt onto the model. Thus only those material needed to build the part and
its support are needed, and material wastages are kept to a minimum. There is
also little need for cleaning up the model after it has been built.

(3) Ease of support removal. With the use of Break Away Support System
(BASS) and WaterWorks Soluble Support System, support structures generated
during the FDM building process can be easily broken off or simply washed away.
This makes it very convenient for users to get to their prototypes very quickly and
there is very little or no post-processing necessary.

(4) Ease of material change. Build materials, supplied in spool form (or
cartridge form in the case of the Dimension or Prodigy Plus), are easy to handle
and can be changed readily when the materials in the system are running low.
This keeps the operation of the machine simple and the maintenance relatively
easy.

• Wide variety of materials: ABS, ABS / PC, PC, PLA, PET, PA, materials mixed
with fibers, with high performance

• Ease of removing media

• Absence of post curation

• Possibility of manufacturing very large pieces without deformations

• Possibility of combining materials during manufacturing

The main disadvantages of using FDM technology are as follows:

(1) Restricted accuracy. Parts built with the FDM process usually have restricted
accuracy due to the shape of the material used, i.e., the filament form. Typically,
the filament used has a diameter of 1.27 mm and this tends to set a limit on how
accurately the part can be built.

(2) Slow process. The building process is slow, as the whole crosssectional area
needs to be filled with building materials. Building speed is restricted by the
extrusion rate or the flow rate of the build material from the extrusion head. As
the build material used are plastics and their viscosities are relatively high, the
build process cannot be easily speeded up.
(3) Unpredictable shrinkage. As the FDM process extrudes the build material
from its extrusion head and cools them rapidly on deposition, stresses induced by
such rapid cooling invariably are introduced into the model. As such, shrinkages
and distortions caused to the model built are a common occurrence and are usually
difficult to predict, though with experience, users may be able to compensate for
these by adjusting the process parameters of the machine.

Applications :-

FDM models can be used in the following general applications areas:

(1) Models for conceptualization and presentation. Models can be marked,

sanded, painted and drilled and thus can be finished to be almost like the actual
product.

(2) Prototypes for design, analysis and functional testing. The system can
produce a fully functional prototype in ABS. The resulting ABS parts have 85% of
the strength of the actual molded part. Thus actual testing can be carried out,
especially with consumer products.

(3) Patterns and masters for tooling. Models can be used as patterns for
investment casting, sand casting and molding.

• Low-volume production of complex parts

• Rapid manufacturing

• Functional Testing

• Engineering & Concept Models

• Tooling / Jigs & fixtures

• Models for dimensional and functional validation of product

• Parts with approved material for aeronautics

• Possibility of chromating ABS parts

• Manufacture of short series (low volume manufacturing) of pieces

• Manufacture of lower cost parts

 Fig. Gaming mouse prototype

Fig. 3D printed Prosthetic arm – Cyborg Beast

Fig. Miniature model 3D printing in sandstone

Fig. Manifold-Carbon PA-Automotive

Fig. 3D printed architectural model

Fig. 3D printed Heart
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) :-

Introduction :-
Cubic Technologies was established in December 2000 by Michael Feygin,
the inventor who developed Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM). In 1985,
Feygin set up the original company, Helisys Inc., to market the LOM rapid
prototyping machines. During the LOM process, layers of plastic or paper are fused
— or laminated — together using heat and pressure, and then cut into the desired
shape with a computer-controlled laser or blade.

Principle :-
The LOM process is based on the following principles:

(1) Parts are built, layer-by-layer, by laminating each layer of paper or other
sheet-form materials and the contour of the part on that layer is cut by a CO2
laser.

(2) Each layer of the building process contains the cross-sections of one or many
parts. The next layer is then laminated and built directly on top of the laser-cut
layer.

(3) The Z-control is activated by an elevation platform, which lowers when each
layer is completed, and the next layer is then laminated and ready for cutting. The
Z-height is then measured for the exact height so that the corresponding cross
sectional data can be calculated for that layer.

(4) No additional support structures are necessary as the “excess” material, which
are cross-hatched for later removal, act as the support.

Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) process :-

The Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) process is an automated
fabrication method in which a 3D object is constructed from a solid CAD
representation by sequentially laminating the part cross-sections. The process
consists of three phases:
1. Pre-processing
2. Building
3. Post-processing.
Fig. Schematic illustration of laminated object manufacturing (LOM) system
 Fig. Schematic illustration of laminated object manufacturing (LOM) system

1. Pre-processing

The pre-processing phase comprises several operations. The initial steps

include generating an image from a CAD-derived STL file of the part to be
manufactured, sorting input data, and creating secondary data structures.

These are fully automated by LOM Slice, the LOM system software, which
calculates and controls the slicing functions. Orienting and merging the part on
the LOMTM system are done manually. These tasks are aided by LOM Slice, which
provides a menu-driven interface to perform transformations (e.g., translation,
scaling, and mirroring) as well as merges.

2. Building

In the building phase, thin layers of adhesive-coated material are sequentially

bonded to each other and individually cut by a CO2 laser beam (see Figure). The
build cycle has the following steps:

(1) LOM Slice creates a cross-section of the 3D model measuring the exact height
of the model and slices the horizontal plane accordingly. The software then images
crosshatches which define the outer perimeter and convert these excess materials
into a support structure.

(2) The computer generates precise calculations, which guide the focused laser
beam to cut the cross-sectional outline, the crosshatches, and the model’s
perimeter. The laser beam power is designed to cut exactly the thickness of one
layer of material at a time. After the perimeter is burned, everything within the
model’s boundary is “freed” from the remaining sheet.
(3) The platform with the stack of previously formed layers descends and a new
section of material advances. The platform ascends and the heated roller
laminates the material to the stack with a single reciprocal motion, thereby
bonding it to the previous layer.

Figure: LOM building process

(4) The vertical encoder measures the height of the stack and relays the new
height to LOM Slice, which calculates the cross section for the next layer as the
laser cuts the model’s current layer.

This sequence continues until all the layers are built. The product emerges
from the LOM machine as a completely enclosed rectangular block containing the
part.

3. Post-processing

The last phase, post-processing, includes separating the part from its support
material and finishing it. The separation sequence is as follows [see Figures]:

(1) The metal platform, home to the newly created part, is removed from the LOM
machine. A forklift may be needed to remove the larger and heavier parts from
the LOM-2030H.

(2) Normally a hammer and a putty knife are all that is required to separate the
LOM block from the platform. However, a live thin wire may also be used to slice
through the double-sided foam tape, which serves as the connecting point
between the LOM stack and the platform.

(3) The surrounding wall frame is lifted off the block to expose the crosshatched
pieces of the excess material. Crosshatched pieces may then be separated from
the part using wood carving tools.
 Figure 4.3: Separation of the LOM object

(a) The laminated stack is removed from the machine’s elevator plate.

(b) The surrounding wall is lifted off the object to expose cubes of excess material.

(c) Cubes are easily separated from the object’s surface.

(d) The object’s surface can then be sanded, polished or painted, as desired.

After the part is extracted from surrounding crosshatches the woodlike LOM
part can be finished. Traditional model-making finishing techniques, such as
sanding, polishing, painting, etc. can be applied.

After the part has been separated it is recommended that it be sealed

immediately with urethane, epoxy, or silicon spray to prevent moisture absorption
and expansion of the part. If necessary, LOM parts can be machined — by drilling,
milling and turning.
Materials :-

Potentially, any sheet material with adhesive backing can be utilized in

Laminated Object Manufacturing. It has been demonstrated that plastics, metals,
and even ceramic tapes can be used. However, the most popular material has
been Kraft paper with a polyethylene-based heat seal adhesive system because it
is widely available, cost-effective, and environmentally benign.

In order to maintain uniform lamination across the entire working envelope

it is critical that the temperature remain constant. A temperature control system,
with closed-loop feedback, ensures the system’s temperature remains constant,
regardless of its surrounding environment.

Though principally known as a paper 3D printing technology, laminated

object manufacturing can process a few types of material — depending on the
particular machine.

Paper

Ordinary copy paper is the most popular feedstock for LOM, and the ability
to use such a low-cost material is also one of the main advantages of the
technology.

Although paper is not suitable for demanding mechanical applications, it

becomes surprisingly rigid when laminated, exhibiting wood-like material
properties. Incorporating hard-setting resin or other materials into the adhesive
binder can further increase the solidity of the paper parts.

Another advantage of paper is that some LOM machines (such as the CG-1
from CleanGreen3D) can use inkjet technology to color paper at the edges where
it will be cut. This enables the low-cost production of full-color 3D models.

Metal

Some LOM hardware can process sheet metal in thin gauges. This results
in a stronger laminated part, though stronger adhesive and a higher degree of
heat may be required, and costs are higher than they are with paper.

A LOM variant called ultrasonic consolidation (UC) or ultrasonic additive

manufacturing (UAM) deals exclusively with metals. Popularized by metal AM
company Fabrisonic, the UC process creates ultrasonic vibrations to fuse the metal
sheets, typically using a CNC mill rather than a laser to cut shapes in each layer.
Plastic

Polymer sheets are another possibility for LOM printers. However, use of
polymer sheeting instead of paper reduces the environmental friendliness of the
technology.

Composites

Researchers and companies have successfully used LOM systems to print

polymer-based composites reinforced with materials like carbon fibers and
ceramics.

Advantages and Disadvantages :-

The main advantages of using LOMTM technology are as follows:

(1) Wide variety of materials. In principle, any material in sheet form can be
used in the LOMTM systems. These include a wide variety of organic and inorganic
materials such as paper, plastics, metals, composites and ceramics. Commercial
availability of these materials allow users to vary the type and thickness of
manufacturing materials to meet their functional requirements and specific
applications of the prototype.

(2) Fast build time. The laser in the LOM process does not scan the entire surface
area of each cross-section, rather it only outlines its periphery. Therefore, parts
with thick sections are produced just as quickly as those with thin sections, making
the LOM process especially advantageous for the production of large and bulky
parts.

(3) High precision. The feature-to-feature accuracy that can be achieved with
LOM machines is usually better than 0.127 mm (0.005"). Through design and
selection of application specific parameters, higher accuracy levels in the X–Y and
Z dimensions can be achieved.

If the layer does shrink horizontally during lamination, there is no actual

distortion as the contours are cut post-lamination, and laser cutting itself does not
cause shrinkage. If the layers shrink in the transverse direction, a closed-loop
feedback system gives the true cumulative part height upon each lamination to
the software, which then slices the 3D model with a horizontal plane at the
appropriate location.

The LOM system uses a precise X–Y positioning table to guide the laser
beam; it is monitored throughout the build process by the closed-loop, real-time
motion control system, resulting in an accuracy of ±0.127 mm regardless of the
part size. The Z-axis is also controlled using a real-time, closed-loop feedback
system.

It measures the cumulative part height at every layer and then slices the
CAD geometry at the exact Z location. Also, as the laser cuts only the perimeter
of a slice there is no need to translate vector data into raster form, therefore the
accuracy of the cutting depends only on the resolution of the CAD model
triangulation.

(4) Support structure. There is no need for additional support structure as the
part is supported by its own material that is outside the periphery of the part built.
These are not removed during the LOM process and therefore automatically act as
supports for its delicate or overhang features.

(5) Post-curing. The LOM process does not need to convert expensive, and in
some cases toxic, liquid polymers to solid plastics or plastic powders into sintered
objects. Because sheet materials are not subjected to either physical or chemical
phase changes, the finished LOMTM parts do not experience warpage, internal
residual stress, or other deformations.

Pros :-

No Support is Needed: Isn’t that a relief already? With LOM 3D printers, the
users do not need to add extra support. This is because the extra materials happen
to do the job for the same. As these excess materials are removed once the model
is completely printed, these offer support to the overall design without any hassle.

No Enclosed Chambers: Like in many 3D printers based on other technologies,

we often need to have a consistent temperature around the build platform.
However, with LOM 3D Printers, this is not the case. Moreover, there is no need
for carrying any kind of chemical reactions that must be contained. Hence, one
does not need to have an enclosed design when working with LOM 3D Printers.

Supports Printing of Larger Models: When it comes to 3D printing larger

objects, most of the 3D printing technology takes the back seat. However, when
it’s about LOM 3D printing, you can expect to create relatively larger models, at a
faster rate too.

Faster Production Speed: The technology offers high-speed production. You can
create larger designs and also complete these parts in less time when compared
with other techniques. This provides LOM an upper hand over many other 3D
printing technologies.
Cheap Materials and Production Cost: Starting with low-cost materials, the
overall production budget comes down considerably. In addition, the materials are
readily available in abundance.

The main disadvantages of using LOM are as follows:

(1) Precise power adjustment. The power of the laser used for cutting the
perimeter (and the crosshatches) of the prototype needs to be precisely controlled
so that the laser cuts only the current layer of lamination and not penetrate into
the previously cut layers. Poor control of the cutting laser beam may cause
distortion to the entire prototype.

(2) Fabrication of thin walls. The LOMTM process is not well suited for building
parts with delicate thin walls, especially in the Z-direction. This is because such
walls usually are not sufficiently rigid to withstand the post-processing process
when the cross-hatched outer perimeter portion of the block is being removed.
The person performing the post-processing task of separating the thin wall
of the part from its support must be fully aware of where such delicate parts are
located in the model and take sufficient precautions so as not to damage these
parts.

(3) Integrity of prototypes. The part built by the LOM process is essentially
held together by the heat sealed adhesives. The integrity of the part is therefore
entirely dependent on the adhesive strength of the glue used, and as such is
limited to this strength. Therefore, parts built may not be able to withstand the
vigorous mechanical loading that the functional prototypes may require.

(4) Removal of supports. The most labor-intensive part of the LOM process is
its last phase of post-processing when the part has to be separated from its
support material within the rectangular block of laminated material. This is usually
done with wood carving tools and can be tedious and time consuming. The person
working during this phase needs to be careful and aware of the presence of any
delicate parts within the model so as not to damage it.

Cons :-

Problems Connecting Consecutive Layers: Although the adhesives are used

to add one layer over others, the entire process may fail sometimes to accomplish
the desired results. Therefore, the layer bonding may not be too strong.

Poor Surface Quality: Not as precise as SLS or SLA 3D printing technology, the
parts aren’t very smoother. Due to poorer surface qualities, the LOM 3D Printers
usually are sufficient for prototypes and aren’t suitable for end parts.
Complex Geometry Isn’t Possible: This again is a huge limitation that the
technology hasn’t been able to overcome to date. With sheets laminated one over
another, and the excess materials sliced later, it is impossible to create intricate
and complex geometries.

Expensive 3D Printers: We have been talking about cheaper production costs.

However, the initial investment isn’t cheaper. Comparing the LOM 3D Printers
with FDM desktop 3D printers, you can find a huge difference in the starting price
range. While FDM printers start at around $200, the LOM 3D printers start from
thousands of dollars. For instance, SD300 by cubic is priced at around $15,000.

Applications :-

LOM applicability is across a wide spectrum of industries, including industrial

equipment for aerospace or automotive industries, consumer products, and
medical devices ranging from instruments to prostheses.

LOM parts are ideal in design applications where it is important to visualize

what the final piece will look like, or to test for form, fit and function; as well as
in a manufacturing environment to create prototypes, make production tooling or
even produce a small volume of finished goods.

(1) Visualization. Many companies utilize LOM ability to produce exact

dimensions of a potential product purely for visualization. LOM part’s wood-like
composition allows it to be painted or finished as a true replica of the product. As
the LOM procedure is inexpensive several models can be created, giving sales and
marketing executives opportunities to utilize these prototypes for consumer
testing, marketing product introductions, packaging samples, and samples for
vendor quotations.

(2) Form, fit and function. LOM parts lend themselves well for design
verification and performance evaluation. In low-stress environments LOM parts
can withstand basic tests, giving manufacturers the opportunity to make changes
as well as evaluate the aesthetic property of the prototype in its total environment.

(3) Manufacturing. The LOM part’s composition is such that, based on the
sealant or finishing products used, it can be further tooled for use as a pattern or
mold for most secondary tooling techniques including; investment casting,
casting, sanding casting, injection molding, silicon rubber mold, vacuum forming
and spray metal molding.
 LOM parts offer several advantages important for the secondary tooling
process, namely: predictable level of accuracy across the entire part; stability and
resistance to shrinkage, warpage, and deformity; and the flexibility to create a
master or a mold.

In many industries the master created through secondary tooling, or even

when the LOM part serves as the master (e.g., vacuum forming), withstands
enough injections, wax shootings, or vacuum pressure to produce a low production
run from 5 to 1000 pieces.

(4) Rapid tooling. Two-part negative tooling is easily created with LOM systems.
Since the material is solid and inexpensive, bulk complicated tools are cost
effective to produce.

These wood-like molds can be used for injection of wax, polyurethane,

epoxy or other low pressure and low temperature materials.

Also, the tooling can be converted to aluminium or steel via the investment
casting process for use in high temperature molding processes.

(5) Architectural Models. One major application of LOM 3D printing is for the
creation of architectural models. Being able to print bigger models, the printing
technique is highly popular among architects and designers.

The ability to colorize paper LOM parts makes the technology suitable
for full-color models such as marketing props, toys, and “3D printed selfies.”

Color 3D printing, which is useful for both decorative and functional objects,
has historically been dominated by processes like PolyJet 3D printing from
Stratasys.

Some color models may have to be printed on a larger-than-usual scale due

to the low level of dimensional accuracy offered by LOM.
Fig. Example of model made by LOM methods