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Chapter - 2
CLASSIFICATION
2.1 Concept and use of a classification system
1. Understand that organisms can be classified into groups by the features they share
2. Describe a species as a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring
3. Describe the binomial system of naming species as an internationally agreed system in
which the scientific name of an organism is made up of two parts showing the genus and
species
4. Construct and use dichotomous keys based on identifiable features

2.2 Features of organisms

1. State the main features used to place all organisms into one of the five kingdoms:
 Animal
 Plant
 Fungus
 Prokaryote
 Protoctist

2. State the main features used to place organisms into groups within the animal kingdom, limited
to:
(a) the main groups of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish
(b) the main groups of arthropods: myriapods, insects, arachnids, crustaceans

3. State the main features used to place organisms into groups within the plant kingdom, limited
to ferns and flowering plants (dicotyledons and monocotyledons)

4. Classify organisms using the features identified in 2.2.1, 2.2.2 and 2.2.3

5. State the main features of viruses, limited to protein coat and genetic material

6. Understand that viruses can only replicate in living cells

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Classification
Read the address of a person given below; is he identifiable? The answer is yes because human
population has been classified on geopolitical basis – the seven continents are geographical
divisions while boundaries that mark the territories of the countries are political.

To contact Asim is very easy if the address is followed properly because he has a unique
position in this world.

Asim Hanif, son of Muhammad Hanif,

00 B Model Town,
Lahore,
Punjab, Pakistan, Asia.

Similarly all the living organisms have been classified on the similarities and differences
they show with respect to others.

There are two possible ways of classifying organisms.

1) Artificial Systems of classification depends on analogous (physiologically similar)

structures for example insects and birds both can fly.

Insects have wings not made up of feathers, jointed legs, body divided into three distinct parts as
head, thorax and abdomen.

2) Natural System of classification depends on homologous (anatomically similar)

features which are shared by as large a group as possible.

Birds have wings, beaks (without teeth) and feathers; there is rarely any doubt about whether a
creature is a bird or not.

Mammals share common features like; hair, development of placenta, giving birth, feeding by
milk, distribution of bones in legs and arms.
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Species
The smallest natural group of organisms is the species. A species can be defined as a group of
organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring.

Homo sapiens (Man) is a species that reproduce and give rise to off springs that further produce
new ones.

Robins, blackbirds and sparrows are three different species of bird. Apart from small variations,
members of a species are almost identical in their anatomy, physiology and behavior.

Closely related species are grouped into a genus (plural: genera). For example, lion, tiger,
leopard and jaguar are grouped into the genus Panthera.

Mules are the hybrid resulting from the mating between a horse mare and a donkey jack. Less
frequently encountered are hinnies, the result of a mating between a donkey jenny and a horse
stallion. Mules are said to possess “hybrid vigour” and enthusiasts believe they possess the best
traits of both species (Mule, Liger, Tigon, Wholphin).
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Binomial nomenclature
Species must be named in such a way that the name is recognised all over the world.
‘Cuckoo flower’ and ‘Lady’s smock’ are two common names for the same wild plant. If you are
not aware that these are alternative names this could lead to confusion. If the botanical name,
Cardamine pratensis, is used, however, there is no chance of error. The Latin form of the name
allows it to be used in all the countries of the world irrespective of language barriers.

People living in Britain are familiar with the appearance of a blackbird – a very common
garden visitor. The male has jet black plumage, while the female is brown. Its scientific name is
Turdus merula and the adult is about 24 cm long. However, someone living in North America
would describe a blackbird very differently. For example, the male of one species, Agelaius
phoeniceus, has black plumage with red shoulder patches and yellow flashes, while the female
is speckled brown. It is about the size of a sparrow – only about 20 cm long. A British scientist
could get very confused talking to an American scientist about a blackbird! Again, the use of the
scientific name avoids any confusion.

The binomial system of naming species is an internationally agreed system in which the
scientific name of an organism is made up of two parts showing the genus and the species.
Binomial means ‘two names’; the first name refers to genus and the second to species.
For example, the lion, tiger and leopard are in the genus Panthera but they are different species;
the name of the lion is Panthera leo,
the name of the leopard is Panthera pardus and
the name of the jaguar is Panthera onca

The name of the genus (the generic name) is always given a capital letter and the name of the
species (the specific name) always starts with a small letter.

Dichotomous keys based on identifiable feature.

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1 Use the key to identify which group is amphibians.

1 hair present ..................................... mammals
hair absent ............................................. go to 2
2 feathers present ............................. group A
feathers absent ................................... go to 3
3 dry scaly skin… .................................. group B
moist skin .................................................go to 4
4 four limbs ................................................ group C
no limbs ................................................... group D

2 The diagram shows a bird that lives near rivers.

Use the key to identify the bird shown in the diagram.

1 toes joined by a flap of skin............................... go to 2
toes separate ................................................. A heron
2 beak as long or longer than the head................ go to 3
beak not as long as the head ........................ B little grebe
3 top of head black ........................................... C avocet
top of head white ........................................... D mute swan

3 The key can be used to distinguish between four different chemical substances.
Use the key to identify which substance could be a protein.
1 contains the element carbon ............................................ go to 2
does not contain carbon................................................... A
2 contains the element nitrogen ...........................................B
does not contain nitrogen ................................................go to 3
3 gives a positive result with Benedict’s test .......................... C
gives a negative result with Benedict’s test........................ D
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4 The diagram shows an insect.

Use the key to identify the insect.

1 wings present ............................................. go to 2
wings absent .............................................. A
2 two pairs of wings ....................................... go to 3
one pair of wings ........................................ B
3 wings with circular markings ........................C
wings without circular markings ...................D

2.2 features of organisms

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Monera (prokaryotes)
These organisms do not have a defined nucleus or organelles, nor do any of them show multi-
cellular body designs.

Occurrence
Where ever conditions are suitable.
Cell wall
Present and made up of
peptidoglycan (protein and
carbohydrates).
Nucleus
Absent but genetic material is in the
form of single circular DNA.
Membrane bound organelles
Absent
Mitochondria
Absent, but essential materials
required to produce energy are
present.
Chloroplast
Absent, but photosynthetic pigments
like chlorophyll are present in free form.
Ribosomes
Smaller sized (70S), help in protein synthesis.
Nutrition
Autotrophic (blue green algae), chemotrophic, saprotrophic, parasitic
Flagella
Whip like flagella that helps in moving from one place to another (locomotion).
Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is by binary fission - a very simple method of cell division.

Kingdom Protoctista
The Protoctista is made up of a very diverse range of eukaryotic organisms, which includes those
that are often called protozoans (‘simple animals’) and algae, such as seaweeds. Any eukaryote
that is not a fungus, plant or animal is classified as a protoctist. The characteristic features of
protoctists are:

 Eukaryotic – having definite nucleus.

 mostly single-celled, or exist as groups of similar cells.
 some have animal-like cells (no cell wall) and are sometimes known as protozoa.
 others have plant-like cells (with cellulose cell walls and chloroplasts) and are sometimes
known as algae.
 Fungus like protists known as slime molds.
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Table showing features members of protoctista

Fungus like Plants (algae) Animals (protozoa)
1 Occurrence Hot humid Suitable conditions Suitable conditions
Cell Single celled Single celled Single celled
(simple multicellular) (simple multicellular)
2 Cell wall Chitin Cellulose Absent
3 Stored food Glycogen Starch Glycogen and fats
4 Nutrition Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
5 Chloroplast Absent Present Absent
6 Example Baker’s yeast Chlorella, volvox Paramaecium, amoeba, euglena
7 Motility Non motile Motile members have Motile members may have
flagella others are flagella, cilia or pseudopodia.
non motile Non motile members are also
there like plasmodium.

Kingdom Fungi
Fungi have some similarities with plants, but none of them is able to photosynthesise. They are
all heterotrophic eukaryotic, obtaining energy and carbon from dead and decaying matter
(saprophytes) or by feeding on living organisms (parasites).
Characteristic features of fungi are:
 Eukaryotic – having definite nucleus.
 Do not have chlorophyll and do not photosynthesise.
 Heterotrophic nutrition – they use organic compounds made by other organisms as their
source of energy and source of molecules for metabolism.
 Reproduce by means of spores.
 Simple body form, which may be unicellular or made up of long threads called hyphae (
hypha) (with or without cross walls); large fungi such as mushrooms produce large
compacted masses of hyphae known as ‘fruiting bodies’ to release spores.
 Cell-walls made of a tough complex sugar called chitin or other substances, not cellulose.
 Never have cilia or flagella.
Comparison among eukaryotes (Plants, Animal and Fungi)
Fungus Plants Animals
1 Cell wall Present (chitin) Present cellulose Absent
2 Stored food Glycogen Starch Glycogen and fats
3 Nutrition By digestion and Photosynthesis By digestion and
absorption absorption
4 Motility Non motile (Plant like) Non motile Motile
5 Reproduction Asexual and sexual Asexual and sexual Sexual
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A typical fungal hypha

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Kingdom Plantae
Plantae (plants) are all multicellular photosynthetic organisms. They have complex bodies that
are often highly branched both above and below ground.

Characteristic features of plants are:

 Multicellular eukaryotes with cells that are differentiated to form tissues and organs few
types of specialised cells.
 Some cells have chloroplasts and photosynthesise (autotroph)
 Cells have large, often permanent vacuoles for support.
 Cell walls are always present and are made of cellulose.
 Cells may occasionally have flagella – for example, male gametes in ferns.


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Kingdom Animalia
The Animalia are multicellular organisms that are all heterotrophic with many ways of obtaining
their food. There is a great diversity of forms within this kingdom. The nervous system is unique
to the animal kingdom.
Characteristic features of animals are:¦
 multicellular eukaryotes with many different types
of specialized cells.
 Cells that are differentiated to form tissues, organs and organ systems.
 cells do not have chloroplasts and cannot photosynthesise (Heterotrophs).
 Cell vacuoles are small and temporary (For example, lysosomes and food vacuoles)
 cells do not have cell walls
 communication is by the nervous system and hormonal system
 Cells sometimes have cilia or flagella.
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Fish
Occurrence
Live in water.
Nutrition
Eat algae, debris of other living organisms, eggs and small fish.
Respiration
Breathe through gills.
Reproduction
Eggs are not hatched.
Blood circulation
Single circuit with two chambered heart.
Excretion
Gills to remove CO2 and nitrogenous waste
are removed by kidneys.
Sensibility
Eyes, no ears, lateral lines on skin to detect
vibration in water.
Locomotion
Fins, undulating movements of the body.
Body temperature
Cold blooded Change their body temperature with the change in environment.
Scales
Scales if present protect and help in reducing friction.

Amphibians (amph =both, bian = way of life)

Occurrence
Live in water (early life) and on land (adult only)
Nutrition
Algae, debris of other living organisms,
eggs, small frogs, flies (insects).
Respiration
Breathe through skin (in water) and lungs
(on land).
Excretion
Through lungs to remove CO2 and
nitrogenous waste are removed by kidneys.
Sensibility
Eyes and internal ears are present.
Locomotion
Four legs show hopping movement or
crawl.
Reproduction
Eggs covered with jelly like material, laid in water, not hatched.
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Blood circulation
In complete double circulation, ventricle is not partitioned and heart is 3 chambered.
Body temperature
Body temperature is regulated by the environment (cold blooded).
Skin
Moist, smooth and slippery.
Reptiles
Occurrence
Live on land in burrows
Nutrition
Algae, debris of other living organisms, eggs, small fish, flies.
Respiration
Breathe through lungs.
Excretion
Lungs to remove CO2 and nitrogenous waste are removed by kidneys.
Sensibility
Eyes and ears are present (ears absent in snakes).
Locomotion
Four legs slow movers, walk, crawl (snakes without legs).
Reproduction
Shelled eggs laid on land but not hatched.
Blood circulation
Double circulation, ventricle is gradually partitioned and heart is changed from 3
chambered to 4.
Cold blooded
Body temperature is regulated by the environment.
Skin
Dry, rough. Scales undergo skin cast (ecdysis).
Body
Body is well differentiated head, neck, trunk and tail.
Red blood cell
Nucleated and oval in shape.
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Birds
Occurrence
Live on land or in nests on tree trunk.
Nutrition
Grains, insects. Beaks are without teeth and adapted according to the function.
Respiration
Through lungs and helped by hollow bones.
Excretion
Lungs to remove CO2 and nitrogenous waste are removed by kidneys.
Sensibility
Eyes with keens vision, ears are present (ears absent in snakes).
Locomotion
Fore limbs converted to wings made up of feathers & hind legs help hopping.
Reproduction
Shelled eggs generally large sized laid on land or in nests, hatched and reared.
Blood circulation
Double circulation, ventricle is completely partitioned, four chambered heart is present.
Body temperature
Body temperature is maintained (warm blooded).
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Mammals
Egg laying mammals Pouched mammals Placental mammals
(marsupials)
Duck bill platypus, spiny ant Kangaroos, koala bears Man, goat, deer, lion
eater

Occurrence
Most of the mammals live on land and whale & dolphin in water.
Nutrition
All other living things and members of their own class.
Respiration
Breathe through well-developed lungs.
Excretion
Lungs to remove carbon dioxide2, skin to remove heat and salts, kidneys to remove
nitrogenous waste and liver is also used as an excretory organ.
Sensibility
Highly developed brain helped by developed sense organs.
Locomotion
Tetrapods and fast moving animals, two legged man walk, whales swim and bats fly.
Reproduction
Babies are borne, fed by mammary glands, reared with care.
Very few lay eggs and feed them with milk.
Marsupials are pouched mammals (kangaroos) that keep their babies in their
pouches.
Blood circulation
Closed, double circulation, ventricle is completely partitioned, red blood cells are without
nucleus and mitochondria.
Body temperature
Body temperature is maintained (warm blooded).
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Arthropods
The largest group of animals that covers (number wise) almost seventy five percent of the whole
animal kingdom.

The characteristic feature of the animals is jointed legs (Arthro = jointed, Pod = legs).

Features and Classification of Arthropods

Insects Arachnids Crustacean Myriapods
Pairs of Three pairs Four pairs Five or more Ten or more pairs
legs pairs
Body Head thorax Cephalothorax Cephalothorax & Not divided into head,
&abdomen & abdomen abdomen thorax or abdomen
Pair of One pair Absent Two pairs One pair
antenna
Eyes One pair of Several pairs One pair of Simple eye
compound eye of simple eye compound eye
Locomotion Wings Chelicerae Carapace One pair in each
segment
Example Dragonfly, Spider, mite Crab, woodlouse Centipede millipede
wasp
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Virus
Microorganisms only visible under an electron microscope are acellular (cellular structure
unlike bacteria and fungi) show none of the features traditionally used for classification
 Virus have particles made of protein and nucleic acid.
 Live in free environment, viruses are infectious, but have no metabolism.
 When viruses infect cells, they use biochemical machinery of the host cell to copy their
nucleic acid and make proteins to destroy the host cell.
 Energy is provided by the host cell by respiration.
 Taxonomy system - classified by:
 which disease the virus causes
 type of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA)
 whether nucleic acid is single or double stranded