The concept of Temperature and the Zeroth law of

Thermodynamics
 Heat is defined as the flow of energy from one object to another.
 An important concept related to temperature is thermal equilibrium.
 Two objects are in thermal equilibrium if they are in close contact that allows
either to gain energy from the other, but nevertheless, no net energy is transferred
between them.
 If two objects remain in contact for a long time, they typically come to equilibrium.

 In other words, two objects in thermal equilibrium do not exchange

energy.

 Experimentally, if object A is in thermal equilibrium with object B, and object

B is in thermal equilibrium with object C, then object A is in thermal
equilibrium with object C.

Figure 4.1: If thermometer A is in thermal equilibrium with object B, and B is in thermal equilibrium with
C, then A is in thermal equilibrium with C. Therefore, the reading on A stays the same when A is moved
over to make contact with C.

 The first, second, and third laws of thermodynamics were already named and numbered
then.

Temperature Scales

 Any physical property that depends consistently and reproducibly on

temperature can be used as the basis of a thermometer.
 Other properties used to measure temperature include electrical
resistance, color, and the emission of infrared radiation.
  Thermometers measure temperature according to well-defined scales of
measurement.

 The three most common temperature scales are Fahrenheit, Celsius, and
Kelvin.

 Temperature scales are created by identifying two reproducible

temperatures.

 The freezing and boiling temperatures of water at standard atmospheric

pressure are commonly used.

 On the Celsius scale, the freezing point of water is 0 0C and the boiling point is
1000C. The unit of temperature on this scale is the degree Celsius (0C). The
Fahrenheit scale has the freezing point of water at 320F and the boiling point at
2120F. Its unit is the degree Fahrenheit (0F).

Thermal Expansion

 The expansion of alcohol in a thermometer is one of many commonly encountered examples of

thermal expansion, which is the change in size or volume of a given system as its temperature
changes.
 The most visible example is the expansion of hot air. When air is heated, it expands and becomes
less dense than the surrounding air, which then exerts an (upward) force on the hot air and makes
steam and smoke rise, hot air balloons float, and so forth
 A bimetallic strip consists of two metals of different coefficients of thermal expansion,
A and B in the figure. It will bend when heated or cooled.
 Figure 4.3: The curvature of a bimetallic strip depends on temperature. (a) The
strip is straight at the starting temperature, where its two components have the
same length. (b) At a higher temperature, this strip bends to the right, because
the metal on the left has expanded more than the metal on the right. At a lower
temperature, the strip would bend to the left.

The Concept of Heat, Work and Internal Energy

Heat, symbol Q and unit Joule (J), is the spontaneous flow of energy into or out of a
system caused by a difference in temperature between the system and its surroundings,
or between two objects whose temperatures are different. Another aspect of this
definition of heat is that a body never contains heat. Rather, heat can be identified only
as it crosses the boundary. Thus, heat is a transient phenomenon.

Work, symbol W and unit Joule (J), is a non-spontaneous energy transfer into or out of a
system due to force acting through a displacement. Work takes many forms, moving a
piston, or stirring, or running an electrical current through a resistance. Work is the non-
spontaneous transfer of energy. Heat and work are two possible ways of transferring
energy from one system to another.

Heat is a microscopic form of energy transfer involving large number of particles; the
exchange of energy occurs due to the individual interactions of the particles. No
macroscopic displacement occurs when heat flows and no macroscopic force is exerted
by one object on the other. A system cannot possess heat or work; these two are energies
that flow into or out of a system. Heat transfer obeys the law of conservation of energy
(if no heat is lost to the surroundings):
Internal energy is all of a system‘s energy that is associated with the system‘s
microscopic components. Internal energy includes kinetic energy of random translation,
rotation, and vibration of molecules, potential energy within molecules, and potential
energy between molecules.Heat is the transfer of energy across the boundary of a
system resulting from a temperature difference between the system and its surroundings.
We use the symbol Q for the amount of energy transferred by this process.The heat
capacity C of any sample is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of the
sample by 1°C.The energy Q required to change the temperature of a mass m of a
substance by an amount

∆𝑇is𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇, where c is the specific heat of the substance.

The energy required to change the phase of a pure substance of mass m is 𝑄 = ±𝑚𝐿,
where, L is the latent heat of the substance and depends on the nature of the phase
change and the properties of the substance. The positive sign is used if energy is
entering the system, and the negative sign is used if energy is leaving.The first law of
thermodynamics states that when a system undergoes a change from one state to
another, the change in its internal energy is ∆𝑈 = 𝑄 + W,where Q is the energy
transferred into the system by heat and W is the work done on the system. Although Q
and W both depend on the path taken from the initial state to the final state, the quantity
∆𝑈 is path-independent. In a cyclic process (one that originates and terminates at the
same state),∆𝑈 = 0 and, therefore, 𝑄 + W = 0 ⟹ 𝑄 = −W. That is, the energy
transferred into the system by heat equals the negative of the work done on the system
during the process.

Specific Heat and Latent Heat

Specific Heats:

Heat flowing into or out of a body (or system) changes the temperature of the body (or
system) except during phase changes the temperature remains constant. The quantity of
heat, Q, required to change the temperature of a body of mass m by ∆𝑇 is proportional
to both the mass and the change in temperature. Mathematically,

𝑄∼𝑚∆𝑇 ⟹ 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇

𝑐 is a proportionality constant called specific heat capacity(or in short specific heat) of

the substance defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of any substance through a unit degree. Its SI unit is 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 or 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔.0C

The amount of heat required to change the temperature of n moles of a

substance, usuallyfor gases, by ∆𝑇 is :
 𝑄 =
𝑛𝐶∆𝑇

The heat capacity(C) is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of a substance by 10C.
Types of Latent Heat Transfer

There are two types of latent heat transfers between an object and its environment.

Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf): is the heat absorbed or released when matter melts,
changing phase from solid to liquid form at constant temperature. For example,
333.7 kJ of heat is required to change 1 kg of ice to water at 00C, so for water
Lf= 333.7kJ/kg.

Latent Heat of Vaporization (LV): is the heat absorbed or released when matter
vaporizes, changing phase from liquid to gas phase at constant temperature. To
change 1 kg of water to steam at 1000C, 2256 kJ of heat is required and so LV =
2256 kJ.
Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Heat may be transferred from one place to another in three ways:

 conduction
 convection
 radiation
 direct burning

The First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics states that: ―The change in internal energy of a
system is equal to the sum of the heat flow into the system and the work done on the
system.”

In equation form the first law can be written as

 ∆𝑈 = 𝑄 + W

Where ∆𝑈 is the change in internal energy of the system, W= PV is the work done on
the system (or by the system) and P and V are the pressure and change in volume of
the system.

The first law is a specialized statement of energy conservation applied to a

thermodynamic system, such as a gas inside a cylinder that has a movable piston. The
gas can exchange heat with its surroundings in two ways. Heat can flow between the gas
and its surroundings when they are at different temperatures and work can be done on
the gas when the piston is pushed in.