GROUP3

MEMBERS:
BALLAWID, CHARINA
BALITTI, DEBORAH
INOHIABAN, SHANE

CADALIG, SHELTON
CHUMAYYO, DOMINIC
HOLTINON, MARKSON
 PETROLOGY
Petrology is the branch of geology that
studies rocks and their formation. It
involves understanding the
composition, texture, and origin of
rocks.
Composition of
Rocks
Rocks are composed of minerals,
which are naturally occurring solids with a
specific chemical composition and crystal
structure. Rocks are classified based on
their mineral composition and how they
were formed.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
• Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and
solidification of magma or lava. They are classified
based on their mineral composition and texture.
CLASSIFIED INTO:
➢ VOLCANIC ROCKS
➢ PLUTONIC ROCKS
➢ HYPABYSSAL ROCKS
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
• Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation and
cementation of sediments, such as sand, clay, and
organic matter. They are classified based on the type of
sediment and how they were formed.
CLASSIFIED INTO:
➢ CLASTIC ROCKS
➢ CHEM ICALLY FORM ED ROCKS
➢ ORGANICALLY FORM ED ROCKS
METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
• Metamorphic rocks are formed from the transformation of existing
rocks under intense heat and pressure. They are classified based
on the type of parent rock and the degree of metamorphism.
CLASSIFIED INTO:
➢ FOLIATED ROCKS
➢ NON-FOLIATED ROCKS
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
MAGMA
Magma is molten rock
found beneath the
Earth's surface. It is
composed of a
mixture of minerals,
gases, and dissolved
water.
THREE SUB-GROUPS OF IGNEOUS ROCK

VOLCANIC ROCKS PLUTONIC ROCKS HYPABYSSAL ROCKS

• THESE ARE ROCKS • THESE ARE IGNEOUS • ROCKS FORMED AT
FORMED WHEN MAGMA ROCK FORMED AT DEPTHS BET. VOLCANIC
COOLS AND SOLIDIFIES CONSIDERABLE DEPTHS- AND PLUTONIC ROCKS.
ON THE EARTH’S GENERALLY BET. 7-10KM GENERALLY 2KM BELOW
SURFACE. BELOW THE SURFACE OF EARTH’S SURFACE.
• ROCKS ARE VERY FINE THE EARTH. • INTERMEDIATE BET. FINE-
• EX. BASALT • COARSE GRAINED ROCKS GRAINED AND COARSE-
• EX. GRANITE GRAINED
• E. ANDESITE
 DEGREE OF CRYSTALLIZATION
THE CONCEPT OF CRYSTALLINITY IN IGNEOUS ROCKS REFERS TO THE RELATIVE
AMOUNT OF CRYSTALS TO VOLCANIC GLASS IN THE IGNEOUS ROCKS.

HOLOCRYSTALLINE MEROCRYSTALLINE HOLOHYALINE

WHEN ALL THE USE TO EXPRESS THE WHEN ALL THE

CONSTITUENT MINERALS INTERMEDIATE TYPE. SOME CONSTITUENTS ARE
ARE DISTINCTLY ARE CRYSTALLIZED SOME VERY FINE IN SIZE
CRYSTALLIZED ARE GLASSY. AND GLASSY
 GRANULARITY
In igneous rocks represents one of the principles of
texture description in the field and through the
polarizing microscope; this concept refers to size
classes for igneous minerals crystals.
COARSE-GRAINED MEDIUM-GRAINED FINE-GRAINED

WHEN AVERAGE GRAIN WHEN THE AVERAGE GRAIN

SIZE IS ABOVE 5MM, THE WHEN THE AVERAGE GRAIN
SIZE LIES BET. 5MM TO SIZE IS LESS THAN 1MM.
CONSTITUENT MINERALS 1MM. USES MAGNIFYING
ARE THEN EASILY USES MICROSCOPE IN
LENS TOI IDENTIFY IDENTIFYING MINERALS.
IDENTIFIED WITH NAKED MINERALS
EYE.
Fine-grained

Medium-
grained

Coarse-grained
 FABRIC
A COMPOSITE TERM EXPRESSING THE RELATIVE GRAIN SIZE OF
DIFFERENT MINERAL CONSTITUENTS IN A ROCK AS WELL AS THE
DEGREE OF PERFECTION IN THE FORM OF THE CRYSTALS OF THE
INDIVIDUAL MINERALS.

PANIDIOMORPHIC HYPIDIOMORPHIC ALLOTRIOMORPHIC

WHEN THE MAJORITY OF

COMPONENTS ARE IN FULLY THE ROCK CONTAINS CRYSTALS WHEN MOST OF THE CRYSTALS
DEVELOPED SHAPES OF ALL CATEGORIES; ARE OD ANHEDRAL OR
EUHEDRAL, SUBHEDRAL, OR IRREGULAR SHAPES.
ANHEDRAL
 TYPES OF TEXTURE
REFERS TO THE TEXTURE IN WHICH ALL THE GRAINS
EQUIGRANULAR TEXTURE ARE OF THE SAME SIZE. ROCKS THAT HAVE COOLED
QUICKLY

INEQUIGRANULAR REFERS TO A TEXTURE IN WHICH THE GRAINS VARY IN

TEXTURE SIZE. COMMON IN ROCKS THAT COOLS SLOWLY.

REFERS TO A TEXTURE IN WHICH THE ORIENTATION OF

DIRECTIVE TEXTURE THE GRAINS IS INFLUENCED BY THE DIRECTION OF THE
PRESSURE OR DEFORMATION.

REFERS TO A TEXTURE IN WHICH THE GRAINS GROW

INTERGROWTH TEXTURE INTO EACH OTHER, FORMING A SOLID MASS.

INTERGRANULAR TEXTURE REFERS TO A TEXTURE IN WHICH THE GRAINS ARE

SEPARATED BY SPACES OR VOIDS.
Igneous Rock
Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and
solidification of magma or lava. This process can occur
either beneath the E arth's surface (intrusive) or on the
surface (extrusive). Igneous rocks are essential to
understanding E arth's history, composition, and structure.
Classification of Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are classified based on their mineral composition, texture, and origin. A key
distinction is between intrusive rocks, formed from magma that cools underground, and extrusive
rocks, formed from lava that cools above ground.

Intrusive Extrusive

Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly, allowing E xtrusive igneous rocks cool quickly,
large crystals to form, resulting in a coarse- resulting in small crystals or a glassy
grained texture. E xamples include granite and texture. E xamples include basalt and
gabbro. rhyolite.
Intrusive Igneous Rocks
Intrusive igneous rocks form when magma cools and solidifies beneath the Earth's surface. They are
typically characterized by their coarse-grained texture, due to the slow cooling process.

Granite Gabb ro Diorite

An intermediate-colored
A light-colored intrusive A dark-colored intrusive
intrusive rock, composed
rock, rich in quartz and rock, rich in pyroxene and
of plagioclase feldspar
feldspar, commonly used in plagioclase feldspar, often
and hornblende, with a
construction and found in oceanic crust.
medium-grained texture.
decoration.
 Extrusive Igneous Rocks
Extrusive igneous rocks form when lava erupts onto the Earth's surface and cools quickly. They are
typically characterized by their fine-grained texture, due to the rapid cooling process.

1 Basalt 2 Rhyolite 3 Andesite

A dark-colored extrusive A light-colored extrusive An intermediate-colored
rock, rich in pyroxene rock, rich in quartz and extrusive rock,
and plagioclase feldspar, feldspar, often found in composed of plagioclase
commonly found in volcanic domes and feldspar and hornblende,
volcanic areas. flows. with a fine-grained
texture.
STRUCTURES
IN IGNEOUS
ROCKS
Igneous rocks can exhibit various structures that reflect
the conditions of their formation. These structures
provide insights into the flow dynamics of magma or
lava.
Forming when magma or lava flows, creating layers with
different mineral compositions or grain sizes
PILLOW
STRUCTURE
Characteristic of submarine eruptions, where lava cools rapidly in w
forming rounded, pillow-like shapes.
COLUMNAR
STRUCTURE
Occurring as magma cools and contracts, creating a network of
vertical columns, often seen in basalt flows.
SPHERULITIC
STRUCTURE
Forming in rapidly cooled lava, consisting of radial,
spherical structures of interlocking crystals.
MIAROLITIC
STRUCTURE
Characterized by cavities or pockets within the rock
filled with crystals, formed during the final stages of
cooling.
Forms of Igneous Rock
Igneous rocks can occur in various forms, reflecting the way in which magma or
lava cooled and solidified. These forms provide clues to the geological processes
that shaped the E arth's crust.

An igneous mass will acquire on cooling depends on a number of factors such as

•
• the structural disposition of the host rock (also called the country rock)
•
• the viscosity of the magma or lava
•
• the composition of the magma or lava
•
• the environment in which injection of magma or eruption of lava takes place.
Forms of Concordant Bodies
Concordant igneous bodies are those that intrude parallel to the existing layers
of rock. This alignment indicates that the magma or lava followed pre-existing
planes of weakness.

Sills
Tabular intrusions that intrude between layers of
sedimentary rock, typically horizontal or nearly horizontal.
SILLS ARE SUBDIVIDED INTO FOLLOWING TYPES
• SIMPLE SILLS- SINGLE INTRUDION OF MAGMA
• MULTIPLE SILLS- TWO OR MORE INTRUSION OF MAGMA
• COMPOSITE SILLS- RESULT FROM 2 OR MORE INJECTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF MAGMA
• DIFFERENTIATED SILLS: THESE ARE EXCEPTIONALLY LARGE, SHEET-LIKE INJECTIONS OF MAGMA
IN WHICH THERE HAS BEEN SEGREGATION OF MINERALS FORMED AT VARIOUS STAGES OF
CRYSTALLISATION INTO SEPARATE LAYERS OR ZONES.
• INTERFORMATIONAL SHEETS: THE SHEET OF MAGMA INJECTED ALONG OR IN BETWEEN THE
PLANES OF UNCONFORMITY IN A SEQUENCE ARE SPECIALLY TERMED AS INTERFORMATIONAL SHEETS.
PHACOLITHS
SMALL SIZED INTRUSIVE THAT OCCUPY POSITIONS IN THE
TROUGHS AND CREST OF BENDS CALLED FOLDS. THESE
BODIES ARE DOUBLY CONVEX AND APPEAR CRESCENTS IN
CROSS-SECTION

LOPOLITHS
IGNEOUS INTRUSION WHICH ARE ASSOCIATED WITH
STRUCTURAL BASINS, THAT ARE SEDIMENTARY BEDS INCLINED
TOWARDS A COMMON CENTRE.

LACCOLITH
Laccoliths are formed when the magma being
injected is considerably viscous so that it is
unable to flow and spread for greater distances.
Instead, it gets collected in the form of a heap
about the orifice of eruption.
Forms of Discordant Bodies
Discordant igneous bodies are those that intrude across
existing layers of rock. This suggests that the magma or
lava forced its way through pre-existing rock structures.

Dikes Tabular intrusions that cut across layers of

rock, typically vertical or steeply inclined.

Batholiths Large, intrusive bodies that often form the

cores of mountain ranges, often composed
of granite.
Volcanic Necks Such congealed intrusions are termed
volcanic necks or volcanic plugs
 Dolerites and Syenites
Dolerites and syenites are examples of igneous rocks that exhibit distinct characteristics based on
their mineral composition and texture.

Dolerite Syenite
A mafic intrusive rock, characterized by a fine- An intermediate intrusive rock, composed
grained texture and a composition rich in mainly of alkali feldspar and hornblende. It is
pyroxene and plagioclase feldspar. It is often typically medium- to coarse-grained and can
found in dykes and sills. have a variety of colors, ranging from white to
Dolerites are made up of plagioclase(anorthite & gray to pink.
labradorite), augite, olivine, and iron oxide. Syenite is made up of orthoclase & albite,
microcline, oligoclase & anorthite. Common
minerals are apatite, zircon, and sphene.
 Basalts
Volcanic igneous rocks formed by
rapid cooling from lava
flows from volcanoes either over
the surface or under water on
oceanic floors.
Made up of
calcic plagioclase felspars Basalt is typically
(anorthite and labradorite) and ferro- • dark in color,
• dense, and has a
magnesium minerals (such as • fine-grained texture.
augite, hornblende, hypersthene, olivine,
biotite and iron oxides, etc.)
Composition

Basanite Tepherite
Olivine-rich basalt Olivine-free basalt
 Occurrence
• Basalt is found all over the world and makes up a significant
portion of the Earth’s crust.
• It is commonly associated with volcanic activity, such as
volcanic islands, mid-oceanic ridges, and flood basalt
provinces.
• Basaltic rocks also occur in continental settings, such as rift
zones and volcanic plateaus.
Engineering Importance
• Igneous rocks are extensively used as construction
materials > form very strong foundation such as dams
and reservoirs
• Granites, Syenites and Dolerites > Very high crushing
strength
• Basalts and other dark colored igneous rocks > used
as foundation and road stones
Igneous Rocks
• STRENGTH: impervious (impenetrable), hard and
strong
• WEAKNESS: low porosity
Sedimentary Rocks
• Also called Secondary Rocks
• This group Includes wide variety of rocks
formed by accumulation, compaction,
and consolidation of sediments.
• Accumulation and Compaction of these
sediments commonly takes place under
water or at least in the presence of water
Formation

Volcanic
plateau
Rift zones
3 CLASSES ON THE BASIS OF THEIR MODE OF FORMATION
Decay & Disintegration
• Rocks existing on the surface of the earth are
exposed to decay and disintegration by the
action of natural agencies like atmosphere,
water and ice on them.
• DETRITUS > disintegrated, loosened
material formed and accumulated near the
source
• Clastic Rocks are also called Detrital Rocks
Transport of Sediments
• Once sediment has been eroded, it is moved to a new
location by water, wind, ice or mass movement.
• Sediment Transport Media
a. Water – overland flow, channel flow waves, tides,
ocean currents
b. Air (small particles)
c. Ice
d. Gravity – rock falls, debris flow
 Gradual Deposition
• Sediments produced through weathering and erosion
are transported to settling basins.

Glacial Fluvial Deposits Glacio-Fluvial Eolian

Deposits Deposits Deposits
 Diagenesis (Lithification)
The process of transformation of loose sediments deposited in the
settlement basins to solid cohesive rock masses either under pressure or
because of cementation.
TWO METHODS: a. Welding – the process of compaction
of the sediments accumulated in lower layers of a basin due
to the pressure exerted by the load of overlying sediments.
b. Cementation – the process by which loose
grains or sediments in a settlement basin get held together
by a binding material
Chemically Formed (non-clastic)Rocks
• Water from rains, springs, streams,
rivers, lakes and underground water
bodies dissolves many compounds
from the rocks with which it comes
into contact.
• These dissolved salts are carried by the
running water to its ultimate
destination, the sea.
• TWO TYPES: Precipitates and
Evaporites
 Organically Formed (non-clastic)Rocks
• Organic sedimentary rocks are
formed when sediment (plants, animal
remains, roots, etc.) is broken down
and then compressed over a long
period of time.
• Death and decay of these organisms
within the water bodies results to
huge accumulation, which get
compacted and consolidated in the
same manner as the normal
sediments.
Textures
a. Origin of Grains
• May be partially or wholly composed of clastic
grains or of chemically formed or organically
contributed parts
• Clastic texture or Non-clastic Texture
b. Size of Grains
• Course-grained rocks :
> 5 mm
(pebbles, cobbles, boulders)

• Medium grained rocks :

between 5 and 1 mm
(sand)

• Fine-grained rocks :
< 1 mm
(silt and clay)
c. Shape of Grains : ROUNDNESS & SPHERECITY
 Breccia Conglomerate
angular gravel and boulder- rounded and smooth-surfaced
sized clasts cemented together in a
matrix. Underwent lot of transport and
abrasion during their transport before
The angular nature of the clasts getting deposited and consolidated into
indicates that they have not been a rock mass
transported very far from their source.
d. Packing of Grains
• open-packed or porous in texture
• densely packed
• Degree of Packing is related to the load of the overlying
sediments during the process of deposition
e. Fabric of Grains
• Contain elongated particles
• If elongated particles’ longer axes lie in the same general
direction, the rock show a high degree of preferred
orientation.
f. Crystallization Trend
• In sedimentary rock of chemical origin, the texture is
generally defined by the degree and nature of crystallized
grains.
 Important Sedimentary Rocks

SANDSTONES
• Mostly composed of sand
grade particles that have
been compacted and
consolidated
• General range size:
between 2mm – 1/16mm
• QUARTZ – dominant
constituent of most • Composition:
sandstones. Quartz, minerals like felspars,
micas, garnet & magnetite
SANDSTONES
On the basis of the grade of
the component grains:
TYPE SIZE RANGE

Course – grain 2 mm – ½ mm

Medium – grain ½ mm – ¼ mm
• Texture: Medium to fine-
grained Fine – grain ¼ mm – 1/16 mm
• Color: Red, brown, grey and
white
 On the basis of their composition and the nature of the cementing
material:

Siliceous Sandstone Calcareous Sandstone Argillaceous Sandstone Ferruginous Sandstone

• Silica (SiO2) - • Carbonates of calcium • Considered among the • Iron Oxide –

cementing and magnesium – soft varieties of cementing
material cementing material sandstones material
• named • Clay – cementing
Quartzite material
 On the basis of mineralogical composition:

Arkose Greywacke Flagstone Freestone

• Main constituent is • Grey colored • Rich in mica, renders • Rich in quartz, compact,
quartz sandstones the stone weak and dense, massive and
• Rich in felspar minerals • Fine-grained matrix easily splitting strong rock suitable for
• Formed due to construction
relatively quick
deposition of detritus
Limestone:
Formation and
Characteristics
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3), primarily in the form of the mineral calcite. It is
formed by the accumulation of the skeletal fragments of marine
organisms, such as coral, foraminifera, and mollusks. Limestone is a
common rock type and can be found in many parts of the world. It is used
in a variety of applications, including construction, agriculture, and
manufacturing.
C o m m o n Types of Lim esto ne
1 C halk Chalk is a type of limestone that is
very fine-grained and soft. It is
composed primarily of the skeletal
remains of microscopic marine
organisms called coccolithophores.
Chalk is often white in color and is
used in a variety of applications,
including as a writing tool, a soil
amendment, and a component of
building materials.
Shelly limestone is a type of limestone
that contains a significant amount of
2 Shelly Lim esto ne
shell fragments. These shell
fragments can be from a variety of
marine organisms, such as clams,
oysters, and snails. Shelly limestone is
often more coarse-grained than chalk
and can have a variety of colors,
depending on the type of shell
fragments present.
Argillaceous Limestone and
Lithographic Limestone
Lithographic Limestone
Argillaceous Limestone Lithographic limestone is a type of limestone
Argillaceous limestone is a type of limestone that is very fine-grained and has a smooth,
that contains a significant amount of clay. It is uniform texture. It is often used for lithography, a
typically gray or brown in color and has a more printing process that uses a flat surface to
earthy texture than other types of limestone. transfer an image to paper. Lithographic
Argillaceous limestone can be used in a variety limestone is also used in a variety of other
of applications, including as a building stone applications, including as a building stone and
and as a source of calcium carbonate. as a source of calcium carbonate.
Kankar
It is typically composed of calcium carbonate and is often found in soils
and sediments. Kankar is formed in arid or semi-arid environments,
where the evaporation of water leads to the precipitation of calcium
carbonate.
Conglomerate: Formation
and Characteristics
Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock composed of rounded gravel-
sized clasts (particles larger than 2 mm in diameter). These clasts are
typically composed of igneous, metamorphic, or sedimentary rocks. The
clasts are cemented together by a matrix of finer-grained material, such
as sand, silt, or clay.
Conglomerate is often formed in high-energy environments, such as
rivers, beaches, or glaciers. The matrix can be composed of various
materials, including calcite, quartz, or clay.
Conglomerate can be found in many parts of the world and is used in a
variety of applications, including as a building stone and as a source of
gravel.
Types of C o ng lo m erates
1 Basal C o ng lo m erates
Basal conglomerates are often found at the base of a sedimentary sequence, overlying
an older rock unit. They are typically formed by the erosion of uplifted landmasses. The
clasts are often angular and poorly sorted. These types of conglomerates are commonly
found in riverbeds or alluvial fans.

2 Glacial C o ng lo m erates
Glacial conglomerates are formed by the erosion and transportation of rocks by glaciers.
The clasts are often angular and poorly sorted. The matrix can be composed of glacial
till, which is a mixture of clay, silt, sand, and gravel. These types of conglomerates are
commonly found in glacial deposits.

3 Volcanic C o ng lo m erates
Volcanic conglomerates are formed by the deposition of volcanic debris, such as ash,
pumice, and lava fragments. The clasts are often angular and poorly sorted. The matrix
can be composed of volcanic ash or volcanic mud. These types of conglomerates are
commonly found near volcanoes.
OLIGOMICTIC
-SIMPLE IN COMPOSITION, THESE GRAVELS
ARE MADE UP OF QUARTZ, CHERT, AND
CALCITE.

POLYMICTIC
-IN THESE CONGLOMERATES THE
CONSTITUENT GRAVELS ARE DERIVED
FROM ROCKS OF ALL SORTS: IGNEOUS,
SEDIMENTARY, AND METAMORPHIC, ALL
CEMENTED TOGETHER.
Engineering Importance
Sedimentary rocks have a range of engineering uses, often due to their
durability and strength. They can be used as aggregates in concrete and
asphalt, providing a strong and stable base for roads, buildings, and
other structures.
Due to their resistance to weathering and erosion, conglomerates can be
used as riprap, which is a protective layer placed on slopes or shorelines
to prevent erosion.
Their permeability makes them useful for drainage purposes, as they
allow water to pass through while providing structural support.
Conglomerates are often used as a source of gravel for various
construction and landscaping projects.
Metamorphic Rocks:
Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks through heat and
pressure. They are crucial to understanding the E arth's history and
provide valuable resources.

Metamorphism
Use to express the process responsible for all
the changes that take place in an original rock
under the influence of changes in the
surrounding conditions of temperature,
pressure, and chemically active fluids.
Mineral Formation: Stress and Anti-
Stress Minerals
Stress Minerals Anti-Stress Minerals

Minerals like garnet and kyanite form under high Minerals like chlorite and talc form under lower
pressure, indicating past tectonic activity. pressure, reflecting a calmer geological
environment.
Texture Of Metamorphic rocks

Crystalloblastic Palimpsest
Minerals grow and interlock, forming a Features from the original rock are
mosaic-like pattern. preserved, providing clues about its history.

Classifying Metamorphic Rocks

Foliated Rocks Non-Foliated Rocks

Rocks with a layered or banded Rocks without a layered structure, often
appearance due to mineral alignment. formed under even pressure.
Important Metamorphic Rocks

quartzite marble schist

Primarily composed of quartz Primarily composed of calcium It is a fined-grained
grains and is commonly used carbonate and is highly valued metamorphic rock. Primarily
for flooring, countertops, for its attractive appearance compose of mica minerals and
decorative features due to its and durability, making it is commonly used for flooring
hard, non-porous surface and suitable for sculptures and and countertops.
ability to polished to a high jewelry.
shine
Rock Mechanics
Rock mechanics is the study of the mechanical behavior
of rock and rock masses in response to force fields in their
environment. It applies engineering mechanics principles to
design structures like drill holes, mining shafts, tunnels, dams,
and buildings. This field is utilized in various engineering
disciplines, including Mining, Civil, Geotechnical,
Transportation, and Petroleum Engineering.
Laboratory Test

Unaxial Compressive Strength

Specimens from drill cores are cut to a specified length,
ground, and measured. The flatness of the endsurfaces is
crucial for an even load distribution. The recommended
height/diameter ratio for specimens is between 2 and 3.
Specimens loaded axially until failure or a prescribed
level is reached, allowing for the measurement of axial and
radial deformation using specialized equipment.
Tensile Test
A cylindrical specimen is loaded diametrically across
the circular cross section, leading to tensile deformation
perpendicular to the loading direction and resulting in
tensile failure. The ultimate load and specimen dimensions
are used to calculate the material's indirect tensile strength.
On the side is a figure showing the load fixture and
principal picture of the loading.
Specimens loading to failure along (left) and across (right) the direction
of the foliation.

ADD YOUR TITLE HERE

 Shear Strength

A bar-shaped specimen is loaded from above until rupture occurs, indicated by failure along
two planes. The shear strength of the specimen, denoted as S, is obtained using the formula S =
(1/2P) / A, where P represents the load applied and A is the cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity, also known as the elastic
modulus or Young's modulus, measures an object's
resistance to elastic deformation when a force is
applied. It is defined as the slope of the stress-strain
curve in the elastic deformation region. A stiffer
material will have a higher elastic modulus.
Triaxial Test
Specimens for triaxial tests are prepared from drill
cores by cutting them to a specified length, grinding,
and measuring them. The flatness of the
endsurfaces is crucial for an even load distribution.
The recommended height/diameter ratio for
specimens is between 2 and 3.
A membrane is used to seal the specimen from surrounding pressure media. Deformation
measurement equipment is mounted on the specimen, which is then placed in a pressure cell
filled with oil. Initially, a hydrostatic pressure is applied, followed by an increase in axial load
under constant or increasing cell pressure until failure or a pre-defined load level is reached.

• Cell pressure up to 100MPa

• Air-holeq pressure up to 100MPa -Breakingstress

• Angle offriction

• Parameter of elasticity: E,ν

• Post-failure
Stress State and Deformations during the test.
JackTest
The Jack Test is a static test used to assess the
in-situ deformation characteristics of rocks at a
site.
Shear Test
Often referred to as a direct shear test, is used to
measure the shear strength properties of soil or rock
material, or of discontinuities in soil or rock masses. It
can be conducted in both laboratory and field
settings. The test involves applying a shear load to a
sample to determine its maximum resistance to
shearing
SeismicTest
It is a method to visualize rock formations
beneath the Earth's surface. It utilizes
reflective technology like sonar used for
mapping the ocean floor to map different rock
formations underground.
 Seismic data is a representation of the earth's
Seismic Data
subsurface, displaying rock formations as reflector
layers due to different rock types and fluids. This data
is gathered in the field, processed, and analyzed by
geophysicists. Various types of seismic data, such as
2D, 3D, and 4D, are currently collected worldwide. 2D
seismic provides a single slice of the earth, 3D seismic
offers a volume view, and 4D seismic shows a 3D
volume at different stages in an oil or gas field's
lifespan. Among these, 3D seismic is the preferred
method for oil and gas exploration.
 The "Reflection Seismic Method" is a geophysical
Seismic Data Collection
technique used by various industries to map the earth's
subsurface in 2D or 3D. It helps in understanding rock
structure and other geologic properties by sending
sound waves into the ground using energy sources like
vibrators, air guns, or dynamite. The waves pass through
the earth, reflecting off and transmitting through rock
layers, similar to sonar or MRI technology. This method is
utilized by Oil & Gas, Coal Seam Gas, Minerals, and Coal
Exploration and Production companies. A seismic crew
collects the data in the field, allowing for a clear image
of the subsurface to be developed.
When is seismic data collected?
Seismic data is collected when environmental conditions allow, day or night, with a
preference for low cultural activity times. In rural areas, data is typically collected during
the day, while in densely populated regions, it may occur at night when people are
sleeping.
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