Remarks: Odds and Ends

1. “impedance matching” to maximize 2. Unlike in the electrical domain,

power transfer impedances of masses are always
connected to ground
Power source (e.g. battery) Load
f = Mv· i = C(v· − v· 1)
il
Rs
+ mechanical electrical
vs + vl Rl
−
−

The power P into load, where

P = ilvl = il2Rl = vl2/Rl,
is maximum when Rl = Rs (Problem Set 1).

For the general case of impedances,

Zl = Zs*
i.e., Zl must be the complex conjugate of Zs.
(see book for derivation)
1

 A Motivation for the Voltage Follower
Across Variable Measurement Case

Device Under Test Gage

v gage Z in 1
= =
Zout vtrue Z in + Z out Z out
+ 1+
! Z in
vtrue + vgage Zin
− Reduce loading effect by
increasing Zin
−
or decreasing Zout
or both

a measurement general case of a two-port device: a sensor is a special

instrument is a case with only an
special case with output
only an input Z2
+ +
+
v1 Z1 vo v2 vo = G(s) v1
−
− −

Suppose we could add one of these

between the device and gage, with This is a voltage follower.
It can ix excessive loading!
!Z1 ≈ ∞ !Z2 ≈ 0 vo = v1
2
f
 a ix for undesirable loading

Device Under Test Voltage Follower Gage

Zout Z2
+ + +
vtrue +
v1 Z1 v1 + v2 vgage Zin
− −
− − −

!Z1 ≈ ∞ !Z2 ≈ 0
Current here is always No matter what
zero, so voltage drop this current is,
across Zout is zero, so Vgage = Vtrue voltage drop across
v1 = vtrue Z2 is zero, so
v2 = v1

3
f
 Operational Ampli er Model

4
fi
 Operational Ampli er Model

Offset Voltage
Input Impedance

Output Impedance
Input/Bias Currents ip vos

Input Voltages io Output Current

in ≅
with saturation*

Output Voltage

vo
(V)

K
vos
vi (V) ip, in
Zi

vo = K(vip – vin – vos)

fi
 the operational ampli er
ideal (approximate) model

+
–

≈ vo
(V)

K vi (V)
vos
ip, in
Zi vo = K(vip – vin – vos)

What could such a device possibly be useful for?

K
Open-loop (i.e., without feedback): A little bit. vos
ip, in
Closed-loop (i.e., with feedback): Lots! See below. Zi

6
fi
 Quad Op-Amp Chip LM348N

–15 Dimple
Volts

+15
Volts

7
What is an op-amp physically? Many transistors that wired together to
make it behave as close as reasonably feasible to the ideal op-amp

lm348 schematic
8
**Posted on course web page.

**

K ≈ 112 dB
112
= 10 20
= 398,107 V/V

9
 The Voltage Follower using an op-amp
(we will use e for voltage on the next few slides)

For eo to not saturate,

voltage here must be ei.
But, by inspection, voltage
here is also eo, so it must
also be that eo = ei.

10
 high gain in feedback gives unity gain

feedback

G(s)
eo
=1
= y(t)
r(t) = !ei

Consider:
Y(s) G(s) Y(s)
R(s) G(s) Y(s) = lim =1
+
– !R(s) 1+G(s) !G(s )→∞ R(s)

feedback
11
 Voltage Follower
(Summary)

Arbitrarily Large (Output Impedance is Zero)

⎛ Input ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎜ Impedance ⎟⎟ 0
⎜⎜ is Infinite ⎟⎟⎟ eo
⎝ ⎠
=1
!ei
Load

12
 “Saturation” limits voltage range

eo
=1
e
! i

eo (volts) ~13

LM348 op-amp saturation 1

on a +/–15V supply 1
ei (volts)

~ −13

eo (volts) 5
Our MCP6004 “rail-to-rail”
op-amp on 5V supply 1
1
ei (volts)
13
 Another Voltage Follower

Rf

iB
For eo to not saturate,
voltage here must be ei.

Furthermore, iB = 0, so it iA
must also be that eo = ei.

14
Op Amps: there’s more you can do!
For e0 to not saturate, voltage here must be ei .
The voltage divider formula then yields
ei R1 eo R1 + R2
= ⇒ =
eo R1 + R2 ei R1
eo
e–
i=0
R2

R1
e– = eo
R1 + R2
R1

no load on input

15
 For e0 to not saturate, voltage here must be 0.
Furthermore i B = 0, from which it follows that
ei e eo R
=− o =− 2
R1 R2 ei R1

ei 0 eo
iB
R1 R2

simple equation for gain

☹ loads the input
16
 Example: “Smellicopter"
A small drone “smells” by sensing voltage spikes that appear in the
odor-sensing antenna of a moth.

Thevenin non-inverting
equivalent circuit ampli ier

≈ 1MΩ +
–

1. Choose a suitable ampli ier type (inverting or non-inverting?)

2. A gain of approximately 1000 is desired. Suggest resistor values.
R1 + R2
≈ 1000 ⇒ R1 = 100 Ω, R2 = 100 KΩ
R1

Anderson, Sullivan, Horiuchi, Fuller, &

Daniel Bioinspiration & Biomimetics 2020 17
f
f
 wind

18
Same noninverting ampli ier as above, drawn differently

R + Rf ⎛ Rf ⎞⎟
vo = ⎜
vi = ⎜1+ ⎟⎟ vi
R ⎜⎝ R ⎠

R + Rf ⎛ R ⎞⎟
io = ii = ⎜⎜1+ f ⎟⎟ ii
R ⎜⎝ R ⎠
(see de Silva for derivation)

Figure 2.15

19
f
 Inverting Summer

R2
vin2 Rf

R1
vin1 – ⎛v
⎜ in1 vin2⎞⎟
vout vout = −Rf ⎜ + ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ R R2 ⎟⎠
1
+

20
 Differential Ampli ers amplify difference between input voltages

good:
Rf
vo = (vi2 − vi1 )
R
(see de Silva for derivation)

no need for one input at ground (0V)

☹ precise resistors needed
☹ loads the input
better:

gain R4 ⎛⎜ 2R1 ⎞⎟
vo = ⎜⎜1+ ⎟(v − vi1 )
adjust R3 ⎝ R2 ⎟⎟⎠ i2
(see de Silva for derivation)

Figure 2.16

no need for one input at ground (0V)

no load on input
21
fi