UNIT - IV QUANTUM PHYSICS

INTRODUCTION
The failures of classical theory or macroscopic theory lead to the new concept
called as quantum theory or microscopic theory. This revolutionary thought was first
introduced by Max Planck to explain the energy distribution of a black body radiation.
Some of the microscopic concepts doesn’t explained by classical theory such as,
• Stability of atom
• Black body radiation
• Photoelectric effect
• Compton effect, etc.
Black body radiation
A perfect black body is the one which absorbs and emits the radiations in all possible
wavelength regions. The radiations emitted by a black body is called as black body radiation
and it possess light radiation corresponds to all the possible wavelengths.
Experiment to explain black body radiation:
In practice there is no perfect black body available. Lamp black is considered near to
black body so assume a hollow copper sphere coated with lamp black on the inner surface.

A fine hole is made for radiations to enter into the sphere and emit out of it. Now
when radiations fall on the copper sphere we could observe radiation reflected from the
surface of the sphere but the radiation enter into the pin hole undergo multiple reflections and
get absorbed. So no radiations reflected from the pin hole.
This is a proof that black body is perfect absorber of radiations corresponds to all
wavelength. On the other hand when the hollow copper sphere is heated using a temperature
bath of fixed temperature, the radiations emitted from the pin hole alone which shows the
black body coated inside hollow copper sphere emits the radiations. This is the proof for
black body is perfect emitter of radiations corresponds to all possible wavelengths.
Black body energy spectrum:
The energy spectrum of black body at various temperatures is explained using the graph as
follows:

1
• The energy distribution is not uniform for any given temperature.
• The intensity of radiation (E) increases with respect to the increase in wavelength and
at a particular wavelength it becomes maximum (λm) and after this it starts decreasing
with respect to the increase in wavelength.
• When the temperature is increased, the maximum (λm) decreases.
• For all the wavelengths an increase in temperature causes increase in energy.
• The total energy emitted at any particular temperature can be calculated from the area
under that particular curve.

Laws for explaining the energy distribution

1. Stefan’s – Boltzmann law
According to this law the radiant energy (E) of a body is directly proportional to the
fourth power of the temperature (T) of the body.
E = σT 4
2. Wein’s Displacement law
This law states that the product of the wavelength (λm) corresponding to maximum
energy and absolute temperature (T) is a constant. This law holds good only for
shorter wavelength and not for longer wavelengths.
λ mT = constant
3. Rayleigh – Jean’s law
According to this law, the energy distribution is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature and is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength.
This law holds good only for longer wavelength and not for shorter wavelength.
It is governed by the equation

8πK BT
Eλ =
λ4

2
Planck’s law of radiation
The energy density of heat radiation emitted from a black body at temperature ‘T’ in
the wavelength range from λ to λ+dλ is given by,
1
E𝜆dλ = ℎ𝛾 dλ
(𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇−1)

h = Planck’s constant; c = speed of light

γ = frequency of radiation kB = Boltzmann constant
T = Black body temperature

 Black Body consists of radiations and also large number of tiny oscillators, they are
known as atomic oscillators (or) Planck’s oscillators.
 Frequency of emitted radiation is same as that of the frequency of its vibration.
 Oscillator can absorb (or) emit energy in multiples of small units called quantum. This
quanta of radiation is called photon.
 Electrons radiate energy in discrete manner and not in continuous manner.
 Energy of photon (E) is directly proportional to the frequency of radiation (γ).
E = hγ
En = nh = nE
Derivation
Consider a black body with a large no. of atomic oscillators. Average energy Ē per
oscillator is given by
𝐸
Ē= (1)
𝑁
Where E is the total energy due to all the oscillators and N is the total no. of oscillators
Number of atomic oscillators in ground state = N0
According to Maxwell’s energy distribution law, the no. of oscillators with energy E n is given
by,
Nn = N0e-En / KBT (2)
Where T = absolute temperature of the black body
kB = Boltzmann’s constant
Total no. of oscillators N = N0+N1+N2+………..+Nn
N0, N1, N2,…. are the no. of oscillators with energies E0, E1, E2 …
From eqn (2)

N=N0e0+N0e-E1/KBT+ N0e-E2/KBT+………+ N0e-En/KBT (3)

N0 = N0e-E0 / KBT
N1 = N0e-E1 / KBT

3
N2 = N0e-E2 / KBT
.
.
Nn = N0e-En / KBT
and the corresponding energy values En = nhγ; n = 0, 1, 2, ….
E0 = 0 x hγ = 0
E1 = 1 x hγ = hγ
E2 = 2 x hγ = 2hγ
..
En = n x hγ = nhγ
Substituting these values in eqn (3)
N=N0e0+N0e- hγ /KBT+ N0e- 2hγ /KBT+………+ N0e-nhγ/KBT
N=N0 [1+e-E/KBT+ e-2E/KBT+………+ e-nE/KBT]
Put x = e- hγ /KBT (or) x = e- E /KBT
N = N0 [1+x+x2+ .. . . . .+xn] (4)
therefore, The binomial (or) summation series
1
1+x+x2+x3+………. =
1−𝑥
𝑁0
The above equation (4) can be written as 𝑁 = (5)
(1−𝑥)
Total energy of the black body due to all the oscillators is given by
E = E0N0+E1N1+E2N2+…….. (6)
Substituting for E0, E1, E2, …. and N0, N1, N2 …… in eqn (6)
E = 0x N0+hγ. N0e- hγ /KBT+ 2hγ. N0e- 2hγ /KBT+ …….
E = hγ. N0e- hγ /KBT+ 2hγ. N0e- 2hγ /KBT+ …….
Put x = e- hγ /KBT, then we get
E = hγ. N0 x + 2hγ. N0 x2 + 3hγ. N0 x3 + ……
E = hγ. N0 x (1 +2x+3x2+…….)
Using binomial series
1
1+2x+3x2+4x3+………. = 2 (1−𝑥)
hγ.𝑁0 x
E= (7)
(1−𝑥)2
Substitute eqn (5) & (7) in eqn (1)
hγ.𝑁0 x
(1−𝑥)2 hγ.𝑁0 x (1−𝑥)
Ē= 𝑁0 =
(1−𝑥)2 𝑁0
(1−𝑥)
ℎ𝛾𝑥
Ē=
(1−𝑥)
ℎ𝛾𝑥
Ē= 1
𝑥( −1)
𝑥
ℎ𝛾
Ē= 1
( −1)
𝑥
w.k.t x = e- hγ /KBT,

4
 ℎ𝛾 ℎ𝛾
Ē= 1 = ℎ𝛾 (8)
( ℎ𝛾 −1)
−𝑘 𝑇 (𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇−1)
𝑒 𝐵
Number of oscillators per unit volume in the wavelength range λ and λ+dλ is given by,
8𝜋𝑑𝜆
(9)
𝜆4
The energy density of radiation between wavelengths λ and λ+dλ is given by,
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = ( ) × (𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)
𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝜆 & 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆

8𝜋𝑑𝜆 ℎ𝛾
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = ℎ𝛾
𝜆4
(𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇−1)
𝑐
8𝜋𝑑𝜆 ℎ( )
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = ℎ𝛾
𝜆
𝜆4
(𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇−1)
8𝜋𝑑𝜆 ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = ℎ𝛾
𝜆5
(𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇−1)
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
∴ 𝐸𝜆 = ℎ𝛾 (10)
𝜆5
(𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 −1)
Wien’s displacement law (shorter wavelength)
It holds good only at shorter wavelength,
When λ is small, γ is very large.
ℎ𝛾
ℎ𝛾
≫ 1,𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 is large when compared to 1. Thus 1 is neglected,
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
ℎ𝛾 ℎ𝛾
∴ 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 − 1 = 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Eqn (10) becomes
8𝜋ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝜆 = ℎ𝛾 (11)
𝜆5 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Rayleigh – jeans law (longer wavelength)
It holds good only at longer wavelength.
When λ is large, γ is very small.
ℎ𝛾
ℎ𝛾 ℎ𝛾
≪ 1, 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 = 1+
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Eqn (10) becomes
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
∴ 𝐸𝜆 = ℎ𝛾
𝜆5 (1+ −1)
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
8𝜋ℎ𝑐
∴ 𝐸𝜆 = ℎ𝛾
𝜆5 ( )
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
8𝜋𝑐
𝐸𝜆 = 𝛾
𝜆5 ( )
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

(∵ 𝑐⁄ 𝛾 = 𝜆)
8𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐸𝜆 = (12)
𝜆4

5
Compton Effect
When a beam of X-rays is scattered by a target of low atomic number, the scattered
radiation consists of two components:
1. One having the same wavelength as the incident beam
2. Another having a higher wavelength.
The change in wavelength is called Compton shift and this phenomenon is called Compton effect.
Derivation for Compton shift
X-rays are considered to be made up of photons. When these photons strike the target, it
transfers part of its energy to an electron at rest. The electron gains kinetic energy and recoils with
a velocity v. The energy of the scattered photon changes from ℎ𝜈 to ℎ𝜈 ′ . The scattered photon
makes an angle θ with its incident direction,
while the electron moves at an angle  with the
direction of the incident photon. Conservation of
energy and momentum are applied for these
collisions.
Total energy before collision
Energy of incident photon = ℎ𝜈
Energy of electron at rest = moc2
Total energy before collision = ℎ𝜈 + moc2
Total energy after collision
Energy of scattered photon = ℎ𝜈 ′
Energy of scattered electron = mc2
Total energy after collision = h 'mc 2
Applying the law of conservation of energy
Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision
ℎ𝜈 + moc2 = h 'mc2
(1)
mc2 = ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈′) + moc2
Total momentum along X-axis
Before collision
h
Momentum of photon along X-axis =
c
Momentum of electron along X-axis = 0
h
Total momentum along X-axis =
c
After collision
h '
Momentum of photon along X-axis = cos 
c
Momentum of electron along X-axis = mv cos 

6
 h '
Total momentum along X-axis after collision = cos   mv cos 
c
Applying the law of conservation of momentum
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
h h '
 cos   mv cos  (2)
c c
h h '
 cos   mv cos 
c c
h
(   ' cos )  mvcos
c
h(  ' cos  )  mvccos 
mvccos   h(  ' cos ) (3)
Total momentum along Y-axis
Before collision
Momentum of photon along Y-axis = 0
Momentum of electron along Y-axis = 0
Total momentum along Y-axis =0
After collision
h '
Momentum of photon along Y-axis = sin 
c
Momentum of electron along Y-axis =  mv sin 
Total momentum along Y-axis = h ' sin   mv sin 
c
Applying the law of conservation of momentum
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
h '
0 sin   mv sin 
c
h '
mv sin   sin  (4)
c
mvcsin   h ' sin  (5)
Squaring eqn (3) & eqn (5) and then adding
(mvc cos )2  (mvcsin )2  h2 ( ' cos ) ( h' sin )
2 2
(6)
m v c cos   m v c sin  = h (  2 ' cos  ' cos  )  h  ' sin 
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

m2v 2c 2 = h2[ 2  2 ' cos  '2 cos 2   '2 sin 2  ]

m2v 2c 2 = h2[ 2  2 ' cos  '2 (sin 2   cos 2  ]
m2v 2c 2 = h2 ( 2  2 ' cos   '2 ) (7)
Squaring eqn (1) on both sides, we get

7
 (mc2 ) 2  (h(  ' )  m 0c 2) 2 (8)
m2c 4  h2 ( 2  2 ' '2 )  2h(  ' )m0c 2  m0 c 4
2
(9)
Subtracting eqn (7) from eqn (9), we get
m2c 4  m2v 2c 2  h2 ( 2  2 ' '2 )  2h(  ' )m0c 2  m0 c 4  h2 ( 2  2 ' cos   '2 )
2

m2c 2 (c 2  v 2 )  h2 2  2h2 'h2 '2 2h(  ' )m0c 2  m0 c 4  h 2 2  2h 2 ' cos  h 2 '2
2

m2c 2 (c 2  v 2 )  2h2 '2h(  ' )m0c 2  2h2 ' cos   m0 c 4

2

m 2 c 2 (c 2  v 2 )  2h 2 ' (1  cos  )  2h(  ' )m0 c 2  m0 c 4

2
(10)
From the theory of relativity, the variation of mass with velocity is given by
m0 (11)
m
 v 
2
1  2 
 c 
Squaring the eqn (11) on both sides, we have
2 2
m0
2 m0 m0 c 2
m 
2
= 2 =
v2 c  v2 c 2  v 2
1 2
c c2
m 2 (c 2  v 2 )  m0 c 2
2

Multiplying c2 on the both sides, we have

m2c 2 (c 2  v 2 )  m0 c 4
2
(12)
Substituting eqn (12) in eqn (10), we get
m0 c 4  2h2 ' (1  cos  )  2h(  ' )m0c 2  m0 c 4
2 2

2h(  ' )m0c 2  2h 2 ' (1  cos )

  ' h
 (1  cos  )
 ' m0c 2
 ' h
  (1  cos  )
 '  ' m0c 2
1 1 h
  (1  cos  ) (13)
 '  m0c 2
Multiplying c on both sides of eqn (13), we have
c c hc
  (1  cos  )
 '  m0c 2
c c h
  (1  cos  )
 '  m0c
h
 '  (1  cos  )
m0c

8
Therefore, the change in wavelength is given by
h
d  (1  cos )
m0 c
Hence Compton shift is independent of wavelength of incident radiation & nature
of scattering substance and depends only on scattering angle (θ),

Case – 1: When θ = 0, then d  0

h
Case – 2: When θ = 90⁰, then d  = 0.0243Å
m0c
2h
Case – 3 When θ = 180⁰, then d  = 0.0486Å
m0c
Experimental verification of Compton Effect:
A beam of monochromatic x-rays of wavelength λ is made to incident on a scattering
substance. The scattered x- rays are received by Bragg spectrometer. The intensity of scattered
x-rays is measured for various scattering angles. The graph is plotted (intensity vs
wavelength) as shown in fig. It is found that the curves have two peaks, one corresponding to
unmodified radiation and other corresponding to modified radiation. The difference between
two peaks on the wavelength axis gives the Compton shift.

h
d  (1  cos )
m0 c

9
Matter Waves
Light radiation possess wave nature and particle nature, likewise all material particle
possess dual nature. This wave nature associated with a material particle is called matter
waves.
Louis de-Broglie’s Hypothesis
Louis de-Broglie proposed that like light radiation matter or material particle also
possesses dual characteristics. i.e., particle nature and wave nature. Since nature loves
symmetry, the wavelength associated with a material particle moving with a velocity ‘v’ is
given by,
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
Properties of Matter Waves
1. If the mass of the particle is smaller, then the wavelength associated with that
particle is longer.
2. If the velocity of the particle is small, then the wavelength associated with that
particle is longer.
3. If v = 0, the λ = ∞, i.e., the wave becomes indeterminate and if v = ∞, then λ = 0.
This indicates that de-Broglie waves are generated by the motion of particles.
4. These waves don’t depend on the charge of the particles. This shows that these
waves are not electromagnetic waves.
5. The velocity of de-Broglie’s waves is not constant since it depends on the velocity
of the material particle.
Derivation of de-Broglie waves
From planck's theory,
Energy of the photon is
E = h (1)
From Einstein's mass energy relation,
Energy of the photon is
E = mc2 (2)
Equating eqn (1) and (2)
h = mc2
ℎ𝑐
= 𝑚𝑐 2 (3)
𝜆
ℎ𝑐
𝜆=
𝑚𝑐 2
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= 𝜆=
𝑚𝑐 𝑚𝑣

The wavelength of the particle having mass ‘m’ and velocity ‘v’ is given by
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝

10
De-Broglie’s wavelength in terms of energy
1
w. k. t the Kinetic Energy E = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

Multiplying ‘m’ on both sides we get,

2mE =𝑚2 𝑣 2
Taking square root on both sides we get,

√2mE = √𝑚2 𝑣 2
√2mE = mv
ℎ
w.k.t 𝜆 =
𝑚𝑣

substituting for mv, we get

ℎ
𝜆=
√2mE
De-Broglie’s wavelength associated with electrons
Workdone on the electron = eV
1
K. E (E) = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
eV = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

2eV = 𝑚𝑣 2
Multiplying ‘m’ on both sides we get,
2meV =𝑚2 𝑣 2

√2meV = √𝑚2 𝑣 2
√2meV = mv
ℎ
w.k.t 𝜆 =
𝑚𝑣

substituting for mv, we get

ℎ
𝜆=
√2meV
Substituting h, m, e, values, we get

12.25
𝜆= 𝐴̇
√V

11
Time independent Schrödinger equation
Consider a system of stationary waves associated with a particle. Let x, y, z be the coordinate
of the particle and ψ be the wave displacement for de- Broglie’s waves at any time t. The classical
differential eqn. of a wave motion is given by
+ + =
ψ ψ ψ ψ
(1)

∇ ψ=
ψ
(2)
where ∇ is a Laplacian’s operator. The solution of eqn. (2) is
ψ(x, y, z, t) = ψ (x, y, z) −
ψ= ψ − (3)
where ψ (x, y, z) is a function of x, y, z only and it gives the amplitude at the point considered.
Differentiating the eqn. (3) with respect to t, we get
∂ψ
= −iωψ "#$
Again differentiating the above eqn. with respect to t, we get

= −ω ψ
ψ
(4)
substitute eqn (4) in eqn(2), Therefore,
%
∇ ψ+ ψ=0 (5)
We know, = 2( ) +
*
$ ,-
= (6)
*
Substitute (6) in (5),
,.
∇ ψ+ ψ =0 (7)
*
0
Using / =
1
,1 -
∇ ψ+ ψ =0 (8)
0
If E is the total energy, V is the potential energy and 23 is the kinetic energy then,
1
4 = 23 + 6
2
Rearranging the above equation and multiplying by m on both sides we get
2 3 = 22(4 − 3) (9)
Substituting eqn. 9 in 8, we get
1
∇ ψ+ (4 − 6)ψ = 0 (10)
ħ
This is called Schrodinger time independent wave equation.

Time dependent Schrodinger wave equation

Schrödinger time dependent wave equation is derived from time independent wave equation
is given by

12
ψ (x, y, z, t) = ψ (x, y, z) "#$
(1)
Differentiating eqn. (1),
= −iωψ "#$
ψ
(2)
We know = 2(8
∂ψ
= −i2(8ψ "#$
Also, 4 = ℎ8
:
= −i ψ
ψ
(3)
ħ
Multiplying i on both sides,
Eψ = −iħ
ψ
(4)
Schrodinger time independent wave equation is given by
1
∇ ψ+ (4 − 6)ψ = 0 (5)
ħ
On substituting the value of Eψ in eqn. (5)
22 ∂ψ
∇ ψ+ <ħ − 6ψ= = 0
ħ
∂ψ
(− ħ ∇ + 6 )ψ = ħ
22
>ψ = 4 ψ
where, H is Hamiltonian operator and E is energy operator.

G.P. Thomson experiment

G.P. Thomson in the year 1928 executed experiments with electron beam to
prove the wave nature of particles. The experimental arrangement consists of a discharge tube
in which the electrons are produced from the cathode. The electron beam is excited with
potential upto 500 volts. The electron rays are passed through a slit to obtain a fine beam of
electrons.

Then the confined electron beam is allowed to fall upon a very thin metallic film of gold.
The whole apparatus is exhausted to high vacuum so that electrons may not lose their energy in
collision with the molecules of the gas. The electron beam from the gold film is recorded by the
photographic plate. After developing the plate, a symmetrical pattern consisting of concentric
rings is obtained. The diffraction can only be produced by waves and not by the particles.
Hence, Thomson concluded that electrons behave like waves.

13
 Physical significance of wavefunction ()

1. It is a variable quantity which describes the de-Broglie wave.

2. It connects the particle & wave nature of matter statistically.
3. The wave function is a complex quantity & cannot be measured.
4. The wave function associated with a moving particle is related to the probability of finding
the particle at any point at a particular instant of time.
5. The probability of finding a particle at any instant is
𝑃 = ∭ Ψ ∗ Ψ𝑑𝜏 [𝑑𝜏 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧]
If P = 1, particle is present
P = 0, particle is absent.

Particle in one-dimensional box

Consider a particle of mass “m” moving in between two infinitely high potential walls at 𝑥 =0
and 𝑥 = 𝑎. The particle moves freely inside the box, without any constraint.
Hence V = 0. The potential can be represented as

𝑉 = 0, for 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎

V = ∞, for 0 ≥ x ≥ a
This potential is called a square well potential. From Schroedinger wave equation for one
dimension is,
𝑑2 2𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉)  = 0 (1)
𝑑𝑥 2 ħ2
V = 0 inside the box. ∴ Equation (1) reduces to
𝑑2 2𝑚
+ 𝐸 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ħ2
2𝑚𝐸
Assuming 𝑘 2 = ℏ2
𝑑2
+ 𝑘2 = 0 (2)
𝑑𝑥 2
The general solution of equation (2) is given by

14
 (𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝑥 (3)
where A and B are constants. They can be obtained by applying the
boundary conditions.
Boundary condition (i)  = 𝟎 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟎
Applying the condition to eqn.(3)
0 = 𝐴 sin 0 + 𝐵 cos 0
0 = 0 + 𝐵 [since sin 0 = 0 & cos 0 =1]
𝑩=𝟎
Boundary condition (ii)  = 𝟎 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝒂
Applying the condition to equation (3)
0 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑎 + 0
𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑎 = 0
This is possible only if either A = 0 or sin 𝑘𝑎 =0
A cannot be 0 as already one of the constants B = 0. If A is also zero, then wave equation becomes
zero which is not correct. Hence A should not be zero. Therefore,
sin 𝑘𝑎 = 0
Also,sin 𝑛𝜋 = 0
𝑛𝜋
Therefore, 𝑘 = (4)
𝑎
𝑛2 𝜋 2 2𝑚𝐸
𝑘2 = (5) 𝑘2 =
ℏ2
𝑎2
We know that,
2 8𝜋2 𝑚𝐸
𝑘= (6)
ℎ2
From eqn. (5) and (6),
𝑛2 ℎ 2
𝐸𝑛 = (7)
8𝑚𝑎2
Substituting eqn. (4) in (3)
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝐴 sin ( 𝑎
) (8)
Normalization of wave function
The constant A is determined by normalization of wave function as follows.
Probability density P is given by 𝑃 = ∭Ψ∗ Ψ𝑑𝜏
𝑛𝜋𝑥
 ∗  = 𝐴2 sin2 ( 𝑎
) (9)
It is certain that the particle is somewhere inside the box. Thus the probability of finding
the particle inside the box of length a is given by
𝑎
∫0  ∗  . 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝑎 𝑛𝜋𝑥
∫0 𝐴2 sin2 ( 𝑎
) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎
𝐴2 ∫0 𝑑𝑥 = 1
2

15
 𝐴2 𝑎 2
= 1; Therefore, 𝐴 = √𝑎
2

Using A in , eqn (8)

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑛 (𝑥) = √𝑎 sin 𝑎
This expression is known as normalized eigen function.

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
An instrument where electrons are used to form a large image of a very small object.
Image of the object is magnified and can also be recorded.
PRINCIPLE
A stream of electrons is passed through the object and the electrons which carries
the information about the object are focused by electric and magnetic fields.
Since the resolving power is inversely proportional to the wavelength, the electron
microscope has high resolving power because of its shorter wavelength.
CONSTRUCTION
It is similar to optical microscope. Here the focusing of electrons can be done by
magnetic lens or electrostatic lens. Normally in
electron microscope magnetic lenses are used for
focusing.
In general, the magnetic lenses are made of
two coils C1 and C2 enclosed inside the iron cases
which have one hole.
When holes face each other, the magnetic field
in the space between the two coils focus the
electrons emerging out from the electron gun.
Similarly the divergence of the electrons can also be
made by adjusting the position of holes in iron cases.
The electron microscope consists of an
electron gun to produce stream of electrons.
1. Magnetic condensing lens: To Condense
electrons.
2. Magnetic Objective lens: To resolve the
structure of the specimen.
3. Magnetic projector lens: similar to the
eyepiece for enlargement.
The whole arrangement is kept inside vacuum
chamber to allow the passage of electron beam.
WORKING:
Stream of electrons are produced and accelerated
by the electron gun. The electron beam is made to
pass through the centre of the doughnut shaped
magnetic condensing lens. These electrons are made
as parallel beam and is focused onto the object AB.

16
 The electrons are transmitted more in the less denser region of the object and is
transmitted less in denser area(absorbed).
Thus the transmitted electron beam on falling over the magnetic objective
lens, resolves the structure of the object to form magnified real image of the object. Further
the image can be magnified by magnetic projector lens and the final image is obtained on
a fluorescent screen. Final image can also be obtained on a photographic plate for
permanent record of the image of the object.
ADVANTAGES
• It can produce magnification as high as 1,00,000 times as that of the size of the
object.
• The focal length of the microscope system can be varied.
APPLICATIONS
• It has a very wide area of applications (e. g) in biology, metallurgy, physics,
chemistry, medicine, engineering, etc.,
• It is used to determine the complicated structure of the crystals.
• It is used in the study of the colloids.
• In industries it is used to study the structure of textile fibres, surface of metals,
composition of paper, paints etc.,
• In the medical field it is used to study about the structure of virus, bacteria, etc.,
which are of smaller size.

Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)

Scanning tunneling microscope is an electron microscope that works based on the
principle of quantum tunneling. Quantum tunneling is a concept based on quantum
physics where the material particle like electrons, protons that have wave nature can
tunnel through a small barrier of thickness 0.4 to 0.7 nm, which is controversial to
classical view. In classical view the electrons can cross the barrier only if it receives
sufficient potential energy to cross the barrier.

The tunneling effect leads to the transfer of electrons between the tip and the sample
surface. If the electron transfers from the sample to the tip then it probes the occupied
states of the sample and is called as negative bias condition. On the other hand, if the
electron transfers from the tip to the sample then it probes the unoccupied states of the
sample and is termed as positive bias condition.

17
 SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPE(STM)
A scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is an instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic
level.STM is based on the concept of quantum tunneling, When a conducting tip is brought very
near to the surface to be examined, a bias (voltage difference) applied between the two can allow
electrons to tunnel through the vacuum between them.
PRINCIPLE
When metal tip is brought near a conducting surface, electrons can tunnel from the tip to the
surface or vice –versa.
CONSTRUCTION
BASIC COMPONENTS
1. Scanning tip
2. Piezo electric scanner
3. Distance control and scanning unit.
4. Data processing and display on computer
5. Vibration isolation system

SCANNING TIP
Usually made from tungsten metal or a platinum-iridium alloy where at the very end of the
tip (called apex) there is one atom of the material.
PIEZOELECTRIC TUBE SCANNER
The scanner tip is attached to the piezoelectric tube scanner. Piezoelectric effect is a
phenomenon under which the material changes its length accordingly when put under an
electrical voltage.
By adjusting the voltage on the piezo electric element, the distance between the tip and the
surface can be regulated.

18
DISTANCE CONTROL AND SCANNING UNIT
Position control using piezoelectric means is extremely fine, so a coarse control is
needed to position the tip close enough to the sample before the piezoelectric control
can take over.
VIBRATION ISOLATION SYSTEM
STM deals with extremely fine position measurements so the isolation of any vibrations is
very important.
The tip and the surface distance is maintained at 0.1 nm to get the desired atomic
resolution.
Due to extremely high sensitivity of tunneling current between the tip and sample surface
height, it is absolutely necessary to reduce inner vibrations and to isolate the system from
external vibration.
DATA PROCESSING UNIT (COMPUTER)
The computer records the tunneling current and controls the voltage to the piezoelectric
tubes to produce a 3-dimensional map of the sample surface.
WORKING
❖ First, a voltage bias is applied and the tip is brought close to the sample by coarse
sample-to-tip control, which is turned off when the tip and sample are sufficiently close.
❖ At close range, fine control of the tip in all three dimensions when near the sample is
typically piezoelectric, maintaining tip-sample separation W typically in the 4-7 Å (0.4-
0.7 nm) range which is the equilibrium position between attractive (3<W<10Å) and
repulsive (W<3Å) interactions
❖ .In this situation, the voltage bias will cause electrons to tunnel between the tip and
sample, creating a current that can be measured.
❖ Once tunneling is established, the tip's bias and position with respect to the sample can be
varied (with the details of this variation depending on the experiment) and data are
obtained from the resulting changes in current.
❖ If the tip is moved across the sample in the x-y plane, the changes in surface height and
density of states causes changes in current.
❖ These changes are mapped in images. This change in current with respect to position can
be measured itself, or the height, z, of the tip corresponding to a constant current can be
measured. These two modes are called constant height mode and constant current mode,
respectively.
CONSTANT CURRENT MODE
Feedback electronics adjust the height by a voltage to the piezoelectric height control
mechanism. This leads to a height variation and thus the image comes from the tip topography
across the sample and gives a constant charge density surface; this means contrast on the image
is due to variations in charge density.
CONSTANT HEIGHT MODE
The voltage and height are both held constant while the current changes to keep the voltage from
changing; this leads to an image made of current changes over the surface, which can be related
to charge density. The benefit to using a constant height mode is that it is faster, as the
piezoelectric movements require more time to register the height change in constant current
mode than the current change in constant height mode.
ADVANTAGES
❖ It is capable of capturing much more detail than lesser microscopes. This helps
researchers better understand the subject of their research on a molecular level.
❖ STMs are also versatile. They can be used in ultra high vacuum, air, water and other

19
 liquids and gasses.
❖ They will operate in temperatures as low as zero Kelvin up to a few hundred degrees
Celsius.
DISADVANTAGES
❖ STMs can be difficult to use effectively. There is a very specific technique that requires a
lot of skill and precision. STMs require very stable and clean surfaces, excellent vibration
control and sharp tips.
❖ STMs use highly specialized equipment that is fragile and expensive.
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
1. It is used in the investigation of atomic structures and structure of crystal and also
in various fields like biological sciences, medicine, physics, chemistry material
science and metallurgy.
2. In biological applications, it is used to create tomographic reconstructions of small
cells or thin sections of larger cells.
3. In material science, it is used to find the dimensions of powders or nanotubes.
4. The defects in crystals or metals can be identified by TEMs. It is used to locate the
position of the defects and also the nature of the defect present.
5. High Resolution TEM (HRTEM) technique allows the detection of crystal structure
directly, Because of high resolving power, large magnification and Greater depth of
focussing, SEM has found wide applications.
6. Electron microscopes are powerful research tools. In chemistry, it is used for quality
control and assurance, analysis of atomic structures, and drug development.
7. In the technology industry, it is used for high-resolution 2D and 3D imaging,
semiconductor inspection, computer chip manufacture.
8. In geology, SEM is a routine technology employed in the study of rocks and minerals.
Medicine
1. It is used to study about the viruses which acts as a disease causing agents. A
knowledge of their structure helps to find the methods of their destruction.
2. It is used to study about the bacteria in a detail manner.
3. Many new morphological features of bacteria, bacterial components, fungi, viruses,
and parasites are discovered using electron microscopes.
4. In pathology, it is used to examine microscopic features of different diseases
including tumors.
Industry
1. It is used to find the chemical compositions of alloys metals, semiconductors etc.
2. In electronics industries use electron microscopes for high-resolution imaging in the
development and manufacturing processes of semiconductors and other electronics.
3. Surface structure or topography can be studied Easily with SEM
4. Electron microscopy can also be applied in industrial failure analysis and process
control of diverse industries.
5. Electron microscopy may be used to characterize and analyze organic materials,
which is particularly valuable information for mining companies.
6. The microscopes can provide automated, objective, and quantitative information

20
 about the environment quickly.
7. It can also help to enhance and validate input for geological models that have been
produced from seismic, wireline, and mud logs.
8. Other industries that may commonly use electron microscopes as a part of their
production process include aeronautics, automotive, apparel and pharmaceutical
industries.
Forensic Science
1. Another application of electron microscopy is forensic science, which involves an
analysis to provide evidence for crime and law purposes.
2. For example, an electron microscope may be used to analyze the acute details of a
relevant specimen, such as residue from a gunshot or a sample of clothing fibers,
blood, or other biological substance.
3. In forensics Scanning electron microscope (SEM) is widely used for gunshot residue
analysis, firearm identification (bullet markings comparison), investigation of
gemstones and jewelry, counterfeit banknotes, examinations of non-conducting
materials,
Difference etc.
between Optical microscope and Electron Microscope
S.NO OPTICAL MICROSCOPE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
Lenses are formed by electrostatic or
1 Lenses used are made of Glasses
magneto static fields.
Magnifying power attainable is Magnifying power attainable is above 100000
2
above 2000X X
3 It has a large aperture It has a small aperture
In spite of its smaller aperture, it has still
4 It resolves to the extent of 0.00002 cm.
higher resolving power.
The focal length of an optical lens is fixed The focal length of an optical lens is changed
5 and it depends on the radius of curvature and it depends on the strength of the field
of the lens. and the velocity of electron.
It gives greater depth of focus,it has three
6 It gives only two dimensional effect.
dimensional effect
The optical microscope does not require The entire arrangement must be kept in a
7
vacuum space. highly evacuated metallic case.
The construction cost is low and it is not The construction cost is high and it weight in
8
heavy. It is smaller in size. tons. It is huge in size.
Uses light (approx 400-700 nm) as an Uses electron beam (approx 1nm) as an
9
illuminating source illuminating source
10 No risk of radiation leakage. Risk of radiation leakage.
11 Both live and dead specimen can be seen Only dead and dried specimen can be seen
The image formation depends upon the
The image formation depends upon the
12 light absorption from the different zones of
electron scattering
the specimen.
Specimen preparation takes about a few
13 Specimen preparation takes several days
minute or an hour
Inexpensive and requires a low
14 Expensive and high maintenance
maintenance cost

21