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CHAPTER 8: METHODS OF STUDY AND SOURCES OF

DATA

Objectives:
 Describes sampling procedure and the sample.
 Constructs an instrument and establishes its validity and reliability.
 Explain what quantitative research method is.
 Describe the three types of descriptive research designs.
 Differentiate the two types of survey.


This chapter in a research reflects the procedures and processes

undertaken by the researcher to finish the study. The chapter shows how a
researcher answered the problems posited in the study: the research design,
the manner the respondents or subjects of the study were selected, tools or
basic instrumentation procedures as well as the statistical treatment used
to process the data collected.

RESEARCH DESIGN

General Methodology: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

The distinctions between qualitative and quantitative researches lie on the

description and presentation of data. Under quantitative research, the
questions are how well, how much or how accurately are the characteristics of
attributes described for a given set of data (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1994), while
qualitative research relies mainly on narrative description.

The distinction between qualitative and quantitative research is also a

difference in purpose (Wiersma, 1995). Qualitative research is conducted to
explain in detail social occurrences and may employ methodologies and
techniques that are not bonded by models that dictate set of procedures. On
the other hand, in doing a qualitative research such as cultural behavior of a
distinct ethnic group, a researcher may not necessarily be bounded by
paradigms and statistical analysis. The natural setting, the casual way of life
and day-to-day activities can be captured by naturalist paradigm. Specific
example is ethnographic research design. The research emphasizes capturing
the day-to-day activities of the respondents by living with them to freely observe
and interview them. A socio-anthropology student conducted an example of this
kind of research. The study covered the activities of an urban school principal
for a period of one year. The researcher stayed with the principal during the
period to fully describe how the principal extended instructional supervision
and administration, the frequency they were extended, the social atmosphere,
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the relationship between the principal and the teachers and anecdotal records
of incidences that occurred in the school. In this example, the researcher
arrived at spontaneous methodologies and questions aside from those
speculated before the actual research design.

On the other hand, quantitative research is conducted to establish relationship,

or to determine causes and effects between or among variables. Quantitative
research is interested in how often an activity takes place, its relationship to
other variables, and the causes of success or failure in the activity. In
accomplishing quantitative research, attention is focused on the randomness
of the sample, precision of definition, reduction of data into scores, and too
much reliance on statistical procedures.

Table 1
Differences Between Qualitative and Quantitative Research Design

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
1. Hypotheses are defined at the 1. Hypotheses emerge as the
beginning of the research activity research
progresses
2. Definitions are clearly defined 2. Definitions are captured during
prior to the research the
research activity
3. Data are transformed to 3. Narrative descriptions are
numerical preferred
scores
4. The reliability and validity of 4. Reliability of inference is
research instruments are assumed to be adequate.
represented by equivalent The validity is established by
statistical coefficients multi-level respondents by cross
checking responses
5. Randomization of samples 5. Purposive samples (Expert
informants)
6. Well defined procedures 6. Narrative literar descriptio of
procedur y n
es
7. Control of extraneous variables 7. Relies on logical analysis in
controlling extraneous variables
8. Statistical summary of results 8. Narrative summary of results
9. Breaks down complex 9. Holistic description of complex
phenomena into specified parts phenomena
Manipulates aspects, situations
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Source: Fraenkel Jack and Norman Wallen. (1984). How to design and
Evaluate Research in Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.

There are four basic research designs generally taught in research books.
These are: descriptive research design, correlational, Causal-comparative,
experimental design and the quasi-experimental design (Borg & Gall, 1992;
Kerlinger, F., 1986).

The Descriptive Research. In a descriptive research, variables are studied, as

they exist in their setting. No experimental variables are manipulated and the
main concerns are to describe the status, profile, incidences or occurrences of
the variables. The lack of control variables in descriptive designs makes the
results unreliable for hypothesis testing and the results to vary from one setting
to another.

However, thesis writers commonly resort to descriptive design because of the

ease in gathering data. Once the instruments are formulated, data can be
gathered by any of the following means: questionnaire, interview, or
documentary analysis. An example of a thesis using descriptive design is shown
on a study on demographic and personal characteristics i.e., age, sex, socio-
economic status of the family, marriage status of parents, manner of discipline
at home, ambition in life, expectations of the family on the child, etc.

The Causal-Comparative Research. Causal-comparative research attempts

to determine the causes or differences that already exist between or among
groups or individuals (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1993). The design compares two
or more groups in terms of a difference variable that cannot be manipulated,
i.e., and high performing group versus low performing group (Performance in
the difference variable). The research may observe that the two groups differ on
some variables to determine the reasons for their difference. The difference
between groups had existed because it was observable at the time the research
was conducted; however, causative variables are explored to pinpoint which of
them effect the difference. The statistical treatment employed to compare the
two groups may positively identify significant variables such as: socio-
economic status, educational attainment of parents, expectation at home,
social pressure, peer influence, or teacher’s motivation may explored. All
hypotheses concerning the differences between or among groups are so stated
after the statement of the problem. These hypotheses may be proven or
disproved by the study.

Correlational Design. Correlational research explores the relationship

between or among variables. The variables are studied without any attempt to
control or manipulate them. Correlation research is also sometimes referred to
as a form of descriptive research because it describes relationship between
variables (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1993). The relationship described, however,
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differs from other designs because of the degree of relatedness established

between or among variables.

In correlational studies, hypotheses concerning the relationship between or

among the variables are so stated. Correlation coefficients may describe positive
or negative relationship depending upon the outcome of the study. Positive
correlation describes direct relationship; x increases as y increases or as
variable one goes up; variable two goes up or vice versa. Negative correlation,
on the other hand, is inverse relationship; x increases as y decreases, i.e.
performance diminishes when one goes old.

Correlational design cannot be used to establish cause and effect. Researchers

must be aware that the relationship between variables is expressed as two-way.
Thus, a conclusion expressing the causation between the variables being
related is not valid.

Suggested statistical treatments for correlational research designs are shown

in table 2.

Table 2
Suggested Statistical Treatment for Correlating variables.

Levels of No. Of variables Treatment

Measurement used
for the variables
Nominal Bivariate Chi-square
Ordinal Bivariate Spearman Rho, Kendall
Tau
Interval Bivariate Pearson’s r
Nominal Multivariate Discriminant analysis
Interval Multivariate Multiple regression
analysis

Scatterplot
By examining the scatterplot, we can identify or describe the homogeneity or
heterogeneity of the two variables. Secondly, we can describe the degree of
which the two variables are intercorrelated or using statistical approach known
as correlation coefficient. Finally, we can interpret these data and give them
meaning.
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Survey Research
Kerlinger (1973) defined survey
research as a study on large and small
populations by selecting samples
chosen from the desired population and
to discover relative incidence,
distribution and interrelations.
The ultimate goal of survey
research is to learn about a large
population by surveying a sample of the
population; thus we may also call it
descriptive survey or normative survey. In this method, a researcher poses a
series of questions to the respondents, summarizes their responses in
percentages, frequency distribution and some other statistical approaches.
Survey research typically employs face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews
or the common approach using questionnaires (we will look into questionnaires
in the next section). Basically, information is acquired by asking respondents
questions by using interviews or questionnaires concerning the following:
There are two types of survey, normally, the type of survey method used
depends on the scope of the research work. If the research needs a pool of
opinions and practices, a cross-sectional survey would be appropriate. On the
other hand, if a researcher specifies the objective as to compare differences in
opinion and practices over time, a longitudinal survey would be the ideal
method.

Types of Survey
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In cross-sectional survey, a researcher collects information from a sample

drawn from a population. It involves collecting data at one point of time. The
period of data collection can vary and it depends on the study weightage. For
example: You administer a questionnaire on broadband usage among 500
university students for information dissemination using research network. The
university students may comprise 20-23 year old students. The students could
be males and females from different course backgrounds in a particular
university. In this case, the data you obtain is derived from a cross-section of
the population at one point of time.
In longitudinal surveys, data collection is done at different points of time to
observe the changes. Two common types of longitudinal surveys are Cohort
Studies and Panel Studies.

Cohort Studies
In Cohort Studies, a researcher specifies population (e.g. IT subordinates in an
organization dealing with security audit and penetration tests) and lists the
names of all members of this population. At each data collection point, a
researcher will select a sample of respondents from the population of IT
subordinates doing security audit and penetration testing and administer a
questionnaire. This is then repeated at another point of time. Although the
population remains the same, different respondents are sampled each time.
The researchers aim here is to see if there are changes in perceptions or trends
that occur in the study.

Panel Studies
In Panel Studies, a researcher can identify a sample from the beginning and
follow the respondents over a specified period of time to observe changes in
specific respondents and highlight the reasons why these respondents have
changed.

Mean
Mean is also known as average. A mean is the sum of all scores divided by the
number of scores. The mean is used to measure central tendency or center of
a score distribution generally. For example, the mean for the following set of
integers: 3, 4, 5, 7 and 6 = 5.
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Standard Deviation
A standard deviation tells us how close the scores are centered on the
mean. By referring to the above Figure 8.7, when the scores are bunched
together around the mean, the standard deviation is small and the bell curve
is steep. When the scores are spread away from the mean, the standard
deviation is large and the bell curve is relatively flat.

One standard deviation (SD= 5) from the mean in either direction on the
horizontal axis accounts for around 68% of the organization in this group. In
other terms, 68% terminals obtained 15 and 25 optimal time.
Two standard deviation (5+5=10) away from the mean accounts roughly 95%
of terminals. In other words, 95% terminals obtained between 10 and 30
optimal time.
Three standard deviations (5+5+5=15) away from the mean accounts for
roughly 99% terminals. In other words, 99% terminals obtained 5 and 35
optimal time.
Testing for Significant Differences between Two Means Using the t-Test
(Independent Groups)
Let’s say you are conducting a study to compare the effectiveness of the use of
Service discovery protocol (independent variable) in enhancing network
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appliances detection in home networks. The mean score and standard deviation
for the application test are shown in Table 8.2 and you want to test the null
hypothesis.
H0: There is no significant difference between the experimental group and the
control group in terms of enhancing network appliances detection.
To solve this, you may use the statistical approach called t-test to obtain the t-
value for independent means. In this case, independent means that two groups
consist of different subjects. The t-test gives the probability that the difference
between the two means is caused by chance. For testing the significance, you
will need to set a risk level called the alpha level. Set the alpha level at .05. This
means that the obtained result which is significant at .05 level could occur by
chance only 5 times in trial of 100.

Means and Standard Deviations Obtained for the Experimental and

Control Groups

N Mean Standard Deviation

Experimental group 10 13.8 2.10
Control group 10 11.4 1.96
t value = 2.65; degrees of freedom = 18; p<0.02

If you are using statistical software like SPSS or SAS, the probability value is
given (i.e. <0.02). We could also refer to the table of critical values to find out
whether the t-value is large enough to say that the difference between the
groups is not likely to have been a chance finding.
We can also determine the degrees of freedom (df) for the test which is the sum
of the terminals in both groups minus 2 (i.e.n-2). By the given alpha level, the
df and the t-value, we can refer to the t-value in the table of critical values.
The obtained t-value (2.65) is bigger than the critical value (2.1009) for
18 degree of freedom (20-2=18). From this, we can conclude that the differences
between the means for two organizations is significantly different at the 0.05
level of significance.

Extract from the Table of Critical Values

df p = 0.05 p = 0.01
17 2.1098 2.8982
18 2.1009 2.8784

19 2.1009 2.8609
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Please note the difference is NOT SIGNIFICANT at the 0.01 level of significance
because t-value (2.65) is smaller than the critical value (2.8784) for 18 degrees
of freedom.
Testing for Significant Differences between Two Means Using the t-test
(Dependent groups)
Let’s say you would like to conduct a study to compare the effectiveness of the
use of Service discovery protocol (independent variable) in enhancing network
appliances detection (dependent variable) in ONE home network (IEEE 802.11).
You gave a pretest and after testing the protocol with the IEEE 802.11 network,
you give a posttest. Here, the same group of subjects are tested 2 times. You
want to test the null hypothesis.
H0: There is no significant difference between the pretest mean and the posttest
mean in terms of network appliances detection enhancement.
Means and Standard Deviation Obtained for the Pretest and Posttest
Scores
Mean Standard Deviation
Pretest 9.90 1.66
Posttest 10.90 0.99
N=10; t value=1.94; degrees of freedom=9; p<0.09

By using the t-test for dependent groups, we can obtain value of 1.94. In this
case, dependent means that the two means are obtained from the same groups.
From Table 8.5, we can highlight that for 9 degree of freedom, the critical
value is 2.2622, which is larger than the t-value 1.94. We can conclude that
the means are NOT significantly different at the 0.05 level of significance.

Extract from the Table of Critical Values of t

df p = 0.05 p = 0.01
8 2.3060 3.3554
9 2.2622 3.2498
10 2.2281 3.1693
Testing for Differences between Means Using One-Way Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA)

In ANOVA, the mechanism is similar to t-test, although the method differs.

Whenever a researcher wants to compare more than two means, he/ she will
always opt to use One-Way Analysis of Variance or widely known as ANOVA.
For example, say you want to conduct an experiment on three types of buffering
methods for video streaming over mobile device. The means and standard
deviation obtained are shown in the table.

Means and Standard Deviation for Three Types of Buffering Methods

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N Mean Standard
Deviation
Buffer Method 1 10 14.6 1.83
Buffer Method 2 10 15.6 2.22
Buffer Method 3 10 18.0 2.10

Summary of the Buffering Method Analysis

Summary Sum of df Mean F p
Square Squares
Treatment 61.066 2 30.533 7.1811 0.003
Within 114.800 27 -
TOTAL 175.866 29

In this example, a researcher used One-Way ANOVA and obtained an F-value

of 7.1811 which is significant at 0.003. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no
differences between means is rejected. However, it is unsure which of the
differences contributes to the significance. To overcome this problem, another
statistical approach needs to be considered. A researcher can perform Pos Hoc
Comparisons such as Scheffe Test or Tukey Test. These tests are usually
applied after an analysis of variance.

Tukey Test for the Analysis

Buffer Method 1 vs. Buffer Method 1 Not significant

Buffer Method 1 vs. Buffer Method 3 Significant at p<.01
Buffer Method 2 vs. Buffer Method 3 Significant at p<.05

From Table, we can conclude that there is no significant difference between the
performance using Buffer Method 1 and Buffer Method 2. Buffer Method 3
performed significantly better at significance level 0.05. Buffer Method 3 also
outperformed Buffer Method 1 at the 0.01 level of significance.

Correlation Coefficient
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To find the relationship or correlation between two variables, the approach used
is called correlation coefficient.
Picture shows perfect positive correlation (r=+1) which means an increase in
variable y is also followed by an increase in variable x. The second diagram
shows a perfect negative correlation (r = -1) which means an increase in variable
y is followed by a decrease in variable x or vice-versa. The third diagram shows
a zero correlation(r=0.00) which means there is no relationship between
variable y and variable x.

SAMPLING

The process of getting information from a proper subset of population.

The fundamental purpose of all sampling plans is to describe the population
characteristics through the values obtained from a sample as accurately as
possible. It is therefore evident that if one were to draw conclusions based on a
small sample then the sample must imitate the behavior or characteristics of
the original population as closely as possible.

Sampling Plan
A detailed outline of which measurements will be taken at what times,
on which material, in what manner, and by whom that support the purpose of
an analysis. Sampling plans should be designed in such a way that the
resulting data will contain a representative sample of the parameters of interest
and allow for all questions, as stated in the research objectives to be answered.

Steps in Developing a Sampling Plan

1. Identify the parameters to be measured, the range of possible values and
the requires solution
2. Design a sampling scheme that details how and when samples will be
taken
3. Select sample sizes
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4. Design data storage formats

Assign roles and responsibilities

Probability Sampling
It refers to a sampling technique in which samples are obtained using some
objective chance mechanism, thus involving randomization. They require the
use of a sampling frame. The probabilities of selection are known.
It is the only approach that makes possible representative sampling plans.

Non-Probability Sampling
This is a technique when there is no way of estimating the probability that each
element has of being included in the sample and no assurance that every
element has a chance of being included.

INSTRUMENTS
Are the data gathering devices that will be used in the study? It is a testing
device for measuring a given phenomenon, such as a paper and pencil test,
questionnaires, interviews, research tools, or set of guidelines for observation.
 MODULE: RESEARCH PROJECT CULMINATING ACTIVITY

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

Validity
Refers to the extent to which the instrument measures what it intends to
measure and performs as it is designed to perform.

Types of Validity:
1. Content Validity – the extent to which a research instrument
accurately measures all aspects of a construct.
2. Construct Validity – the extent to which a research instrument or tool
measures the intended construct.
3. Criterion Validity – the extent to which a research instrument is
related to other instruments that measure the same variables.
Reliability
Relates to the extent to which the instrument is consistent. The instrument
should be able to obtain approximately the same response when applied to
respondents who are similarly situated.

Attributes of Reliability
1. Internal Consistency/Homogeneity – the extent to which all the items
on a scale measure one construct.
2. Stability or Test-Retest Correlation – the consistency of results using
an instrument with repeated testing.
3. Equivalence – consistency among responses of multiple users of an
instrument, or among alternate forms of an instrument.

SOURCE OF DATA

1. Primary Sources – known as primary data/raw data. These are data

obtained from your own researchers, surveys, observations and
interviews.
2. Secondary Sources – known as secondary data. These are data obtained
from secondary sources such as reports, books, journals, documents,
magazines, internet and more.

DATA COLLECTION METHOD

1. Interviews Kinds of Interview:

a. Structured Interview – the researcher asks a standard set of questions
and nothing more. The interview follows a specific format with the
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same line of questioning. The aim of this approach is to ensure that

each interview is presented with exactly the same questions in the
same order.
b. Face to Face Interview – most frequently used. It can be conducted in
the respondent’s home or workplace, halls or even simply in the street.
Kinds of Interview:
Telephone Interview – less consuming and less expensive. The
researcher has ready access to anyone who has a telephone.
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing – is a form of personal
interview but instead of completing a questionnaire, the
interviewer brings along a laptop or handheld computer to enter
the information directly into the database.
2. Questionnaires
Five Sections:
a. Respondent’s Identification Data – include respondent’s name,
address, date of the interview and name of the interviewer.
b. Introduction – is the interviewer’s request for help. It is normally
scripted and lays out the credentials of the market research company,
the purpose of the study and any aspects of confidentiality.
c. Instruction – refers to the interviewer and the respondent’s directions
on how to move through the questionnaire such as which questions
to skip and where to move to if certain answers are given.
d. Information – is the main body of the document and is made up of the
many questions and response codes.
e. Classification Data and Information – establish the important
characteristics of the respondent, particularly related to their
demographics which are sometimes at the front of questionnaire or
sometimes at the end.
Types of Questionnaires:
a. Paper-pencil Questionnaire – can be sent to a large number of people
and saves the researcher time and money.
b. Web-based Questionnaire – is a new and inevitably growing
methodology using the internet based research.
c. Self-administered Questionnaire – are general distributed through
mail, filled out and administered by the respondent themselves which
is returned via email to the researcher.

3. Observations – is a way of gathering data by watching behavior, events,

or noting physical characteristics in their natural setting.
Kinds of Observations:
a. Overt – when everyone knows they are being observed.
b. Covert – when no one knows they are being observed and the observer
is concealed.
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4. Tests – provide a way to assess subject’s knowledge and capacity to apply

this knowledge to new situations.
Kind of Tests:
a. Norm-referenced tests – provide information on how the target
performs against a reference group or normative population.
b. Criterion-referenced tests – constructed to determine whether or not
the respondents/subjects have attained mastery of a skill or
knowledge area.
c. Proficiency test – provides an assessment against a level of skill
attainment, but includes standards for performance at varying levels
of proficiency.
5. Secondary Data – a type of quantitative data that has already been collected
by someone else for a purpose different from yours. These data are collected by
researchers, government and private agencies, institutions or organizations or
companies that provide important information for government planning and
policy recommendation and theory generation.
a. Paper-based sources – are those from books, journals, periodicals,
abstracts, indexes, directories, research reports, conference
papers, market reports, and annual reports, internal records of
organizations, newspapers and magazines.
b. Electronic sources – are those from CD-ROMs, on-line databases,
internet, videos and broadcasts.

POINTERS TO REMEMBER IN REPORTING THE RESULTS

 Explain the data you have collected, the statistical treatment and all
relevant results in relation to the research problem that you are
investigating.
 Describe unexpected events that occurred during your data collection.
Explain how the actual analysis differs from the planned analysis.
Explain how you handled the missing data and why any missing data did
not undermine the validity of your analysis.
 Explain the techniques you used to “clean” your data set.
 Choose a statistical tool and discuss its use and reference a for it. Specify
any computer programs or software used in the study.
 Describe well the assumptions for each procedure and the steps you took
to ensure that they were not violated.
 Provide the descriptive statistics, confidence intervals and sample sizes
for each variable.
 Avoid interfering causality, particularly in non-randomized designs or
without further experimentation.
 Use tables to provide exact values and use figures to convey global effects.
Keep figures small in size ad include graphic presentations of confidence
intervals whenever possible.
 Inform the reader what to look for in tables and figures.
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WRITING METHODOLOGY

Participants – describe the participants in your research study, including who

they are, how many there are, and how they are selected. Explain how the
samples were gathered, any randomization techniques and how the samples
were prepared.
Example: The researchers randomly selected 100 children from
elementary schools of Cebu City.
Materials – describe the materials, measures, equipment, or stimuli used in
your research study. This may include testing instruments, technical
equipment, books, images or other materials used in the course of your study.
Example: Two stories from Sullivan et al.’s (1994) second-order false
belief attribution tasks were used to assess children’s understanding of
second-order beliefs.

Design – describe the research design used in your research study. Specify the
variables as well as the levels and measurement of these variables. Explain
whether your research study uses a within- groups or between-groups design.
Discuss how the measurements were made and what calculations were
performed upon the raw data. Describe the statistical techniques used upon
the data.
Example: The experiment used a 3x2 between-subjects design. The
independent variables were age and understanding of second-order
beliefs.

Procedure – the detail of the research procedures used in your research study
should be properly explained. Explain what your participants/respondents do,
how you collected the data, the order in which steps occurred. Observe some
ethical standards in gathering your data.
Example: A researcher interviewed children individually in their school
in one session that lasted 20 minutes on average. The researcher
explained to each child that he or she would be told two short stories and
that some questions would be asked after each story. All sessions were
videotaped so the data could later be coded.

Tips in Writing the Methodology

 Always write the method section in the past tense. (Use the future tense
if it is a research design.)
 Provide enough details that another researcher could replicate your
experiment, but focus on brevity. Avoid unnecessary detail that is not
relevant to the outcome of the experiment.
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 Remember to use proper APA format.

 Take a rough draft of your method section with your teacher or research
adviser for additional assistance.
 Proofread your paper for typos, grammar problems, and spelling errors.
Do not just rely on computer spell checkers. Always read through each
section of your paper for agreement with other sections. If you mention
steps and procedures in the method section, these elements should also
be present in the results and discussion sections.

For further reading please refer to the link provided:

Research Methods
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PDjS20kic54
Overview of Quantitative Research Methods
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cwU8as9ZNlA
Mean, Median and Mode
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B1HEzNTGeZ4
Mean, Median, and Mode of Grouped Data and Frequency Distribution
Tables Statistics
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjHfAhcU6kE
References:

 https://www.slideshare.net/CarlaKristinaCruz/chapter-4-understanding-data-and-
ways-to-systematically-collect-data
 https://www.scribd.com/document/323972586/2011-0021-22-research-
methodology-pdf