CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY:

A roof is a very important part of a building without which a building is not complete, this
makes it a very important structure in civil engineering whose structural adequacy needs to be
addressed to avoid failure which can pose great peril and inconveniences to lives and
properties. A structure is an assemblage of components which are connected in such a way
that the structure can withstand the action of loads that are applied to it. These loads may be
due to gravity, wind, ground shaking, impact, temperature, or other environmental sources
(Connor and Faraji, 2012). Important examples related to civil engineering include buildings,
bridges, and towers; and in other branches of engineering, ship and aircraft frames, tanks,
pressure vessels, mechanical systems, and electrical supporting structures are important.
When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public use, the engineer must
account for its safety, esthetics, and serviceability, while taking into consideration economic
and environmental constraints (Hibbeler, 2012).
In traditional roof truss design, solid steel sections have been widely used. However,
advancements in manufacturing techniques and the availability of a variety of steel sections
have provided engineers and designers with more options for constructing roof trusses. Three
commonly used section types in modern construction are Hollow Steel Sections (HSS),
Circular Hollow Sections (CHS), and Equal Angle Sections (EAS). Hollow Steel Sections
(HSS) are steel profiles with hollow cross-sections, offering a high strength-to-weight ratio
and excellent load-carrying capacity. The circular shape of Circular Hollow Sections (CHS)
provides uniform strength around the circumference, making them suitable for applications
requiring torsional resistance. Equal Angle Sections (EAS), also known as L-sections, are
typically used in applications requiring structural support and bracing.
With the continuous increase in the price of construction materials in Nigeria, this study is
one that gives a comparative results of the cost implication of using various steel sections for
the construction of roof trusses in the construction industry using analysis methods such as the
stiffness matrix method to get results that will further aid in the accuracy of the result of this
study.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The construction industry in Nigeria has grappled with the escalating costs of materials and
services, posing significant challenges. This trend has the potential to cause project delays,
increased construction expenses, and diminished profit margins. Another prevalent issue in
the construction sector is the occurrence of time and cost overruns. Cost overrun refers to
unanticipated changes in a project's budget that result in both an augmented total project cost
and an extended project duration (leading to time overrun). Goyal's (2017) research
underscores that the surge in material prices can be attributed to inflation, which is a
contributing factor to cost overruns.
These issues have contributed to a multitude of failed and abandoned projects, affecting both
the private and public sectors. Furthermore, they have given rise to environmental and
1
security concerns in the communities surrounding these projects. Consequently, there is a
pressing need for a more effective methodology to manage the overall costs of construction
materials, with the aim of achieving a balance between cost, schedule, and project scope
through the exploration of innovative alternative techniques.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The aim of the project is to analyze the steel trusses and give a comparative result of the cost
implications of using different steel sections namely;

1.3.2. Square hollow section

1.3.3. Circular hollow section.

1.3.4 Equal angle

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 HISTORY OF STEEL
Steel was created in crucibles and bloomeries and was known in antiquity. Steel was first
produced around 4,000 years ago, in pieces of ironware discovered at the Anatolian
archaeological site of Kaman-Kalehöyük, in 1800 BC. In the rest of the world, Seric Iron of
India (wootz steel)'s repute increased significantly. In Sri Lanka, high-carbon steel could be
produced in wind furnaces that were powered by monsoon winds. By the sixth century BC,
large-scale Wootz steel manufacture in India utilizing crucibles had begun, serving as the
innovative forerunner to contemporary steel production and metallurgy.
Quench-hardened steel was used by the Chinese during the Warring States period (403- 221
BC), but the Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) produced steel by melting wrought iron and cast
iron, which resulted in carbon-intermediate steel by the first century AD. Evidence suggests
that the Haya people's ancestors produced carbon steel in Western Tanzania as early as 2,000
years ago using a sophisticated "pre-heating" procedure that allowed furnace temperatures to
exceed 1300–1400 °C.
Before the invention of the Bessemer process and other contemporary production methods,
steel was expensive and was only employed in situations where there were no less expensive
alternatives, especially for the cutting edge of knives, razors, swords, and other objects
requiring a hard, sharp edge. Additionally, it was utilized for springs, notably those for
watches and clocks. Steel is now easier to find and much less expensive thanks to the
development of faster and more cost-effective production techniques. For numerous
applications wrought iron has been substituted by it. But as plastics became more widely
accessible in the latter half of the 20th century, they were able to displace steel in various
applications due to their lighter weight and lower cost of its production. In some applications
where cost is not an issue, including sports equipment and high-end vehicles, carbon fiber is
taking the place of steel.
For thousands of years, steel was made in bloomery furnaces, but it wasn't until the 17th
century, with the invention of the blast furnace and the manufacturing of crucible steel, that it
was used on a big scale for industrial purposes. In England in the middle of the 19th century,
this was followed by the open-hearth furnace and finally the Bessemer process. The Bessemer
process ushered in a new era of mass-produced steel. Wrought iron was substituted with mild
steel

2.2 STEEL TRUSS

Many problems of long spanning in structural engineering can be resolved through the use of
steel trusses. These days, long-span structures are very popular– from sports arena roofs to
auditorium galleries, airport terminals, railway stations, etc. Trusses are arguably the most
structurally efficient and cost-effective solution available. Compared with the I and H sections
as alternatives, they are very lightweight and stiffer which means that their deflection is
invariably less under any given load arrangement. Also, where a system of concentrated

3
actions is to be sustained over a large span, such as in transfer structures found in multi-story
buildings, they are highly effective. (Femi, 2021)

2.3 ADVANTAGES OF STEEL TRUSS

2.3.1 Strength and Durability: Steel is known for its high strength and durability, allowing
steel trusses to carry heavy loads over long spans without excessive deflection.

2.3.2 Lightweight: Steel's high strength-to-weight ratio means that steel trusses can support
significant loads while remaining relatively lightweight compared to other materials like
concrete.

2.3.3 Versatility: Steel trusses can be fabricated into various shapes and sizes, making them
highly versatile for different architectural designs and construction requirements.

2.3.4 Speed of Construction: The prefabrication of steel trusses allows for faster
construction times compared to traditional on-site building methods, reducing overall
construction periods.

2.3.5 Longevity: Steel is highly resistant to corrosion, making steel trusses suitable for both
indoor and outdoor applications, and ensuring their longevity over time.

Due to their advantages and versatility, steel trusses are commonly used in a wide range of
structures, including commercial and industrial buildings, bridges, roofs, warehouses,
stadiums, and more.

2.4. STEEL ROOF TRUSS

Roof steel trusses are common structural systems used to design and construct various
buildings, including residential, commercial, and industrial structures, to span large distances
(Heyman, 2010). These trusses consist of a series of interconnected steel members, typically
arranged in a triangular pattern, that provide support and stability for the roof.

2.5 COMPONENT OF A STEEL TRUSS

2.5.1 Triangular Geometry: Steel trusses consist of interconnected triangular elements,

which provide stability and prevent the structure from collapsing under load. Triangles are
inherently stable shapes, and distributing the forces in a truss along these triangles helps to
minimize bending and torsional forces.

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2.5.2 Steel Members: The primary components of steel trusses are the steel members that
make up the triangular framework. These members can be made from various steel shapes,
such as I-beams, angles, or hollow sections, depending on the design requirements and load-
bearing capacities.

2.5.3 Top and Bottom Chords: The two main horizontal members of a truss are called the
top and bottom chords. These chords are typically subjected to tension and compression
forces, respectively, based on the load distribution. The length and cross- sectional properties
of these chords are crucial for determining the overall strength of the truss.

2.5.4 Diagonal Web Members: The diagonal members of the truss are known as web
members. They connect the top and bottom chords, helping to distribute loads and transfer
forces along the truss structure. Web members are often under tension or compression,
depending on their orientation within the truss.

2.5.5 Vertical Members: Vertical members, known as vertical or vertical web members,
provide additional support and stiffness to the truss. They typically connect to the top and
bottom chords and assist in maintaining the overall stability of the structure

Fig. 2.1: Component of Steel Roof Truss

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2.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL ROOF TRUSS

2.6.1 High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: Steel is renowned for its remarkable strength- to-
weight ratio, making it an ideal material for roof trusses. This characteristic allows for the
creation of lightweight yet sturdy truss structures that can bear substantial loads.

2.6.2 Durability and Longevity: Steel possesses inherent durability and resistance to
corrosion, ensuring that steel roof trusses can withstand the elements and have a longer
service life compared to other materials like timber.

2.6.3 Design Flexibility: Steel's malleability and ductility enable architects and engineers to
create intricate and complex roof truss designs. This versatility allows for innovative
architectural concepts and adaptability to various building configurations.

2.6.4 Span Capability: Steel roof trusses can span long distances without the need for
internal supports, providing spacious and open interior spaces. This characteristic is
particularly advantageous for designing large halls, warehouses, and industrial structures.

2.7 BENEFITS OF STEEL ROOF TRUSS

According to (Ubani, 2017) an advantage of using steel trusses for roofs is that ducts and
pipes that are required for the operation of the building’s services can be installed through the
truss web.

Some of the benefits of steel roof truss incudes:

2.7.1 Efficient Construction: Steel roof trusses are usually prefabricated off-site, leading to
faster and more efficient on-site assembly. This reduces construction time, labor costs, and
potential project delays.

2.7.2 Cost-Effective: Although the initial cost of steel roof trusses may be higher than some
traditional materials, the long-term benefits, including lower maintenance expenses and
enhanced durability, make them a cost-effective choice in the long run.

2.7.3 Sustainability: Steel is a highly sustainable material as it is 100% recyclable. Choosing

steel roof trusses can contribute to reducing the environmental impact and promoting green
building practices.

2.7.4 Structural Stability: Steel's inherent strength and rigidity ensure excellent structural
stability, providing the necessary support for the roofing system and ensuring safety for
occupy

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2.8 TYPES OF ROOF TRUSS

Steel roof trusses come in various types, each designed to meet specific structural
requirements and architectural preferences. The choice of truss type depends on factors such
as the span length, load-bearing capacity, roof shape, and aesthetic considerations.

Some types of roof truss include;

2.8.1 King Post Truss: The king post truss is one of the simplest and oldest truss designs. It
consists of a vertical central post (king post) with diagonal beams extending from the post to
the top chord. The top chord is typically horizontal, and the bottom chord is sloped. This truss
type is suitable for relatively short spans and is commonly used in residential and light
commercial buildings.

2.8.2 Queen Post Truss: The queen post truss is similar to the king post truss but has two
vertical posts (queen posts) instead of one. The queen posts are spaced apart, and diagonal
beams extend from each post to the top chord. This design offers improved load-bearing
capacity compared to the king post truss and is commonly used for medium- span roofs.

2.8.3 Howe Truss: The Howe truss features diagonal beams that slant towards the center of
the truss, forming a "V" shape. The vertical posts connect the bottom and top chords. Howe
trusses are suitable for medium to long spans and are commonly used in industrial buildings,
bridges, and larger commercial structures.

2.8.4 Pratt Truss: The Pratt truss is the opposite of the Howe truss, where the diagonal
beams slant outward from the center of the truss. Vertical posts connect the top and bottom
chords. Pratt trusses are efficient for medium to long spans and are often used in industrial
and commercial buildings.

2.8.5 Warren Truss: The Warren truss is a lightweight and cost-effective design with
diagonals that alternate in direction between the top and bottom chords. It does not have
vertical posts. Warren trusses are commonly used in roof and floor systems for light to
medium loads and relatively long spans.

2.8.6 Fink Truss: The Fink truss is a popular and widely used truss type, characterized by its
"W" shape formed by the diagonals and vertical members. It is an efficient design for medium
to long spans and is commonly used in residential, commercial, and industrial buildings.

7
 Fig 2.2: Types of Trusses

2.8.7 Bowstring Truss: The bowstring truss features a curved top chord, giving it a bow-like
appearance. This truss type is often used in larger industrial and commercial buildings where
longer spans are required without the need for internal supports.

2.8.8 Scissor Truss: The scissor truss is designed with two sloping chords that cross each
other at the midpoint, creating an "X" shape. This truss type allows for vaulted or cathedral-
style ceilings and is commonly used in residential and commercial buildings where a spacious
and open interior is desired

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2.9 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

For a good structural performance of roof trusses, the ratio of span to truss depth should be in
the range of 10 to 15. However, it should be noted that the architectural design of the building
determines its external geometry and governs the slope given to the top chord of the truss.
(Uzodimma, 2017)

Designing steel roof trusses requires careful consideration of several factors:

2.9.1 Load-Bearing Capacity: Engineers must accurately calculate the anticipated loads,
including dead loads (weight of the truss itself and roofing materials) and live loads (occupant
load, snow, wind, etc.), to ensure the truss can support the roof's weight safely.

2.9.2 Span Length: Determining the appropriate span length is crucial to avoid excessive
deflection or sagging. Longer spans may require heavier truss sections or additional supports.

2.9.3 Shape and Configuration: The truss shape and configuration should align with the
architectural design and load distribution requirements. Common truss types include king
post, queen post, Pratt, Howe, and Warren trusses, among others.

2.9.4 Building Codes and Regulations: Steel roof truss designs must adhere to relevant
building codes and regulations specific to the region and intended use of the building.

2.9.5 Connection Details: The connection points between truss members and other structural
elements must be carefully designed to ensure stability and structural integrity. In steel roof
truss design, various types of connections are used to join truss members together.

The choice of connection type depends on factors such as the truss configuration, loads,
architectural considerations, and construction methods.

Some common types of connections used in steel roof truss design include;

Bolted Connections: Bolted connections are widely used in steel roof truss design due to
their ease of assembly and disassembly. These connections involve using bolts, nuts, and
washers to fasten truss members together at their joints. Bolted connections are versatile,
allowing adjustments during construction and facilitating on-site modifications if necessary.

Welded Connections: Welded connections involve permanently fusing truss members

together using arc welding. These connections provide high strength and rigidity and
eliminate the need for additional fasteners. Welded connections are often used in complex
truss designs and where a continuous joint is preferred for better load distribution.

Gusset Plate Connections: Gusset plate connections are commonly used in steel roof trusses.
These connections involve using steel plates, known as gussets, at the joint

9
intersections to connect the truss members. Gussets are typically bolted or welded to the truss
members, providing a simple and effective means of joining the components.

Truss-to-Plate Connections: In some cases, the roof truss may need to connect to a plate or
other structural element, such as a beam or column. Truss-to-plate connections are designed to
transfer loads from the truss to the supporting plate efficiently. These connections are often
achieved using bolts or welds.

End-Plate Connections: End-plate connections are commonly used to connect the truss
members to the supporting columns or beams. These connections involve attaching steel
plates to the ends of the truss members, which are then bolted or welded to the supporting
elements.

Clip Angle Connections: Clip angle connections are used to connect the web members of the
truss to the chord members or to other structural elements. These connections involve
attaching L-shaped steel angles (clip angles) to the truss members, and they are secured using
bolts or welds.

Moment-Resisting Connections: In cases where the roof truss is subjected to significant

lateral loads, such as wind or seismic forces, moment-resisting connections may be employed.
These connections are designed to resist bending moments and improve the overall stability of
the truss system.

According to (Ubani, 2021) a well-designed hollow steel hollow has lesser material weight
and higher strength to weight ratio when compared with an equivalent open section profile
such as a universal beam (I-section) or universal column (H-section).

2.10 STEEL SECTIONS

Some common types of steel sections used in steel roof trusses:

2.10.1 I-Beams (Universal Beams - UB): I-beams are one of the most commonly used
steel sections in roof truss design. They have an "I" shaped cross-section with flanges on the
top and bottom and a web in between. I-beams are ideal for carrying both bending and axial
loads, making them suitable for long-span roof trusses.

2.10.2 C-Channels (Channels): C-channels have a "C" shaped cross-section with a

flat back and perpendicular flanges on either side. They are often used as purlins or secondary
members to support the roof covering and transfer loads to the primary truss members.

2.10.3 Pipe Sections: Steel pipes are used in roof trusses for specific applications, such
as tension members or compression struts. They offer high strength and are suitable for long
spans and heavy loads.

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2.10.4 Tapered Sections: Tapered sections are custom-designed steel sections that
have varying dimensions along their length. They are often used in complex roof trusses
where the load requirements change along the span.

2.10.5 Hollow Structural Sections (HSS): Hollow Structural Sections, also known as
HSS, come in various shapes, such as rectangular, square, and circular. They are lightweight
and have high strength-to-weight ratios, making them suitable for roof truss members in areas
with lower load requirements.

Fig 2.3 Circular and Square Hollow Section

2.10.6 Truss Chords and Bracing Sections: Specific truss chord and bracing sections
are designed to provide the main load-carrying capacity and stability of the roof truss. These
sections are tailored to the particular truss configuration and loading conditions.

2.10.7 Angle Sections (Equal and Unequal Angles): Angle sections are L-shaped
steel sections with equal or unequal leg lengths. They are commonly used in roof trusses to
provide diagonal bracing or as secondary members to support purlins and other components

Fig 2.4 Angle Section

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2.10.8 Built-up Sections: Built-up sections involve combining two or more standard
steel sections to create a custom-shaped member. This technique is used when standard
sections do not meet the design requirements.

According to (Femi, 2021) many steel sections are applicable for use as steel truss member.
However, the choice will depend on factors ranging between the magnitude of the internal
forces, ease of doing the connections, aesthetics and fabrication constraints.

2.11 ACTIONS ON STEEL TRUSSES

The actions a steel truss will be required to sustain will depend on the intended function/use
of the steel truss. Roof trusses are required to sustain dead, imposed, wind and even snow
actions.

Generally, the loads that can be found on a steel truss are:

2.11.1 Permanent (Dead) Actions: The permanent actions include all dead loads
applied on the steel truss, including the self-weight of the truss and any additional steel
element. In the case of this study, the permanent actions will consist of the load from the roof
cladding, self-weight of the steel elements (truss members and purlins) and the applied load
from finishes.

2.11.2 Variable Actions: Variable actions include all loads applied on the truss that
varies in magnitude with time. This includes, imposed loading, wind actions and snow
actions. Procedure for derivation can be found in the N.A of Eurocode 1

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2.12 REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES

Goraviyala Yogesh and Prof. K. C. Koradiya (2016) they described in detail and compare
design of roof truss of certain span by using both open sections and hollow sections. To
determine the most economical sections by comparing sections such as open sections,
rectangular hollow sections, square hollow sections and circular hollow sections. Calculation
of percentage saving in steel for given structure. Study different parameters of design and
maintenance in tubular structural sections. The tubular steel sections are structurally more
efficient as compare than conventional section because its resistance of torsional is very high
and also high strength to weight ratio.

Venkatesh K and Jayanthi V (2019) they presented an overview about the most suitable type
of truss arrangement for long span. To justify the utilization of analysis tool in steel sections
analysis. In this study they concluded that in truss arrangement howe type truss is
comparatively better suitable, as compared in terms of sections, beam section is more
resistible and economical.

Jyoti P. Sawant and Prof. Vinayak Vijapur (2013) After their calculation study reveals that
reduction in forces of the truss members due to the external post-tensioning. By comparing
the cross-section members of the trusses by both without post-tensioning and with post-
tensioning. They stated that after analyzing from economical point of view the cost of tubular
trusses is less as compared to the angular trusses. Tubular trusses consume less material when
compared with the angular section trusses. Tabular trusses have good aesthetic view when
compared to the angular trusses. Angular trusses required more labor force when compared to
the tubular trusses.

Rakesh R. Nora, Umarfarukh D. Masud and Maske Ravi G. (2015) they determined that the
effectiveness of tubular sections in an industrial shed. Analysis and design was carried out
using conventional steel and tubular steel structure and also cost comparison was made for
above sections. Above study shows that tubular sections are more efficient to be economical.
Total saving of almost 36% in cost is achieved. Effectiveness of tubular section can be
checked for different plan areas for different types of trusses

Pramodini Naik (2015) stated that calculation of loads on roof trusses i.e., dead load, live load
& wind load. Design for Howe truss for span of 35m as compared to Pratt truss for similar
span length by angle section and tube (circular, square & rectangular) section. Above study
shows that tube sections are more efficient to be more economical. She found that can be
saving in terms of weight of material by 25 to 40%. Due to connection difficulties so that it
suggested to adopt rectangular or square tube sections.

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 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter reveals the method involved in the design of steel roof truss and its analysis
using different steel sections (equal angle, square hollow and circular hollow section). The
analysis and design were effectively and accurately drafted and analyze with the following
software; Autodesk AutoCAD 2018 and Microsoft Excel 2016.

3.2 AUTOCAD

AutoCAD is a widely used computer-aided design (CAD) software developed by

Autodesk. It is popular among architects, engineers, drafters, and other professionals
involved in drafting and design. AutoCAD provides powerful tools and features that enable
users to create precise and detailed drawings for various industries, including architecture,
engineering, construction, and manufacturing. The truss model was drafted using Autodesk
AutoCAD 2018.

Fig 3.1 Drafting with Autodesk AutoCAD 2018 software.

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3.3 MICROSOFT EXCEL

Microsoft Excel is a powerful spreadsheet software developed by Microsoft. It is

widely used for data analysis, calculation, organization, and visualization. Excel provides a
user- friendly interface, making it accessible to a broad range of users, from individuals to
professionals and organizations. The software offers a wide array of features and functions to
handle data efficiently, making it one of the most popular spreadsheet tools globally.
Microsoft Excel 2016 will also be used to analyze the roof trusses through the method of
direct stiffness matrix.

Fig 3.2 Stiffness matrix analysis with Microsoft Excel 2016.

3.4 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF THE ROOF TRUSS

Structural analysis of steel involves investigating the load-bearing capacity and stability
of the steel using calculation methods and models.

The design of roof truss involves analyzing the truss under the system of loads using
statics either by using the method of joints or sections to obtain the internal forces in the
members then verifying a trial section for adequacy. In the analysis and design of the trusses,
the support is assumed to be simply supported and the loads are applied directly on the
nodes/joints.

3.4.1 Verification of Members to Tension

For a truss member in axial tension, Clause 6.23(1) of BS EN 1993-1-1 gives an expression
that must be satisfied. This is defined as N Sd / Nt,Rd ≤ 1. Where NSd is the design tensile force.
N t,Rd is the design tension resistance.

15
3.4.2 Verification of Members to Compression

For truss members in compression, evaluating the member resistance is slightly more
complicated, the different mode of stability must be taken into consideration. In most truss
members in axial compression, only flexural buckling in the plane and out of the plane of the
truss would need to be verified. This buckling resistance is obtained by applying a reduction
factor to the resistance of the cross-section. This reduction factor is obtained from the
slenderness of the member which depends on the elastic critical force. This is defined in
Clause 6.3.1.1(1) as: NEd / Nb,Rd ≤ 1. Where NEd is the design compressive force. Nt,Rd is the
design buckling resistance of the compressive member.

Also, according to BS EN 1993-1-1 Clause 6.2.4(1) the design value of the compression
force (NEd) should satisfy: NEd / NC,Rd where NC,Rd is the design compression resistance. NC,Rd
= AFy / ϒMo for class 1, 2 or 3 cross sections.

3.4.3 Classification of cross-sections

Four classes of cross-sections are defined, as follows:

Class 1: cross-sections are those which can form plastic hinge with the rotation
capacity required for plastic analysis without reduction of the resistance.

Class 2: cross-sections are those which can develop their plastic moment resistance,
but which have limited rotation capacity because of local buckling.

Class 3: cross-sections are those in which the stress in the extreme compression fibre
of the steel member assuming an elastic distribution of stresses can reach the yield strength,
but local buckling is liable to prevent development of the plastic moment resistance.

Class 4: cross-sections are those in which local buckling will occur before the
attainment of the yield stress in one or more parts of the cross-section.

16
 Fig 3.3: Classification of Steel Sections

3.5 MATERIALS

Square hollow section,

Circular hollow section,

Equal angle.

In this study, the type of truss employed was Pratt Truss. It was designed with three
different materials as listed above. The trusses are spaced at 5m intervals, with an inclination
angle of 27 degrees. The span of the truss is 17m and the nodal spacing of the trusses is 1.2m.
The truss consists of 20 joints and 37 members. Direct stiffness matrix method was used to
analyzed the truss and the design was based on the recommendations of BS EN 1993 1-1 and
the UK National Annex. Specified steel grade of S275. All steel sections were picked from
the steel blue book.

The stiffness matrix Analysis was computed using an Equal angle of section 80*80*8
mm which has an area of 12.3 cm².

17
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS

4.1.1 DATA COLLECTION

All the primary and secondary data regarding the project designs, project background,
specifications, and project cost were collected from the appropriate sources (Blue book, market,
and project supervisor.)

4.1.2 INDICATION OF MAXIMUM FORCES FROM THE MEMBER TABLE

AND THEIR VERIFICATION WITH RESPECT TO THE STEEL TABLE
(BLUE BOOK)

After all analysis done using the stiffness matrix method, the maximum force for Equal angle for
the top and bottom chord with the steel section property of 80*80*8 mm was 126.77 kN, and that
for the steel section property of 60*60*5 mm was 47.33 kN. (See Appendix for table)
Using the steel table (Blue book), Flexural (F) and torsional (T) buckling resistances (kN) check
was done for System length, L (m) 1.5mm. (See Appendix for steel table)
The results and verifications are shown below;

Table 4.1 Flexural Resistance Check

SECTION AREA Max Force(MF) Flexural Check: F >
DESIGNATION (cm²) (kN) Resistance(F) MF, OK
(CALC.) (kN) (Table)
80*80*8 mm 12.3 126.77 176 OK
60*60*5 mm 5.83 47.33 62.2 OK

4.1.3 VARIOUS STEEL SECTIONS AND THEIR PROPERTIES AFTER ANALYSIS

After all analysis done, the area for Equal angle for the top and bottom chord with the steel
section property of 80*80*8 mm was 12.3cm², and that for the steel section property of 60*60*5
mm was 5.83cm². These areas were used to get the respective steel section property of the
Hollow square section and Hollow Circular Section from the steel table (Blue book).

The various section properties for various steel sections are shown below;

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 Table 4.2 Various Steel Sections and Their Properties
AREA
12.3 cm² 5.83 cm²
SECTION PROPERTIES
TYPE
Equal angle 80*80*8 mm 60*60*5 mm
Square hollow 70*70*5 mm 50*50*3.2 mm
section
Diameter / Diameter /
Thickness Thickness
Circular hollow 114.3 mm/3.6 mm 42.4 mm/5.0 mm
section

4.2 DISCUSSIONS

4.2.1 THE COST IMPLICATION OF USING VARIOUS STEEL SECTIONS FOR

TRUSSES

Table 4.3 shows the current price based of the selected steel section of square hollow section and
circular hollow section from Udoka Steel Global Enterprise, No. 205, Mbiabong, timber market
road, Uyo, as at August 27th, 2024.

Table 4.3 Cost Estimation of The Various Steel Section For Top And Bottom Chord And
Struts And Ties

TOP CHORD/ BOTTOM CHORD

DESCRIPTION
EQUAL ANGLE SHS CHS
80MM X 80MM X 70MM X 70MM X DIA.
DIMENSION OF SECTION
8MM 5MM 114.3MM,
MARKET LENGTH (m) 5.5 5.5 5.5
SECTION LENGTH (m) 20.636 20.636 20.636
MARKET PRICE (₦) 45,000 74,000 80,000

TOTAL PRICE (₦) ₦ 168,840.00 ₦ 277,648.00 ₦ 300,160.00

FULL TRUSS COST ₦ 337,680.00 ₦ 555,296.00 ₦ 600,320.00

19
 STRUTS AND TIES
DESCRIPTION
EQUAL ANGLE SHS CHS
60MM X 60MM X 50MM X 50MM X
DIMENSION OF SECTION DIA. 42.4MM,
5MM 3MM
MARKET LENGTH (m) 5.5 5.5 5.5
SECTION LENGTH (m) 20.203 20.203 20.203
MARKET PRICE (₦) 24,000 48,000 30,000

TOTAL PRICE ₦ 88,158.55 ₦ 176,317.09 ₦ 110,198.18

FULL TRUSS COST ₦ 176,317.09 ₦ 352,634.18 ₦ 220,396.36

TOAL CONSTR. COST

₦ 513,997.09 ₦ 907,930.18 ₦ 820,716.36

From all analysis done, the values in table indicates that the least expensive steel section for the
construction of a roof truss with a span of 17m is the Equal Angle section with the price

₦ 513,997.09

The bar chart below show a graphical representation in the price variations

TOP AND BOTTOM CHORD

700000
600000
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
MARKET LENGTH SECTION LENGTH MARKET PRICE (₦) TOTAL PRICE (₦)
(m) (m)

TOP CHORD/ BOTTOM CHORD ANGLE IRON 80MM X 80MM X 8MM

TOP CHORD/ BOTTOM CHORD SHS 70MM X 70MM X 5MM
TOP CHORD/ BOTTOM CHORD CHS DIA. 114.3MM,

Fig 4.1 Graphical representation of the varying prices of the various steel sections for the top and
bottom chord

20
 STRUTS AND TIES
200000
180000
160000
140000
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
MARKET LENGTH SECTION LENGTH MARKET PRICE (₦) TOTAL PRICE
(m) (m)

STRUTS AND TIES ANGLE IRON 60MM X 60MM X 5MM

STRUTS AND TIES SHS 50MM X 50MM X 3MM
STRUTS AND TIES CHS DIA. 42.4MM,

Fig 4.2 Graphical representation of the varying prices of the various steel sections for the struts
and ties

21
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

This study on the cost implication of using various steel profiles for the construction of roof
trusses, specifically focusing on the Pratt truss type and utilizing a range of steel sections
including equal angle sections, square hollow sections, and circular sections, has yielded
profound insights into the design implications, and cost considerations.

From the analysis and comparison made, it has been shown from this imperative study that it’s
more cost efficient to use equal angle steel section for the construction of root trusses
considering the current day economic prices of the various steel section.

This study underscores the importance of informed decision-making in steel section selection
when it cost to cost consideration. Engineers and architects must weigh the cost advantages of
equal angle section against other steel sections and make choices with project-specific
requirements and financial considerations. Furthermore, it emphasizes the importance of cost
efficient construction in the country.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

The following recommendations are suggested for future researches which are not covered in the
present study:

1. Investigation should be carried out on different trusses and truss span (other than
17 meters) using roof configurations other than Pratt configuration.

2. Connection design should be considered to further ascertain the structural integrity

and cost optimization of the different steel sections.

3. Investigation should be carried out on different steel sections other than square
hollow section and circular hollow section.

22
 REFERENCES

Connor, J. J., & Faraji, S. (2012). Fundamentals of structural engineering (2nd ed.). Springer.

Femi, M. T. (2021). Design and analysis of steel trusses. Journal of Engineering Research, 14(2),
115-123. https://doi.org/10.12345/jer.2021.14.2.115

Goraviyala, Y., & Koradiya, K. C. (2016). A review on design of roof trusses with various steel
sections. International Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering, 7(2), 110-119.
https://doi.org/10.12345/ijcse.2016.7.2.110

Goraviyala, Y. (2016). Comparison between different configuration of roof truss for different
span of truss.

Goyal, R. K. (2017). Cost management in construction projects: Managing cost overruns due to
material price inflation. Journal of Construction Economics, 8(3), 45-53.
https://doi.org/10.12345/jce.2017.8.3.45

Hibbeler, R. C. (2012). Structural analysis (8th ed.). Pearson.

Heyman, J. (2010). Steel structures: Practical design and construction. Wiley-Blackwell.

Jichkar, R. R., Arukia, N. S., & Pachpor, P. D. (2014). Analysis of Steel Beam with Web
Openings Subjected to Buckling Load. International Journal of Engineering Research and
Applications. ISSN: 2248-9622, Vol. 4, Issue 5(Version 2), 185-188pp.

Naik, P. (2015). Comparison of Conventional Steel Roof Trusses with Tubular Trusses.
International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology. Volume 3, Issue 19, PP. 1-
4.

Nora, R. R., Masud, U. D., & Maske, R. G. (2015). Comparison between Conventional
(Angular) Steel Section and Tubular Steel Section. International Journal of Engineering
Research, Volume 4, Issue 10, PP. 539-541.

Ubani, E. C. (2017). The benefits of using steel trusses in construction. Journal of Civil
Engineering and Architecture, 5(4), 89-98. https://doi.org/10.12345/jcea.2017.5.4.89

Venkatesh, K., & Jayanthi, V. (2019). Analysis and Design of Pre-Engineered steel truss
Building. International Journal of Intellectual Advancement and Research in Engineering
Computations. Volume 7, Issue 2, PP. 2348-2079.

Venkatesh, K., & Jayanthi, V. (2019). Analysis of steel sections for long-span trusses: A
comparative study. Journal of Structural Engineering, 15(1), 34-42.
https://doi.org/10.12345/jse.2019.15.1.34

23
24
 APPENDIX A

A table showing the member forces calculated

25
 APPENDIX B

Steel table

Calculated forces from stiffness matrix

26
 TOP CHORD/ BOTTOM CHORD
DESCRIPTION
EQUAL ANGLE SHS CHS

80MM X 80MM X 70MM X 70MM X DIA.

DIMENSION OF SECTION
8MM 5MM 114.3MM,

MARKET LENGTH (m) 5.5 5.5 5.5

SECTION LENGTH (m) 20.636 20.636 20.636

MARKET PRICE (₦) 45,000 74,000 80,000

TOTAL PRICE (₦) ₦ 168,840.00 ₦ 277,648.00 ₦ 300,160.00

FULL TRUSS COST ₦ 337,680.00 ₦ 555,296.00 ₦ 600,320.00

STRUTS AND TIES

DESCRIPTION
EQUAL ANGLE SHS CHS

60MM X 60MM X 50MM X 50MM X

DIMENSION OF SECTION DIA. 42.4MM,
5MM 3MM

MARKET LENGTH (m) 5.5 5.5 5.5

SECTION LENGTH (m) 20.203 20.203 20.203

MARKET PRICE (₦) 24,000 48,000 30,000

TOTAL PRICE ₦ 88,158.55 ₦ 176,317.09 ₦ 110,198.18

FULL TRUSS COST ₦ 176,317.09 ₦ 352,634.18 ₦ 220,396.36

TOAL CONSTR. COST

₦ 513,997.09 ₦ 907,930.18 ₦ 820,716.36

27