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CELL BIOLOGY
CELL:

Cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism. It is typically microscopic and
consists of cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in a membrane. Cells are building blocks of body and
each cell is capable of performing a basic function of life such as reproduction, respiration,
excretion, growth, and so on so Cells are known as structural and functional unit of life. All the life
activities exhibited by living organisms are the combined action of these cells.

DISCOVERY OF CELL:

Cell and its structures were discovered by different scientists in different time. Discoveries of cell
and its structure started only after the discovery of compound microscope. The first microscope was
built in 1590 by Zacharis Janssen. Afterwards, Robert Hooke first discovered the cell in 1665. Some
of important discoveries in cell biology are as follows:

Date of discovery Discovery Name of scientist

1590 Compound microscope Janssen
1665 Cell Robert Hooke
1675 Living cell Anton van Leeuwenhoek
1831 Nucleus Robert Brown
1838-1839 Cell Theory Schleiden and Schwan
1835 Protoplasm Dujardin
1855 Cell membrane C. Nageli and C. Cramer
1857 Mitochondria A. Kolliker
1866 Plastids Haeckel
1837 Chloroplast Hugo von Mohl

CELL THEORY:

A German botanist Mathias Jacob Schleiden (1838) and a German zoologist Theodor Schwann
(1839) found out that plant tissues and animal tissues were made of cells. They combined their
views and proposed their views as Cell theory. The fundamental features of cell theory are:

➢ All living organisms are made up of cells and their products.

➢ Cells are the structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
➢ Each cell is made of a small mass of protoplasm and a nucleus.
➢ Each cell arises from pre- existing cell.
➢ All cells are basically similar in chemical composition and metabolic activities.
➢ Function of an organism is the total sum of activities and interaction of constituent cells.

EXCEPTIONS TO CELL THEORY:

Cell theory does not cover all organisms. Some exceptions of cell theory are:

➢ Viruses: they lack cellular machinery

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➢ Bacteria and Cynobacteria: they lack a true nucleus.

➢ Some organisms such as Rhizopus, Mucor and Vaucheria have coenocytic body (body not
differentiated into cells).
➢ Mature mammalian RBC’s and Sieve tube cells are without nucleus.

CELLULAR TOTIPOTENCY:

The ability of a living nucleated somatic cell to regenerate into a complete organism is known as
Cellular totipotency. The concept of cellular totipotency was proposed by Haberlandt in 1902.
However, cellular totipotency was experimentally proved by Steward and his co-workers by
growing phloem tissue of carrot root into complete healthy and fertile plant.

TYPES OF CELLS:

Based on structural organization of cell, there are two types of cells i.e. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
cells

i) PROKARYOTIC CELLS:
The primitive cells which contain incipient nuclei and shows
simple structural organization are known as Prokaryotic cells.
These cells lack membrane bound organelles and nucleus
consists of naked double stranded circular DNA only.
Example: cells of bacteria and cyanobacteria (Blue Green
Algae).

ii) EUKARYOTIC CELLS:

The advanced cells which contain true nuclei and shows well
organized structural organization are known as Eukaryotic
cells. These cells possess membrane bound organelles and nucleus is organized having
nuclear membrane, nucleolus, nucleoplasm and chromatin network. Example: cells of
plants, animals, fungi, etc.
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Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells.

PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL

1. The nucleus lacks nuclear membrane, 1. The nucleus is well organized i.e.
nucleolus and nucleoplasm. nuclear membrane, nucleolus and
nucleoplasm are present.
2. DNA is naked i.e. DNA is not covered by 2. DNA is covered by histone and non-
histone protein. histone proteins to form chromosome.
3. DNA is usually circular. 3. DNA is usually linear in chromosome
while extra nuclear DNA are circular.
4. Membrane bound organelles are 4. Membrane bound cell organelles are
absent. present.
5. Mesosomes are the site of respiration 5. Mitochondria are the site of
respiration.
6. Photosynthetic pigment bearing sacs 6. Photosynthetic lamellae are further
like structures called Lamellae are covered by membranes to form
present. chloroplast.
7. Ribosomes are of 70s type. 7. Both 70s and 80s type ribosomes are
present.
8. Cell wall is made up of murein or 8. Cell wall is usually made of cellulose
peptidoglycan. and chitin.
9. Cell division takes place by amitosis. 9. Cell division takes place by amitosis
(Paramecium, Amoeba), mitosis and
meiosis.
10. Cyclosis is absent. 10. Cyclosis is observed.
11. Flagella if present are single stranded. 11. Flagella if present are of 9+2
arrangement.
12. Exocytosis and Endocytosis are rare. 12. Exocytosis and Endocytosis are
common.
13. Transcription and Translation occurs in 13. Transcription occurs in nucleoplasm
cytoplasm. and Translation occurs in cytoplasm.
14. True or sap vacuoles are absent. 14. True vacuoles are present.
15. The cell is essentially a one envelope 15. The cell is essentially two envelope
system system.

CELLWALL:
Cell wall was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. It is the outermost rigid, protective, semi-
transparent covering layer of plant, bacteria, fungi and some protistan cells. It is absent in animal
cells. Cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin are main components of plant cell wall while fungal cell
wall is made of chitin and bacterial cell wall is made of peptidoglycan called Murein. Cell wall is
permeable in nature.
Structure:
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Cell wall is made of three different layers i.e. middle lamella, primary wall and secondary wall.

i) Middle lamella: It is the outermost thin cementing layer that lies between adjacent cells.
It is made of calcium and magnesium pectate.
ii) Primary wall: It is more or less elastic layer formed after middle lamella. It is made of
pectin, hemicelluloses and cellulose.
iii) Secondary wall: It is much thicker, rigid and inelastic layer formed inner to primary wall.
It is made up of cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin and lignin. It is present only in some cells
(Sclerenchyma cells).

Primary and secondary wall are not continuous and form gaps called plasmodesmata which acts
as cytoplasmic bridge between two cells.

Functions:

➢ It gives definite shape to the cell.

➢ It protects protoplasm against mechanical injury.
➢ It prevents osmotic bursting.
➢ Cell wall of root hairs absorbs water.
➢ It has some enzymatic activity.
➢ Cutin and suberin of cell wall reduces transpiration rate.

CELL MEMBRANE:

. It is a thin, elastic, transparent, selectively permeable membrane which encloses cytoplasm of all
the living cells. It is also called as plasma membrane or plasmalemma. It is made of lipids (20-40%),
proteins (60-80%) and some carbohydrates (5%). Cell membrane was first discovered by C. Nageli
and C. Cramer in 1885.

Structure:

Numerous models have been proposed by different scientists to explain structure of a cell
membrane. The important models are as follows:

a) Sandwich Model:

This model was proposed by J. Danielli and H. Davson in 1935. According to this model, cell
membrane consists of phospholipid bilayers sandwiched between two layers of proteins.
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b) Fluid Mosaic Model:

This model was proposed by Singer and Nicholson in 1977. According to this model, cell membrane
consists of fluidy phospholipid with protein molecules floating on it like icebergs in sea. The
important features of this model are:
➢ Plasma membrane is lipo-proteinous and trilaminar.
➢ The phospholipid bilayer is fluidy in nature.
➢ Phospholipid molecules show two types of movements i.e.
i) Transition movement: molecules change their position within same layer
j) Flipflop movement: molecules of two layers interchange their positions
➢ Each phospholipid molecule is polar in nature i.e. it has hydrophilic head of glycerol and
hydrophobic tail of two fatty acid chains (Amphipathic molecule).
➢ Heads of phospholipid molecules of two layers is directed in opposite directions.
➢ Tails of phospholipid bilayer face each other.
➢ Protein molecules are mosaic in pattern and are globular in shape.
➢ Proteins are of two types:
i) Extrinsic/ Peripheral proteins: that lies outside of outer and inner surface of phospholipid
bilayer
ii) Intrinsic/ Integral proteins: they are partially or completely embedded in the phospholipid
bilayer.
➢ Carbohydrate molecules (oligosachharides) are also associated with lipid and protein molecules
forming glycolipids and glycoproteins which helps in cell recognition and cellular interactions.

Functions:

➢ It protects cell from injury.

➢ It is selectively permeable so allows only selected substances to pass through it.
➢ It functions as receptor site for various stimuli such as hormones, antigen, etc.
➢ Sub-cellular membrane forms separate chamber for specific metabolism.
➢ It provides sheath for cilia and flagella.
➢ Transportation of materials takes place through plasma membrane by diffusion, osmosis
(passive transport), endocytosis, exocytosis, (active transport), etc.
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SOME PHYSIOLOGICAL TERMS:

Diffusion: The movement of ions or molecules from their higher concentration to lower
concentration is called Diffusion.

Osmosis: The movement of solvent molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration
through semi-permeable membrane is called Osmosis.

Active Transport: The movement of materials across the membrane from their lower concentration
to their higher concentration with expenditure of energy is called Active transport.

Endocytosis: The movement of materials into a cell is known as Endocytosis. It is of two types i.e.
Pinocytosis and Phagocytosis.

Pinocytosis (cell drinking): entry of liquid substances in a cell

Phagocytosis (cell eating): entry of solid substances in a cell

Exocytosis (cell vomiting): The expelling of materials outside the cell through cell membrane is
called Exocytosis.

PROTOPLASM:

Protoplasm is colloidal mass found in cell and it is the living matter of cell. It consists of cytoplasm
and nucleus.

a) CYTOPLASM: It is jelly like semi solid mass of protoplasm excluding nucleus. It consists of cell
organelles and cell inclusions.
i) Cell organelles: These are living sub-cellular bodies of cytoplasm which have definite
shape, size and are specialized for specific functions. E.g. Mitochondria, Chloroplast,
etc.
ii) Cell inclusions: These are non-living metabolically inactive substances found in
cytoplasm. E.g. Carbohydrates, Proteins, Pigments, Hormones, etc.

Functions of cytoplasm:

➢ It facilitates intracellular distribution of nutrients, metabolites, etc.

➢ It helps in exchange of materials between organelles.
➢ It is the seat of synthesis of biochemical molecules such as nucleotides, proteins, etc.
➢ It is the site of glycolysis and biosynthesis of fatty acids.

MITOCHONDRIA:
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Mitochondria was first discovered by Kolliker in 1880 and the named as Mitochondria by Benda in
1897. These are the largest cell organelles in animals. They are site of cellular respiration and helps
in energy production thus are known as power house of cell. Energy in the form of ATP is
synthesized during aerobic respiration in mitochondria. Mitochondria are found in all eukaryotic cell
except mammalian RBC and sieve tube elements.

Structure:

Mitochondria

Mitochondria differs in shape from cylindrical, tubular, spherical to rod shaped. Each mitochondrion
consists of two membranes i.e. outer membrane and inner membrane. The space enclosed between
outer and inner membrane is called intermembrane space. The outer membrane of mitochondria is
smooth while the inner membrane is folded inward to form finger like projections called Cristae.
The inner side of inner membrane bears small tennis racket like structures called as oxysomes or F1
particles or elementary particles. Each oxysome has a head, a stalk and a base. Head of Oxysomes
contains enzyme ATPase and helps in ATP synthesis. The inner membrane of mitochondria encloses
a gel like substance called matrix. The matrix consists of proteins, ribosomes (70 S), double
stranded circular naked DNA, RNA and enzymes.

Functions:

➢ They are power houses of cell which generates energy.

➢ They form middle piece of sperm.
➢ They help in yolk formation.
➢ Some amino acids like glutamic acid, aspartic acid are synthesized in mitochondria.
➢ They help in elongation of fatty acids.
➢ They regulate calcium ion concentration in cell.
➢ They provide important intermediates for synthesis of chlorophyll, cytochrome, steroids,
etc.

PLASTIDS:

The term plastid was introduced by E. Haeckel in 1866. Plastids are the colored organelles of cell.
Plastids are present in plants and few protozoans. They are of three types: Chloroplast, Chromoplast
and Leucoplast. Plastids are interchangeable i.e. leucoplast when exposed to sunlight changes to
chloroplast (potato), chloroplast changes to chromoplast when fruit ripens, leucoplast changes, etc

CHLOROPLAST:
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Chloroplasts are green colored plastids. They are also known as kitchen of cell because food is
prepared in chloroplast. It was first discovered by Hugo von Mohl in 1837 and named by Schimper in
1883.

Structure:

Chloroplasts have variable shapes from biconvex shape in mesophyll cells to star shaped in
Zygnema and cup shaped in Chlamydomonas. It is a double membraned structure. Both the
membranes of chloroplasts are smooth. The inner membrane of chloroplast encloses gel like ground
substance called Stroma or Matrix. Chlorophyll bearing sac like structures called Thylakoids are
found in stroma. Thylakoids pile up in groups called Granum. Each granum has 2-100 thylakoids. The
granum is interconnected with each other with long thylakoid called Intergranal lamellae or Fret or
Stroma lamellae. Stroma also contains double stranded circular DNA, RNA, 70 S type ribosomes,
starch granules and various enzymes for photosynthesis. Light reaction of photosynthesis takes
place in granum while dark reaction takes place in stroma.

Functions:

➢ Chloroplast is site of photosynthesis.

➢ It provides green color to plants.
➢ It liberates O2 which is utilized for aerobic respiration by organisms.
➢ It utilizes CO2 so help to reduce global warming.
➢ It maintains balance between O2 and CO2 in atmosphere.

CHROMOPLAST:

It is colored plastid. They are yellow or reddish in color. Structurally chromoplast is similar to
chloroplast but it lacks chlorophyll, grana and intergranal lamellae. It bears carotenoids pigments.
It is involved in synthesis of phospholipids. It is found in petals, few leaves and ripen fruits.
Chromoplasts are of two types i.e.

Phaeoplast: contains fucoxanthin pigment and it is present in brown algae.

Rhodoplast: contains phycoerythrin pigment and is found in red algae.

Functions:

➢ It provides attractive color to different plant parts.

➢ Attractive color of flower helps in pollination.
➢ Attractive color of fruits help in dispersal of seed.
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➢ They are site of phospholipid synthesis.

LEUCOPLAST:

Plastids without pigments are called Leucoplasts. They are found in that region of plant which do
not receive sunlight i.e. roots, food storage region, etc. Grana are absent in leucoplast. They are of
three types:

Amyloplast: leucoplast which synthesize and store starch

Lipoplast/Elaioplast: leucoplast which store lipids

Aleuroplast/Proteinoplast: leucoplast which stores protein

Functions:

➢ They store food materials.

GOLGI COMPLEX:

It was first discovered by Camillo Golgi in 1898. It is a complex cytoplasmic structure made up of
cisternae, network of tubules with vesicles and golgian vacuole. Its shape is not fixed.

Structure:

Golgi body is made up of four kinds of structures: cisternae, tubules, vesicles and golgian vacuoles.
Cisternae are flattened sac like unbranched structures which are arranged parallelly. The number of
cisternae varies from 4-8. They are made of single membrane. Cisternae are interconnected by a
network of branched tubules towards periphery and maturing surface. At the end of tubules, small
sac like round structures is attached called vesicles. Each Golgi body has two surface i.e convex
forming surface and concave mature surface. Tubules of mature face produces large vesicles called
golgian vacuoles. Some of golgian vacuole contain hydrolytic enzyme and acts as primary
lysosome.
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Functions:

➢ It is involved in collection and secretion of cell products.

➢ It synthesizes carbohydrates such as mucilage and cellulose.
➢ It forms cell wall and plasma membrane.
➢ It gives rise to primary lysosome.
➢ It forms acrosome of sperm.
➢ It mediates production of endocrine hormones.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) was first discovered by Keith R. Porter and Thomson individually in
1945. It is an extensive network made up of cisternae, tubules and vesicles.

Structure:

It is an extensive network of membranes formed by cisternae, tubules and vesicles.

i) Cisternae: They are flattened sac like unbranched structures made up of single
membrane. They lie parallel to each other. The outer surface of cisternae bears
ribosomes.
ii) Tubules: They are tube like irregular, branched structures forming a reticular system
along with cisternae. They are wider than cisternae.
iii) Vesicles: They are rounded or oval membrane bound structure and are found isolated
in cytoplasm.

Types:

There are two types of Endoplasmic reticulum i.e. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum and Smooth
Endoplasmic Reticulum.
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Functions:

➢ It gives mechanical support.

➢ It helps in quick intracellular transportation of materials.
➢ It forms cell membrane and nuclear membrane.
➢ It gives rise to cell wall.
➢ It also produces enzymes of primary lysosomes.
➢ It synthesizes glycogen, lipids.
➢ It takes part in detoxification of toxic chemicals.

LYSSOME:

Lysosomes were first discovered by Christain de Duve. They are single membrane bound small sac
like structures containing hydrolyzing enzyme called acid hydrolases. They are commonly called
suicidal bag of cell because under unfavorable condition (food scarcity, pathogenic attack) its
enzyme kills the cell. They are common in animal cell than in plant cell.

Structure:

It is single membranous spherical structure containing hydrolytic enzymes.

Types:

There are four types of lysosomes depending upon the content and function of lysosome i.e.

i) Primary lysosomes: The newly formed lysosomes from Golgi body containing hydrolytic
enzymes is known as Primary lysosome.
ii) Secondary lysosomes: Primary lysosomes fused with food vacuoles are known as
Secondary lysosomes.
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iii) Tertiary lysosomes (Residual body): Lysosome having residue after digestion and
diffusion of food materials into cytoplasm is known as Residual bodies.
iv) Autophagic vacuoles (Autolysosomes/Autophagosomes): When primary lysosome
fuses with degenerate intracellular organelles form autophagic vacuoles. Cell
organelles are digested in lysosome.

Functions:

➢ It takes part in cellular digestion.

➢ Lysosome of WBC destroys pathogenic microorganisms and toxic substances.
➢ It provides nourishment to cell by hydrolyzing stored food in cells.
➢ Old and useless organelles are also digested by lysosomes.
➢ Lysosome of sperm help to dissolve egg membrane during fertilization.
➢ Lysosomes remove carcinogens by autolysis.
➢ Tail and gills of tadpole are digested by lysosome during metamorphosis.

RIBOSMES:

Ribosomes were discovered by Gorge E. Palade in 1955. They are small sub-spherical granular
organelles which are not enclosed by membrane. They are called protein factory of cell because all
types of proteins are synthesized in ribosomes to conduct cellular activities.

Structure:

Each ribosome is sub-spherical in shape. Each ribosome is made of two subunits i.e. dome shaped
larger subunit and ellipsoidal or oblate smaller subunit. Both of the subunits are made up of rRNA
and proteins. The smaller subunit fits over the larger one at one end like a cap. The two subunits
bind only at the time of protein synthesis in presence of Mg2+.

Types:

Size of ribosome is measured in Svedberg unit (S) which is the sedimentation coefficient of ribosome
in centrifugal field. On the basis of sedimentation coefficient, there are two types of ribosomes i.e.

i) 70 S type (Organelle ribosome): It is smaller sized ribosome which has 70 sedimentation

coefficients. It is found in prokaryotic cell as well as eukaryotic cell organelles. Subunits
of 70 S are 30 S and 50 S.
ii) 80 S type (Cytoplasmic ribosome): It is larger in size and has its sedimentation
coefficient 80. It is found in cytoplasm of eukaryotic cell. Its smaller subunit is 40 S and
larger subunit is 60 S.

Functions:
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➢ Ribosomes are site of protein synthesis.

➢ They provide site for attachment of tRNA and mRNA during protein synthesis.
➢ All the enzymes are produced on ribosomes.
➢ Few hormones such as Insulin are produced on ribosome.

CILIA AND FLAGELLA:

Cilia and flagella are microscopic hair or thread like motile structures.

Structure:

Cilia and flagella have 4 different parts i.e.

i) Basal body: The part which forms the base of them outside cytoplasm below plasma
membrane.
ii) Rootlets: The fibrous structures developed from basal body which supports basal body.
iii) Basal plate: It lies above basal body at level of cell membrane. It has 9+2 arrangement
of microtubules (eukaryotes).
iv) Shaft: It is hair like projection having axoneme surrounded by plasma membrane.

H.W. Differentiate between cilia and flagella (any 6 differences).

Functions:

➢ They help in locomotion.

➢ They create water current to obtain food from aquatic medium.
➢ They function as sensory organs.
➢ Cilia of respiratory tract expels out dust particles.
➢ Cilia of kidney remove excretory substances.
➢ Cilia of Paramecium helps in conjugation.

NUCLEUS:

Nucleus was first discovered by Robert Brown in 1831. It is the important organelle of the cell as it
contains all genetic information in DNA and controls all cellular metabolisms. It is also called brain
of cell or controlling center of cell.

Structure:
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The nucleus is generally round in shape but it may be oval or elliptical. The ultra structure of nucleus
consists of following structures:

i) Nuclear membrane: Nucleus has two membranes. Each membrane is made up of

lipoprotein. A large number of pores are present in nuclear membrane called nucleopores
through which materials are exchanged between cytoplasm and nucleoplasm. Outer
membrane bears ribosomes and is continuous with membrane of endoplasmic reticulum.
ii) Nucleoplasm: It is transparent gel-like substance found inside nucleus. It contains
nucleosides, nucleotides, enzymes, ribosomes, etc
iii) Chromatin reticulum: It is the thin, long, thread-like structures of Chromatin fiber
overlapped on each other to produce a network. Chromatin fibers are differentiated into two
regions: euchromatin (the lightly stained genetically active region) and Heterochromatin (the
darkly stained genetically inactive region).
iv) Nucleolus: It is membrane less dark spherical body found in nucleoplasm containing
nucleoprotein and RNA. It synthesizes rRNA, forms ribosome and helps in spindle fiber
formation.

Functions:

➢ It controls all the living activities of cells.

➢ It is site of nucleic acid synthesis i.e. RNA and DNA synthesis.
➢ It contains hereditary material.
➢ Ribosomes are formed in nucleolus.
➢ Spindle fibers in plants are formed with the help of nucleolus.
➢ It directs cell differentiation.

CHROMOSOMES:

Chromosomes are colored bodies of nucleus. They are made of DNA and proteins. They remain as
long thread like structures called Chromatin in interphase while during karyokinesis they take rod
shaped form. It was first discovered by Walther Flamming in 1882.

Structure:
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Chromosomes are rod shaped structures. It consists of following parts:

i) Pellicle: It is the outermost thin layer of chromosome.

ii) Matrix: It is fluidy ground substance of chromosome containing proteins, RNA and
lipids.
iii) Chromonemata: It is the highly condensed double helical DNA covered by different
kinds of protein. There are two distinct regions in chromonemata i.e. heterochromatin
and euchromatin. DNA is highly coiled in Heterochromatin region.
iv) Primary constriction: It is narrow non-sustainable area which joins two chromatids.
Surface of centromere contains plate like structure called Kinetochore which helps it to
attach with spindle fiber.
v) Secondary constriction: It is the additional constriction found in chromosomes.
vi) Satellite: It is a part of chromosome distal to secondary constriction. A satellite bearing
chromosome is called SAT chromosome. Satellite bears heterochromatin.
vii) Telomere: The terminal end of chromosome is called telomere. It prevents fusion of
tips of chromosomes.

Types:

On the basis of position of centromere chromosomes are divided into following 4 types:

i) Metacentric: The chromosome having centromere at exact center are known as

Metacentric chromosome. It bears two equal arms. It assumes ‘V’ or ‘U’ shape during
anaphasic movement.
ii) Submetacentric: Centromere is found near center. It bears two unequal arms and
assumes ‘L’ shape during anaphasic movement.
iii) Acrocentric: Centromere lies in subterminal position. It bears two unequal arms. It
assumes ‘J’ shape during anaphasic movement.
iv) Telocentric: Centromere is found in terminal position. It has only one arm and assumes
‘I’ shape during anaphasic movement.

Functions:

➢ Genetic material is found in chromosome.

➢ SAT chromosomes produce nucleoli for the synthesis of ribosomes.
➢ Chromosomes possess microtubule organizing regions.
➢ Chromosomes helps to pass genetic information from one cell to other cell.
➢ Special chromosomes called sex chromosomes determines sex of the organisms.
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CELL INCLUSIONS/ERGASTIC SUBSTANCES/DEUTOPLASMIC BODIES:

These are the non-living structures of cytoplasm. They are categorized as Reserved food materials,
excretory materials and secretory materials.

i) Reserved food materials: The organic compounds which are synthesized in cell and are
stored up for their later utilization as food are known as Reserved food materials.
Carbohydrates, Proteins and Lipids are the three major organic compounds which are
stored as reserved food.
ii) Excretory materials: The by-products of biochemical reactions are known as excretory
materials. In plants, as they lack excretory system, the amount of excretory product is
very high. Some of their examples are Tannins, Resin, Essential oils, Gums, Latex and
Mineral crystals.
iii) Secretory materials: These are the chemical compounds which are secreted by
protoplasm in small quantities to perform special functions. Nectar, enzymes,
hormones, vitamins and pigments are some examples of Secretory materials.