THE ^— "

MESSENGER OF MATHEMATICS.

EDITED BY

J. W. L. GLAISHEE, Sc.D., F.R.S.,

FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

VOL. XLV.
[May 1915— April 1916].

BOWES & BOWES.

aranttirilrge :

iLontton: MACMILLAN & CO. Ltd.

aSlasgotD: JAMES MACLEHOSE & SONS.

1916.
 '>

CONTENTS OF VOL. XLV.

PAGE
On certain solutions of Maxwell's equations. By H. Bateman 1

On certain infinite series. By S. Ramanujan . . . 11

The expansion of the square of a Bessel function in the form of a series of

Bessel functions. By A. E. Jolliffe - - - ,- IS

Some properties of the tetrahedron and its spheres. By T. C. Lewis 17

Determinants whose elements are alternating numbers. By T. MuiR 21

An inequality associated with the Gamma function. By G. N. Watson 23

Notes on a differential equation. By G. W. Walker 31

A set of criteria for exact derivatives. By E. B. Elliott ... 33

A transformation of central motion. By R. Hargrf.aves . . . 39

On the steady motion of fluid under gravity. By W. Burnside 43

A transformation of the partial differential equation of the second order.

By J. R. Wilton . . . 46

Factorisation of A'=(r-^+l) and (Z^-^ + Y^^ ). By Lt.-Col. Allan

Cunningham - 49

Note on class relation formulas. By L. J. Mordell .... - 7G

Some formulse in the analytic theory of numbers. By S. Ramanttjan 81

An interpretation of pentaspherical coordinates. By T. C. Lewis - 85

The Brocard and Lemoine circles. By T. C. Lewis .... 89

Successive transforms of an operator with respect to a given operator. By

G. A. Miller 92

Systems of particles equimomental with a uniform tetrahedron. By E. B.

Neville 94

Note on an elimination. By E. J. Nanson 96

Time and electromagnetism. By Prof. H. Bateman ... 97

A condition for the validity of Taylor's expansion. By T. \V. Chaundy 115

IV CONTENTS.

Note on the primary minors of a circulant having a vanishing sum of

elements. By SiR Thomas MuiR 120

The twisted cubic of constant torsion. By W. H. Salmon - ... 125

On Briggs's process for the repeated extraction of square roots. By J. W. L.

Glai.shhii 129

Determinants of cyclically repeated arrays. By Sirt '1'homas MuiR - - 142

Solution of a problem in linear diophantine approximation. By VV. E. H.

Bhuwick 154

On equipotential curves as possible free paths. By S Brodictsky - - 1(31

Criteria for exact derivatives. By T. VV. Chaundv 168

An arithmetical proof of a class relation formula. By L. J. Moudbll - 177

Note on the zeros of Riemann's ^-function. By J. R. Wilton . . - 180

Determinants of cyclically repeated arrays. By Pkof. W. Burnsidu - 183

FaJitorisation of i\'^=(a;;':^2/'^). By Lt. -Col. Allan CnKNiNGHAM - - 185

Erratum— p. 46, last line, omit " = 1."

 MESSENGER OF MATHEMATICS.

ON CERTAIN SOLUTIONS OF MAXWELL'S

EQUATIONS.
By H. Bateman.

Vector-fields with moving singular curves.

§1.1 HAVE shown elsewhere* that it is possible to obtain

a solution of Maxwell's equations which represents a vector
field in which the electric and magnetic intensities are infinite
at a moving point Q, whose coordinates at time a are ^, 17,
^,
and also along a moving curve attached to this point; the
curve being the locus of a series of points projected from the
different positions of Q^ and travelling along straight lines
with the velocity of light. The direction of projection for
any position of Q was chosen so that it made an angle 6 with
the tangent to the path of Q such that cco^6 = v, wiiere v is
the velocity of Q, and c the velocity of light. This condition
is, however, not invariant under the transformations of the

theory of relativity, and I now find that it is not necessary

to restrict the direction of pi'ojection in the way described
;

the introduction of the restriction was due to the mistaken

idea that the second of equations (291) f is a consequence of
the first.
Let a and ^ be defined as before by the equations

{oi^-iy'r{y-vy-^{^-^f=c'{t-rr (i),

l{x-l) + m{y-'n) + n[z-^) = c'p{t-r) (2),

* The Mathematical Analysis of Electrical and Optical Wave Motion on the

basis of AfaxivelV s Equations, p. 128. This will be cited later as E.
t E, p. 129. The error in the proof occurs when the axis of y is chosen so that
n, = 0; this introduces a restriction, since /j.m,.w, are generally complex. The same
error occurs in one of my previous papers. Annals of Mathematics (1914).

VOL. XLV. B
2 J//\ Bateman, Certain solutions of Maxwell's equations.

where t are functions of a only, and ?, m, n, p are

^, 77, ^,

functions of a and ^ which depend linearly on /3, so that

1 = 1^1^-1^^, m = /3m,-»i„, n = /3»,-»,, p = ^p^-i), ...[?>),

To make the values of a and 13 unique, we write T = a and
introduce the inequality t </. The quantities /, w, «, p must,
moreover, he chosen so that r -\- vr -\- n' = c'p\ and so we have
the relations

We now use the symbol / to denote an arbitrary function

of a and jS, and write

P=^[x-l) + v'[U-'n)+K'{^-K)-<i'[t-a)....{b).
Tlie vector field which will be the subject of discussion is

that defined by the electro-magnetic potentials

J Jl A ='^ A=^ 4> = '€ (6).

These have been shown to be wave-functions which satisfy

the relation

c dt

On calculating the components of the electric and magnetic

intensities with the aid of the relations

rr , , p \ dA d<^
c 6t dx

we find, as before, that the component of the electric intensity

along the radius from ^, 77, ^, a to a;, y, z, t is

To make the electric charge associated with the singularity

^, 7;, ^, a a constant quantity 47r, we choosey so that

It will nt, however,

be convenient, to have a value
vs of ^ indepen-
dent of /3, and so we
!Q con
shall introduce the condition

^Vi~ ''i^'~
'",»?'- ",^'= ;
Mr. Bateman, Certain solutions of MaxivelVs equations. 3

as before, the value ofy is then given bj the equation*

We shall suppose that

/„, w^, ?V i^ ^'"^ ''^^'' theny'is real and

/,, 7??,, ??,, p^ are generally complex quantities. Let 7,, «?,, /7|, j^^
be the conjugate complex quantities, then we have the
relations

j^ow let a set of real quantities I^, m^, 7?^, p^ be chosen so that

/«'+ »'o'+ "o'= C'A'. Vf + '"o«^. + "n^o - C>oZ^o= ^'^ O)

Then if we write x — ^'—X, y — r} — Y, z — ^— Z, t — o. = T,

c'p.T- J^X- m, Y-n^Z= S, cyj- l^X-mJ-n^Z= ^ \

ep^T-\X-mJ-n^Z^ U, c%T-lX-mJ-n,Z^ W
(10),

we find that, if li is suitably chosen, there is an identity of the

type _ „
SS-VU=h{c''T-X'-Y'-Z') = (11),

where Jc is a function of a whose value may be determined by

replacing T
by 1, X
by t,\ Yhy r}\ and Z by ^' in the identity.
We thus find that

fk=l^ + m,v^\K'-c% (12).

By considering the relations satisfied by /,, m^, /;,, p,, we

see that

^' = \l^+fil^, 7]'=\m^ + nm^, ^'=X7i^ + fj,n^, l=Xp^ + fip^...{l3),

where \ and are quantities to be determined.
/j, We deduce
at once from these equations that

* It should be noticed that when this condition is satisfied the field specified

by potentials of type A^" = p + p is conjugate to the field specified by Lienard s

potentials of type /I j;'=^- and the relation A:c''Aj:' + Ay''AJ + A^'A/-^''i>' =0 is

satisfied. Compare this with the remark E, p. 135.

4 Mr. Bateman, Certain solutions of MaxwdVs equations.

-^" -^^ ~" =/

Hence 2\ = ^ (14).

The expression for A^ can now be thrown into a more

convenient form. Differentiating equation (2) we obtain

also ^S= U, hence we may write

-l^-^ 'Ud8_dJT
A '~ +
Fdx S 9a dot.

Now let A^ be the complex quantity conjugate to A^, then

A =-Ci" m + iLrhoJ^].

and so if 2a^ = ^^ + ^^, we Lave

^/8a
=
pax
Now differentiate the identity (11) with regard to a,

keeping x, y, z, t constant, we obtain

Substituting In (16), making use of the relation UU= SS, we

find that

Ufd, (U
2a —-

/8a ,,^,
8_ [tJLU\ 2A'P1 Ufd. (fiU\
Pdx 8a

7i^t^8~.8~a^^''^'^i'a^S'«^''^^^^'i^ac 'Ut^j'
J/r. Bateman^ Certain solutions ofMaxwelVs equations. 5

Now it follows at once from (13) that \U+ /mU = —P, and
2X=f, hence we have

2a.
fiPUdxdoL Pdxda^

+
2kfdoi W^ ,- //"f^^

V -bx Pd-J^^(b)

d
No 3^,(lo.P)4 + 3^,f,(Io.^P],

consequently our expression for A^ can be written in the form

«,= - ^ — ^^-iHi.u)
P + ex lu
XU d ffiU\
+ (logP) ,

dx

J\Iaking- use of the value of fk given by (12) and using

djda to denote a differentiation with regard to a when X, Y, Z,
and T are regarded as constant^ we obtain the simple formula

r da. d J-
dF
;i7),
" P dx da. ^ dx

where i^ is a function Avhose exact form is not needed. The

corresponding expressions for a^, a^, and ^ may be written
down by analogy. Separating tiie expressions for a^, a a^, (p ,

into two parts, we obtain terms of the type —^jP representing

the potentials of an electro-magnetic field with an electric
charge iir associated with the point singularitv (s, Vi ^1 a.),
and also terms of type
da. d —- dF ..
A =—
°
^ bgf/+,r—
-
(18).
dx da ^ dx ^ ^

These will be regarded as the potentials of an elementary

cethereal field whose singular curve is obtained by putting
U= 0. We easily find that U= when and only when

Z T
,(19).
L ^0
b2
6 Mr. Bateman, Certain solutions ofMaxtvelVs equations.

The singular curve is thus built up of points which travel

along straight lines with the velocity of light moreover, ;

there is no restriction on the direction ot" projection, for we

can make Z^, wj^, and n^ arbitrary functions of a and construct
the corresponding expressions of type (18) without having to
determine /^, m^, n^, jf?^, for X U= — P— /j, f/, and /j, is determined
by the equation

2/x (7„r + m^v' + nX " cj,) = V + v"' + K"- c\

It should be noticed that if the direction of projection does
\
—dU .
,
, . .

not varv with a, ^= is either zero, or a function ot a, and

U da.
then the components of the electric and magnetic intensities
in the {ethereal field defined by (18) are null. Hence the
ctthereal field exists onhj in regions of space and time corres-
pondiiifj to values of a for tvltich the direction of i^rojection of
the singularities varies with the time.* It" the direction of
projection is originally constant, then varies for a short
interval, and finally becomes constant again, the singular curve
of the sBthereal field will at any instant be of finite length.
With regard to the directions of projection specified by
/„, m^, ??^,
2>o
and l^, Wi^, «^, p^^ it follows at once from (13) that
they lie in a plane containing the tangent to the path of Q.
If, moreover, we draw a sphere of radius c having the point

Q as centre, and measure a length u in the direction of the

motion of Q so as to obtain a point F for which QV=v, the
points on the sphere which correspond to the directions
/^, m^, «,^, 7„, ¥i^, «^|, will lie on a line through V. This is an

immediate consequence of equations (4), (8), and (9), which

indicate that the tangent planes at the points f — — , ^ , -^
J
,

( I m n \ ''^'' -^^^ ^0
(=? , ~,
z^\ of the sphere intersect a line which meets m
• 1- 1

^Po Pu VJ (I tn 11 \ (I m. « \
the sphere in two points -L, — [=^,
'
~], which — , , ^,
V;^, p, pj \p, p, pj
lie on the polar plane of Fon account of the relations of type

* Cf. E, p. 130, where equations (292) should read

jj ' J p '
p >
p
The signs need correction in the succeeding equations, also in the equations on
pp. 117 and 118.
 ,

31r, Bateman, Certain solutiojis ofMaxiceWs equations. 7

Expressions for the electric and magnetic intensities.

§2. Since

we may evidently write

^^o
= ^'. +
1-1 -, dm.
= ^'". +
_ _
c7^
^
'. + "^h 5 -^g^ ^ "' . + »?"^«

and two similar equations, hence

wliere e and rj are functions of a and the symbol M is used to

denote the real part of the quantity which follows.
Now, if ^ is the complex quantity conjugate to ^, we have
f:iS= U, and we find that the components of the magnetic
force II are _ _
"
a (?/, 2) ' d {z, X)' ' d {X, y)

On account of the characteristic properties* of the functions

a and /3, we may now write, for the components of the com-
plex vector J/= H. + iE,

and two similar equations. The field specified by the poten-

tials (18) thus possesses all the characteristics of the fethereal
fields described in n)y paper in the structure of the sether ;t in
particular, it is conjugate to the electro-magnetic field of
Lieuard's type, with ^, 77, ^, a as a moving point charge, and
Poynting's vector at x, ?/, z, t is along the line drawn to this
point from the associated position'^, 77, ^, a of the point charge.

The direction of Voynlinfs vector in a general type of field.

Let us now determine the direction of Poynting's

§ 3.
vector in a field specified by a complex vector given by M
equations of type (20), in which |3 is replaced by /3, and e is

* E, §5, 43.
t Bull Amer. Math. Soc, March, 1915.
 ,

8 Mr. Bateman, Certain solutions of MaxweWs eqiiations.

a function of the two quantities a and y5, which are defined

by equations (l) and (2) with tlie modification that ^, t), ^, t,
Z, ?/i, ??, p are now supposed to be functions of both a and /3.
As we liave shown elsewhere* these equations may be
rephiced by two equations of type

z-ct = <^-\e{x\iij), z + ct=-ip--^{x-iy)...{2l),

where (p, '<p are functions of a and /3 provided the + sign is

0,
taken equations of type (20).
in
Differentiating equations (21) with regard to x, y, z, t iu
turn, and writing 6=0^ + 16.^, \-'=(^^'+e^\ where ^, and 0.^
are real, we find that

(22\

cz dz cz dz

73 ca p 8/3
0,

where the values of F, Q, B, S need not be written down.

These equations give

(23).

da. ^ r/3
cz <>(
8a

Combining these with the equations of type

J/ ^ 9_(Ml) ^^ 3(«. /3)

' ' '9(y, ^)~ c d[x, t)'

Amer, Jour, of Math., ApvU, 1915.

Ml-. Bateman, Certain solutions of MaxivelV s equations. 9

we find at once that

- 2\^,.V + 2\6^ .¥ + (X - 1) il/ =

I
2\d^M,-[\-\)M^-i[\+\)M = ^]
Since the coefficients of the coniponenta of iu these M
equations are real, it follows that Poyntlng's vector is in the
direction of the line whose direction cosines are

,
2\d^ 2X0.^ \-l . .

Now I have shown in a previous paper* that when a

possible pair of complex values ot a and /3 have been chosen,
there are co * corresponding sets of real values of x, y, z, t,
and these are associated with the different positions of a
point which travels with the velocity of light along a straight
line whose direction cosines are I, on, n. Hence, if we regard
Poynting's vector as an indicator of the direction in which
energy flows through the field, we may conclude that the
energy in the field under consideration flows along a series of
lines whose directions are given by equations (25). The
direction of the flow of enei-gy at (cc, y, z, t) is, moreover, the
same whatever be the form of the function e.

Faraday tubes.

§4. I have shown elsewheref that the lines of electric

force in the field due to a moving point charge (^, 77, ^, a)
can be obtained as loci of points travelling along straight
lines with the velocity of light by considering directions of
projection which satisfy differential equations of type

^|^=X^"+(r-cO(/r + tnV' + ^'r) (26),

dot.

where \ = c-l^ -mi]' -n^' fi = c^ - K" -v" - K'% and I, m, ?i

.,

are the direction cosines of the direction of projection at time a.

It is clear from these equations that, if ^"=v"=^"=^, ^j ^"j
and n do not vary with a. Hence, if we consider an elementary
aethereal field whose singular curve is always along a line of
electric force, appears that the aethereal Held only exists In
it

those domains of x^ ?/, z, t which correspond to

values of a, for
which the velocity of the point ^, ?;, ^, a is not uniform. Hence

See last reference.

t Bull.Amev. Math. Soc, March, 1915.
 . f

10 Mr. Batetmm, Certain solutions ofMaxivelTs equations.

the radiation in this type of cethereal field is due to the accelera-

tion of the point ^, 7), ^, a.
We shall now show that the differential equations (26) are
covariant under a Lorentz transformation. The idea that
the Faraday lines of force or Faraday tubes are the fibres' '

of an element of the asther* is thus compatible with the theory

of relativity.
The simplest way of obtaining the required result is to
remark that the two-way generated by a moving line ot
electric force satisfies the differential equation

EJ{y,z) + Ed{z,x) + E/l[x,y)

- cHJ {x, t] ~ cHd [y, t) - cBd {z, t) = 0,
and is built up of the paths of particles which are projected
from different positions of the point charge and travel along
straight lines with the velocity of light. The differential
equation and the property just mentioned are known to be
covariant under a transformation which leaves Maxwell's
equations unaltered in form, and so the result follows. To
obtain a direct proof, we write

s (1 4- n) = Z + m, cr(l+n) = ?- i'm,

the differential equation satisfied by s Is then

ds

Now apply the Lorentz transformation

| = |:^, 7} = 'r]^, i;= ^Q cosh u-oa„ si nhu^ ca = ca^ cosh w-^„sinlu<,

we find that

r = v^o'' v' = ^Vo\ r = »'(^o'^"'^l'"-csinhu),

V (c cosh — slnh u) = c,
II c,^'

1 = pl^, m = pm^, n =p (??, cosh u — slnh u) ,

p (cosh w — ?2
J sinh u) = 1

* Cf. J. J.
Thomson, Recent Heseai-ches. cTiap. i.
t For the theory of differential equations of this type see C. Meray, Ann. de
tkole nonnale, t. xvi. (18yy), p. 5u9 ; E. Cartan, il/id., t. xviii. (1901), p. 250; and
A. C. Dixon, Phil. Trans, A, vol. cxcv. (1899), p. 151. If the equation can be
written in the form d (v, w) = the equations v = const., w - const, represent a
moving line of electric force.
 ^[)\ Ramanujan^ On certain infinite series. 11

Hence, if ^s^ (1 + J = + ^'"o^

?? ''o
^^'^ have s = 5^e", also

fj,
= v'/j,^ and X = pv\^.

Again, since v =— -" , we have

da

ct'' = vX^' sinh if, V [c + (c - ^j') e" slnh it] = ce",

v[c — [Z,^ + c) e~" sinh u\ = ce~",
iience it is easily seen that the differential equation for s^ is

which is of the same type as that satisfied by s. The

differential equation for a can be transfornaed in a similar
way.

ON CERTAIN INFINITE SERIES.

By <S. Ramanujan.

1. This paper is merely a continuation of the paper on

''Some integrals" published in this Journal.*

definite It
deals witii some series which resemble those definite integrals
not merely in form but in many other respects. In each
case there is a functional relation. In the case of the
integrals tliere are special values of a parameter for which
the integrals may be evaluated in finite terms. In the case
of the series the corresponding results involve elliptic
functions.

* pp. 10-18 of vol. xliv.

12 Mr. Rcunanujan^ On certain infinite series.

2. Tt can be shown, by tlie theory of residues, that if a

and /S are real and a0 = \iT'\ then
a 3a 5a
(-[\ _
(a + 0<^osha (9a + cosh 3a (25a + ^) cosh 5a
/8 3/8 5/3
+ +
(/3-Ocosh/3 (9/3-0cosli3/3 (25/5-<) cosh 5/3

4 cos\/(aO cosh\/(/^0
Now let
O^^p^ina Kn/>2bina
inoina
ae _ doe _^ 5«6
cosh a cosh 3a cosh 5a

0e-^^P 3/3e-9'«/5 5/86-25!"/3

[cosh/3 cosh 3/3 cosh 5/3

Then we see that, if t is positive.

(3) f e-2?«F(jO^??
^
= V-T-,
^ ^
J„ ^ 4Goshj(l-i•ij V(a«j| cosh }(l + ej Vl/^O}
in virtue of (1). Again,
J let

/(«) = - -
Y/f-1
(4)
2n \2nJ
X SS (- l)h{/^+'') {/u, (1 + z) Va - V (1 - /) v'/3}
e-(7r/a./-j>"«+«V/3)'4n

(/.= !, 3, 5, ...; v = l, 3, 5, ...)•

Then it is easy to show that

(5) f e-2i"/(n)(f« =
4 cosli
^

I
(1 -1 ) ^/iat) \ cosh {( 1 +1 j \/(/^^j}
"

Hence, by a theorem due to Lerch,* we obtain

(G) F{n)=/(n)
for all positive values of n, provided that a& = ^7r'\ In par-
ticular, when a = /3 = ^7r, we have
sin ^TTH 3 sin -|7rn 5 sin ^^^tth
(7)
cosh^TT cosh|7r cosh|7r

22(-l)2(M+'')e-^M'':4' (ytt + v) COS

4?i \Jn 4n
'

7r(/A'-'-v')
+ (/u, — v) sin
4?i

(/x=l, 3, 5, ...; v=l, 3,5, ...)

See Mr. Hardy's note at the end of my previous paper.

 Mr. Ramaiiujan, On certain infinite series. 13

tor all positive values of n. As particular cases of (7), we

have
sin(7r/a) 3sin(97r/a) 5sin(25n-/a)
cosh i-TT cosh %tT cosh I TT

a\/a { \ 3 5 "I

8 \/2 (cosh ^-na

^TTtt cosh |7ra
cosh|^7ra cosh |7ra j

4V2
if a is a positive even integer; and

, sin('7rla) 3sin(97r/a) 5sin(257r/a)

cosh ^TT cosh |-7r cosh §7r

aV^ f 1 3 5

8\/2 (sinh |7ra sinhfTra sinhfTra

4 V2
if a Is a positive odd integer; and so on

3. It is also easy to show that if a;8 = 7r*, then

a. 2a_
ao) ir,^^^::^- ,.^.::....^ ^ ,....:;,^,^ -..]
^(a + sinh a (4a + sinh 2a (9a + '

/3 23 3/3
[
'")I
((/8-«)sinh/3 (4/i^-«jsinh2/:?"^ (9/3-0 sinh 3/3

2t 2 sin V(aO sinh V'(/i^O

From this we can deduce, as in the previous section, that if

a/3 = 7r', then
f^gina 2ae4'«« 3ae9'««
sinh a sinh 2a sinh 3a

/3e-"'/3 2/Se-4'«/3 3>3e-9'«/3

"*" ~ "^ "'"
sinh/3 sinh 2/3 sinh 3/3

= ---- /f-l
2 V2?J/ 72
Y
X 22 {m ( 1
- Va + V ( 1+ Vy^i
e-(27r/.^-i^=a+.v^)/4«

(|tt=l, 3, 5, ...; v=l, 3,5, ...)

 .

14 Mr. Ramanujan^ On certain injinite series.

for all positive values of??. If, in particular, we put a = /3 = 7r,

we obtain

(12) . 1 ; — + . .

47r sinli TT sinh27r sinli37r

= — - 2S e-TM^/Sn i (a + v) cos —
+ (fM — v) sm
/ N •
—
""(
in j

(fM=l, 3, 5, ...; v=l, 3,5, ...)

for all positive values of ??. Thus, for example, we have

, , 1 co3(27r/a) 2cos(87r/a) 3cos(187r/a)

(\3)
^
r^
^ - -{ : r-^ +...
iiT sinhTT sinh27r sinhSTr

— + ^-n^— +
ira
3
suih|^7ra -^-r^,
5
sinhj^Tra
— +•

if tt is a positive even integer; and

r\^\
^^47?
1 cos(27r/a)
,1 1 — :
-I
2cos(87r/a)
— !^
'.
— i
3cos(l87r/a)
-J^ L —
£ 4-,,
sinhTT sinh27r sinh37r

J
^
f^ 3__ 5

(cosh^Tra cosh|7ra cosh^Tra

if a is a positive odd integer.

4. In a similar manner we can show that, if a/3 = 7r"j then

4- — H H 1-...

= a -^ f^^* + /3 -:^ ; <^a)* -\

* I showed in my former paper that this integral can be calculated in finite

terms whenever nu is a rational multiple of tr. I take this opportunity of

correcting a mistake : in the formulse (48) the first integral is — and not — .
 1

Mr. Ramanujan, On certain infinite series. 15

tor all positive values of n. Putting oi = /3 = TT in (15) we

see that, it" n>0, then
1 cosTT-n 2 cos47^?^ 3 cos97rn

6-2- -1
ax H ;
2 S e-^'^/^"/"
•' a 2«V(2n) ^=1 ,=1

X I
(^ + v) cos j-^-^^^ -^1 + (/x - v) sin j-^^^^-^^
-'I

As particular cases of (16) we have

(17)
. .

—+1 cosCtt la)

o
+
2 cos Utt I a)
r^
—^^ + 3cos(97r/a)
j^-^ '—^+...

r X con (ttx' la) ,

/M n/ 1 2 3 \

if a is a positive even integer;

1 cosf7r/a) 2cos(47r/a) 3co3(97r/a)

(1^)
S^^ + ^^^^T + e^--l "^ e6--l "^-

if a is a positive odd integer; and

1 cos(27r/ffl) 2cos(87r/o) 3cos(l87r/a)

^ > ^+ e2--l + ~e^^-l ^ "^ e6--l +'

r a? cos f27ra;7a) , , ,
/ 1 3 5
*
Jo e-^-«— Ve'^^ +l e37rrt_|.i e^'^"+l

it a is a positive odd integer.

may
be interesting to note that different functions dealt
It
with in this paper have the same asymptotic expansion for
small values of n. For example, the two different functions
1 cos?i 2cos4?2 3 cos9?i
1 1 1 •
+...
Stt e'^^^-l e^^-1 e^^-l
X cos 71X^
and
1 f°°
— dx
^

J„ e2^^-l
have the same asymptotic expansion, viz.

(20)^ l__!!L+_^__i!^ +....*

24 1008 6336 17280

* This series (in spite of the appearance of the first few terms) diverges for
all values of n.
 { 16 )

THE EXPANSION OF THE SQUARE

OF A BESSEL FUNCTION IN THE FORM
OF A SERIES OF BESSEL FUNCTIONS.
By A. E. JolUffe, M.A.
The square of tlie Bessel function / (a?) can be expanded
in a series of Bessel functions with the argument 2x in the
form

+ «..{'^.n..r(2^) + ^.„.....3(2'«)l+.-^

and -^ = (2>--l)(2n+2r-l )
a,,._3 2r(2n-\-2r)
(So far as I can discover, this expansion has not beeu
given before).
[Jn{^)Y sJ^tisfies the differential equation

- ^'
di X- d^' ^ " ^^ ^'" ^^ ^ ^'^ ^ di
where ^ denotes 2x.
If we write J^iX) ^OJ^ y in the left-hand side, we obtain

By means of the formulse

2^;(^)=j..;(i)-j,,,(^),
2rJXl) = l\J..,{l)^J^^,{l%
the result of substituting

in the left-hand side of the differential equation can be

reduced to
2aJ-l(2« + l)J„J+2a,[2(2;H2)/„..,-3(2a+3)J^„J
+ 2«j4(2n + 4)/,„^,-5(2n + 5).4,„j+...,
which shows that, when
g,^ _ (2r-l)(2» + 2r-i;
o^ 2r (2?i + 2r) '

the series is a solution of the differential equation. When a^

isproperly determined, it must be the square of J^(x). The
value of c/g is determined as tliat given above, by considering
the coefficient of a;"' in the expansions of the series and
{J^(x)Y in powers of a).
 ( 1^ )

SOME PROPERTIES OF THE TETRAHEDRON

AND ITS SPHERES.
By T. C. Lewis, M.A.
1. So far as 1 am
able to ascertain, no direct elementary
proof of the following proposition has hitherto appeared.
If A' be the vertex and BCD
the base of any tetrahedron^
then the sphere which passes through the points B^ C, and D
touches the inscribed sphere of the tetrahedron will also touch
the sphere escribed on the base.
This may be proved by means of the penta-spherical co-
ordinates of Gaston Darboux,
Take as a tetrahedron of reference any orthocentric tetra-
liedron ABCD
on the same base BCD.
The equations of the faces of the tetrahedron A' are BCD

p,^3-p,^,= hiPi^x-ps^'.)

p,^,-p,^s=K{Pi^i-p,^,)
Let ^a,.Xj.= be the equation to the inscribed sphere, of
radius r. Let the distances of A^ B, C, from the ortho- D
centre be a,, a^, a^, a^. Then

^,p-o.,p,= K<^,^'^{KPx'+p.''r{i-k.yp:\

^,P,-^,Pi=^-,<^x+K^
where /iT,, K^, K^ are the values of V}/CPi'+P„*''+ (1 -^'JVsl
or i-a^—2k^p^'\, when n
^J\l:J^a^ is 2, 3, or 4 respectively.

Therefore Sa*=l

= ^. («5P5+ <^y+ ^. KP..+ ^-.^i

+ -^.1'+ •••+ ~^< p/
P\ Pi rs

(Vpi p/ P3 P4 / P2 P, P* 3

\ P, P3 Pi /

VP, Pz Pj Vs P3 P4/
VOL. XLV. C
 '

18 Mr. Lewis, The tetrahedron and its spheres.

therefore

'^ iV, />/ Pa P4V P2 P3 p. i

+ I-P5 — + -I + ^
. +<!-. + ->+ -J

+ «, ]-^ + -^' + -^ =0 (u).

( Pi Pz P^ )

Here the coefficient o( a^p. is seen to be l/»*; let // be the

sum of the terms independent of a^.
Then l/r.a,p, + Zr= 0, \

Thus a^p^ = a^ — Hr I

ni .

a.^p,= k^a-Hr+K^
&c. = &c.
The inscribed sphere Sa^£c^= is therefore determined.

2. Let a sphere pass through the points B, C, D. Its

equation will be

-mp^x, + p.^x^+p^x^^-pp^^-^[m-\)p^x=0 (iv).

Its radius R' is given by

iR"=m-'a--2mp^'-^ P: ^ P:-^ P:+ P: (v).

Let this sphere touch the inscribed sphere whose equation has
already been determined ; then the following condition is
satisfied, viz.

- ^"a.P, + «,P, + Oa^a + «4P4 + ('" - 1) "sPs

tiierefore

{ - w«, + [k^ + A-3 + /.-J

a^-2Hr + K^ + A^ + /v j
= m'a; - 2m p/ + p/ + P3' + p/+ p/,
therefore

- 2ma, |(^^ f /•3+ A-J o^

- 2^- + TT, -I K,^ K- ^1

-(V+ ';-.;^+
o «;^-p/-P3^-p/- 3p/
+2 (A;,+ A'3+ A:J p;+ 4Zry (/r,+ ^-3+ /:J
a,

-2(/c.,+ A'3+A-Ja, [K^+K^ + K^

+ 4Sr(^,+ ir3+ /g - 2h\K- 2K^K- 2K^ 7^3.
 ilir. Lewis, The tetrahedron and its spheres. 19

Therefore

= p: + [K + K' + ^^:+ KK+ Kh+ ¥s) «/+ 2^''^ - (^'>+ ^3+ K) p:

3. vi in order that the sphere through

This determines
B^ C, D may
touch the inscribed sphere. If it also touches
the sphere escribed on the base, whose radius is r„ this
equation must remain true if r is changed to r,, the sign of
rt, being changed, and the corresponding value of
being H^. E
The necessary condition is that, whatever values be given
to k^, k^, k^,

2HE^+ ^^K,K, + KJ<,+ K,K,-{k,k^ + k/;+k.^k,)a;+p:^

~

If the known expressions for — — , , H, H. are substituted,

T r^

the above identity may be demonstrated by a piece of work

which, though lengthy, presents no mathematical difficulty.

4. By making use of this identity the equation to

determine m so that the sphere (iv) may touch the inscribed
sphere reduces to

m \ (H H.\ ,,,,.7,1 I
'.
'
rr, a, \'-, rj ' rr,

which remains the same when r and r,, and H^ are H inter-
changed, and the sign of a, is also changed.
Therefore the proposition is proved.

5. But as a matter of fact we have proved more than we

set out to prove, namely the following comprehensive theorem:
Through theangular points of any face of a tetrahedron
there may he drawn four spheres each of which touches two of
the eight spheres which touch all the four faces of the tetrahedron.
20 Mr. Lewis, The tetrahedron and its spheres.

In the above work if iT, be negative instead of positive,

tlie place of the inscribed sphei-e therein is taken by the
sphere escribed on the face A
CD., whose radins is r^; at the
same time let H
become H^. The identity (vii) remains true,
mutatis mutandis. Thus we obtain a sphere which passes
through B, C, D., and touches the sphere escribed on CD A
and also touches the sphere which touches CD a,nd A BCD
on the reverse side, i.e. on the opposite side to that on which
the inscribed sphere touches them if there is such a second —
sphere. But if there is not a sphere touching the planes
opposite A' and B
on the reverse side, there will be one
touching the planes opposite G and D on the reverse side,
and in determining it K^, K.^, K^ will be opposite in sign from
what they are for the sphere escribed opposite B.
Now if m in (viii) be evaluated we obtain
m _ 2^,g;g; 2lc^K,K, ^Ic.K.K^
^">\ P2 Pi
Pi P4 P* P-Z

+ terms independent of the sign of K.^, K^, K^.

Therefore m also remains unaltered, not only if the sign
of a, is changed, but also if the signs of K^., K^, or K^ are all
changed ; and this whatever the signs of /ij, A'^, or K^ may
be corresponding values of r and
at tirst, the H being, taken.
IMius the general theorem is established.

6. If A BCD is an orthocentric tetrahedron A must lie

on the line

and therefore it is clear from th« equations (i) that the

necessary condition is

"^2 ~ ^3 — %•
But we may take this orthocentric tetrahedron as the
tetrahedron of reference, so that k,^ — k^ = k^ = 0, and H = H^=\.
Also^ K^ = a^, K^ = a^, K^ = a^
Therefore the identity (vii) becomes

2 + {a,a^ + a^a^ + a^a^ + p/) ~^ + (^ - ^j '^

= (a, + a3 + aj [-- + -j,

which reduces to

a^n^ +«,«3 + a^a^ + p^' - (a, + a^+ a^+a^) (r, + r) + 2a, r. = 0,

 —
Z?r. Mui)-^ Determinants and alternating mtmhers. 21

and there are tliree otlior similar identifies corresponding to

the different vertices, therefore by addition the following
symmetrical identity is found:

+ 4p; + 2 (r«,r, + rt^r, + a^r^ + a^rj

= (a, + a^+a^+a^ (4r + r, + r^^r^ + 0*...(ix).

DETERMINANTS WHOSE ELEMENTS ARE

ALTERNATING NUMBERS.
By Thomas 3Iuir, LL.D.
In the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Societi/,
1.
VII. (1876), pp. 100—112, there is a paper by Spottisvvoode on
alternating numbers viewed as the elements of a determinant.
The paper contains a fairly large number of results, particular
and general, some of which were, he says, obtained from notes
by Clifford. Probably the most noteworthy theorem in the
collection and at the same time the least satisfactory is that
on multiplication, and to it I wish to direct a little attention.

2. Spottiswoode says (p. 103) :

" the ordinary formula for
the multiplication of determinants may be applied, namely,

— \, /i, ... X', /u-', ... =(XX'), (\/x'), ...,

1, 2, ... 1, 2, ... (nX'),(fifi'), ...,

if itbe understood tiiat, after developing the right-hand side

of the equation according to the ordinary rule, those terms
which require an odd number of changes to bring them into

P * If a^-<c,the following result with legard to a plane tiiaiigle is deduced,

viz.
2 (rt, + O2 + flj) = 'i + '2 + '} + 3r
= ili + -ir,
i.e.the sum of the distances of the vertices of a triangle from the orthocentre is
equal to the sura of the diameters of the inscribed and circumscrihed circles, a
property which may be easily proved by elementary trigonometry. Any distance
a, is negative if drawn from an obtuse angle of the triangle.
If 7a, r/j, Tc are the radii of the circles inscribed in PBC, PGA, PAB, respectively,
the sum of the sides of an acute-angled triangle may be expressed thus—
a + b + c = 4:R+r + ra + rb + rc
- + + ''a + '"« + '* + '«•
'"i '•i

If C is an obtuse angle, « + 6 — s = r + jv — J"a — ?"6.

These properties of the triangle are appended because the author has not met
with them before.
C2
22 Dr. Muir, Determinants and alternating numbers.

the form \iJ,...X'fjb' ... are to have tlieir signs altered, while

tliose which require an even number of changes are to retain

their signs."
In regard to this we may note first that the formula can
be expressed much more simply. The determinant on its
right is, as conditioned by him, no determinant at all, but
a function differing from a determinant in having all its
terms positive, and usually known as a permanent with the
notation "j His theorem thus is for the third order

a, ^2 "3 2A.a SX^

ft.

7, 72
 Dr. Muir, Determinants and alternating numbers. 23

l^lius the minus sign preceding the permanent cannot be

correct.

4. Let us tlierefore examine the matter anew.

When the elements are ordinarv imuibers we know that
SAa

\ U V O I.Gt/S'VO =

and that this comes about because every term on the left is
matched by an equal term on the right, and because all the
remaining terms on the right are cancellable in pairs. For
example, it' we take any term of the determinant on the
right, say

where <u is the number of inverted-pairs in /357a, and select

from the 4* sub-terms involved in it the sub-term
 /

24 Dr. Muir, Determinants and alternating numbers.

Consequently, the index of ^'s sign-factor after being

Increased by 1 +2+3+ to must be equivalent to the
still

Index of Z's sign-f;ictor — a manifest Impossibility so long as

jR's original sign-factor is reckoned according to the sign-law
of determinants. We observe, however, thai if we make the
original sign-factor of i2 not (-1)"" but (-ly""''^ the requisite
transposition of factors would change it into

as desired. It isthus suggested that for alternating elements

all the signs the right should be the same, namely,
on
(—1)'"'"*'; in other words, that the right-hand side of the
mnltiplicatioM-identity should be changed from
+ +
|2Xa.2/u/3.2:v7.2p5; into (- 1)"^" |
SXa.2/Li/S. 2v7. S/3S|.

In order fnllv to justify the change it is of course necessary

to consider the other case, namely, whei'e a, 6, c, d are not
all different. When this is done, however, it is found that
cancellation takes place on the right exactly as before, the
requisite difference of sign, which does not exist in a perma-
nent to start with, being provided by the law of transposition
of alternating numbers.

5. A more direct and more generally satisfactory way of

establishing the identity, now that its true form is known, is
by l)eginning with the permanent on the right and deducing
from it tlie factors on the left. 'Jo this end the more elementary
properties of permanents require to be known namely. The
;

numbers employed beiiKj alternating numbers

(a) the interchange of tico columns of a permanent does not
alter its value ;

(b) the interchange of two rows of a permanent alters only

its sign ;
(c) if (wo roios he alike, the permanent vanishes;
(d) if any tivo columns of a permanent be of the form

it vanishes ;
(e) any determinant is expressible as a permanent differing
only in having two rows interchanged
 Dr. Muir, Determinants and alternating numbers. 25

(f) if the p^^ row of an n-line permanent he multiplied hy

(I), the permanent is thereby multiplied by {—ly^oi;
(g) if the roivs of an n-line permanent he multiplied in
order by (w,, oj^, Wj, ... respectively, the permanent is thereby
multiplied by {—lY"'''~^^(o^w^Oli^... ;

(h) if the columns of an n-line permanent he multiplied in

order by o>„ &)j, tWj, ... respectively, the result is equal to the
corresponding determinant multiplied by (— 1)*"'''"''(o,<Bj(»j... .

These are readily established in every case by considering

the individual terms of the permanent or determinant con-
cerned, and always bearing in mind that in the formation of
the terms the elements are taken from the rows in order.
For example, in the case of (d) it is sufficient to note that
every term
...|„a...^j3...

is matched by another
...^..|3...^,a...,

and that the two have necessarily different signs on account

of a and /3 being alternating numbers. Again, in the case
of (h) the given permanent being

+ +

we have to note that any term of the permanent resulting

after the specified multiplication is of the form

where r, s, t, u, ... are the numbers of the columns from which

the elements constituting the terms are taken. JNow, by the

transformation-law of alternating numbers, this is changeable,
first, into

and thereafter into

where is the number of inverted-pairs in r, s, t, u, ...

rrr But .

(— l)''a^/y,7j8„... is a term of the determinant \oi^fS^'y^8^...\]

hence the result is

as affirmed.
 11

26 D)\ Muir, Determinants and alternating numhers.

6. These preliminaries being settled let ns now consider

the permanent
4- +

/*,a, + /*,«, + M^a, /i,/3, +/i,/3j + /ij^3 /^,7, + /x,7, + ^,73

the restriction to tiie third order being made merely for con-
venience in writing. \\\ the first place the permanent is

expressible as a sum of 27 permanents with monomial

elements; and, this being done, it is seen that 21 of them
are of the type dealt with in tlieorem (d) of the preceding
paragraph, and therefore vanish. There thus only remains
for consideration the six-termed expression

+ + + + + +
\a, \/3^ ^3^3 V, A-,/3, X,7^ |^3«3 ^.^, \72
/A,a, ii^Q^ ^37,1 + Ai^a, /*,^, \lz + 1
/^a^^s /*.^i /^•.72

^^^^ ^^. "373 V^3 ''^^^ »'n73 !

»'3a3
»'i^, ^7j
+ + + + +
V, ^3^3 \l.\ M, ^^3 ^.7, ^«3 M, ^.7,1

+ fx.a., /X3/33 ^l;i^ + /^2a2 Ms'^S ^l7, + ^j^s /^s'^e /^i7,

j

^a. "3^3 »'27, ''2«2 *'3^3 ".7. ''3^3 »'2^J »'.7i

i

which, by theorem (h) of § 5, Is equal to

1 ^I^.»'3 I
•
«r%3 + I
\^^^'', I
• a2^.73 + I
^3^.''2 •
«3^l72|
(-1/
I

'

+ l^i^s^l •a,^372 + i
^2^3^ •aA7,
I
+ Vs^ \-^,^2lx^
1

and, by a law of determinants, is equal to

a,/3,73-aA7, + a3^,%|
(-l)'iV2'^3!- '

aA72+aA7,-a3%,i
and therefore equal to

(-l)1V.V3|.|a,/3^7j.

7. Spottlswoode next considers the case where the two

determinants to be multiplied are identical, and where there
now comes into play the second half of the law of alternating
numbers, namely, that the square of any such number is zero.
 —
Dr. Muir, Determinants and alternating numbers. 27

He of course readily sees that in this case the permanent on

the right is skew symmetric and from the examples
;

IXlL TKv i

\\^^.^^V =
- — Ykfju . 2/u.v = 0,

\^j^3P4°"5r=f^'

he concludes that iftlie elements of an odd-ordered determinant

he alternating numbers, the square of the determinants is zero.
As 2\/z, 2A,i/, 2/Ltv, ... are not alternating numbers, this would
seem to be equivalent to saying that a skew symmetric
permanent of odd order is zero. The danger, however, of
such hasty deductions and of excessive trust in analogy is
here again apparent, for he goes on to formulate the result

where, apart from the above-noted oversight as regards sign,

there is a fault in the calculation. The process should, I
think, stand as follows:

'^it^t^zPX'
=
— 2X,v — '2/jlv . Sv/3

— 2Xp — 2/i./) — ^vp

= 2Xyu, (S/t/3 . 2\v - ^fiv . ^\p + 2Xfj, .lup) -2vp

+ 2Xp (- S\/* . Sj'jo + 2Xv . 2/iip + IfjLV. 2\p) '2p,v

= (svy^svp)' + i^xvYi 2ppy+ (^xpy(^p.vy

+ 2 SX/A . Srp -^Xv SmP
. .
- 22Xai Svp 2\p
. . . 2fj,v

-f 2^Xv.2fip.'EXp.'l^iv,

where the occurrence of the minus sign precludes the possibility

of the riglit-liand member being expressible as a square.

Capetown, S.A.,
nth March, 1915.
 ( 28 )

AN INEQUALITY ASSOCIATED WITH THE

GAMMA FUNCTION.
By G. N. Watson.

The Weirstrassian definition of F (z), valid for all values

of z (other than negative integers), is effectively equivalent to
the formula of Gauss

„,(Z)=\\m
X ,. 1.2...n
r ; -.11.
«->«> z{z + l)...{z+?i)

The difficulty which arises at the outset of the tlieoi y of

the Gamma function is the reconciliation of tl/is result with
Euler's integral definition

valid when the real part of z is ^Jositivc.

Write z = x + iy; then, when x>0, it is easy to see that
the integral

n {z, n)
n

converges, and, by integrating by parts n times [n being a

positive integer), it is readily proved that

\.2...n

To establish the equivalence of the Gaussian product and

the Eulerian integral, it is therefore sufficient to shew that

hm ^(,--jr-<. = J^e-r' dt

i.e. that

lim \C \e'- (\-l\\e \It+ Ce-T'dt] = 0.

This result is proved by Schlomilch {Hoheren Analysis, p. 243)

by some rather elaborate analysis. Bromwich [Infinitp, Series,

p. 459) has a simpler proof when U <^ < 1 his proof ;

is that
 Frof. Wafsofi, On a certain inequality. 29

e'W'^dt-^O as ?j -> co in virtue of the convergence of

I

e^t'~^df\ and he sliews by means of the inequality*

V n) 2n
that the modulus of the first integral tends to zero when
<x < 1,and infers the result for other values of a; in virtue
of the recurrence formula r(z + l)=zr{z) satisfied both by
the integral and by the limit of the product. Further
considerations are necessaiy when x is an integer and 3/7^0.
It is, however, possible to obtain a much more powerful
inequality than that due to Broinwich, by quite elementary
methods; this inequality is

0<e-'-(l --) <e-'-

\ n I n
when <«<n and n is a positive integer; and tMs. inequality
is su-fficient to prove that

for all values of z such that x>0 ; for, assuming the inequality,
the modulus of the last integral

<
' J n

since the last integral converges and is independent of n.

To obtain the inequality we proceed thus:
It is obvious that whenf < y < 1,

i 3

l + V<l + v + ~ -h
^,
+...<! \-v + v'+v^-i...

_
=1/(1-.),
writing v = tln, we see thai, when 0<it<n,

1 + -) <e«/«< (\ --
n 1 \ n

* The inequality is established by Bromwich by an ingenious device based on

the consideration of the integral

j:E('-r--[-"('-y"j;-
t The first portion of each of the following inequalities is true when v=\.
30 P^'of. Watson, On a certain inequality.

so that (l + ^|)"<e'<(l-|y .

Hence, when <t<n, we have

Therefore, when 0<t<n,

Now if l>a>0, we have (1 — a)"> 1 — ??a, by induction

Avhen 1 — no. is positive* and obviously when — na is negative.
1

Therefore writing f jii' for a we get

\ n J n

and so from the preceding series of inequalities vve get

0<e-'-fl--y<e-'-,
n
\ 71

whicli the required result.

is

The result is still true if n> 1, when n is 7iot restricted to

be an integer, provided that 0<t<n; for the only place in
which it was assumed that ?i was an integer was in proving
the inequality (1 — a)"> 1 — ?«a, and this is easily proved when
n > 1 and < a < 1 ; for, by Taylor's theorem,
(1 _ a)"= 1 - ?«a + in (w - 1) a'(l - ^a)"-^
where 0<^<1, and if n> 1 the last of the three terms on
the right is positive.

* For if (1 - a)" > 1 - na, then

(1 _ a)'"'> (1 - a) (I - na) = 1 - (m + 1) a + Ha^ > 1 - (n + 1 ) a.
 ( 31 )

NOTES ON A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION.

By G. W. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.

The difFerential equation which occurs in the problem of

the two dimensional distribution of a gas under the influence
of its own gravitation may be written in the form

and a solution of this applicable to real cases is

where </> and i// are any conjugate functions of ^;, y, so that

An associated linear equation occurs in dealing with small

motion of the system, which is of the form

8
dx'

and which, on using variables ^ and ^, transforms to

A particular solution of this is

If we take new variables so that

the equation takes the form

a a^ ^'z 8z
1

VT OCT
dt!J
OT ^ + —^' ^-
8cT
1

^x"^
=-
(ct'+1)
•i
'
32 Mr. Walker, Notes on a differential equation.

Hence we have solutions of tlie form

^ /. cos

where /„ satisfies

lA^M^K, ^^ . 1/;.

Let vT = e^, tlien

|^=:(.^-^-2sech-'0/,.

so that solutions are

These may be recognised as associated Toroidal functions of

the first and second type.
Wemay note that for n>2
the solution of the first type
fails,but the second form gives a solution for all integral
positive values of n.
The complete solution in terms of two arbitrary functions
may be found thus
Writing (f)+i\p =^ and (p—t\p = r],

the equation takes the form

By Laplace's method the solution of this is

where F^ and F^ are arbitrary functions of ^ only and rj only,

respectively, and F^' and F^' are their first derivatives.
 ( ^^ )

A SET OF CEITERIA FOR EXACT DERIVATIVES.

By i:. B. Elliott.

1. Some
time fip^o* I called attention to a criterion,
dlflferentfrom Euler's, wliicli decides whether a rational
integral function of a dependent variable and its successive
derivatives is or is not the result of differentiating some
other. The following is a more complete investigation of
such criteria.
Let X be an independent, and y, z, ... any number of
dependent variables, and let y^^z^^ ... denote —4, -7-7., ....
We consider, not all functions

but an extensive class of such functions, and enquire when

an i^ is a TJ^^ where r is any number, and is the operator D
of total differentiation

9 3 8 3 9
8fl5 -"'91/ dijy dz ^ dz^

The advantages of the method are (1) that of applying

as simply to cases of many dependent variables as to the case
of one, (2) that of providing as definite a single condition
for i^ to be a D"^ as for it to be merely a Z)(^, (3) that of
exhibiting as a result of direct operation the associated ^
when the appropriate condition is satisfied.
The wide class of functions to which it applies includes F
all those which can be arranged as sums of parts that are
homogeneous, and of degree not zero, in some one set
2/s yp 3/2' •••) ^"^ ^*'® fiioreover rational and integral in the
derivatives y^^y.^-, •• of the set.
If such a sum is a derivative (first or r"') its separate
homogeneous parts are so separately, for operation with D
or D" does not alter degree in. y, ?/,, ?/,, ..., and conversely.
The parts may be taken separately.
Accordingly we confine attention to a function

u = F{x) y,y^,y^, ...', s, 5;,, 2;,, ...;...; ...),

which is

(i) homogeneous of degree i (^ 0) in y, y„ y^, 7/3, ...

(ii) rational and integral in ^,, y^, 3/3, —

* " Note on a class of exact differential expressions,'' Messenger of Mathematics,
vol. XXV., p. 173.

VOL. XLY. D
34 Prof. Elliott^ A set of criteria for exact derivatives.

Tlie limitation is imposed in order to secure tlie

(ii)

annihilation of u by some power of the operator &> about to

be introduced. Other functions u which are so annihilated
are really treated at the same time,

2, Mean by iv the greatest sum of ?/-suffixes in any term

of u. As well as the operator i>, which is total^ we use the
operator

^Gij, -^'dy, ^'dy,

which isnot total but, like i and w, refers to the set

y, ?/j, ?/^, ,., only. If there is choice among sets we naturally
choose for y, y^, y,, ... the set of smallest w.
Repeated use will be made of the alternant
7) 7i r)

the effect of which on u is to multiply it by its degree In

y,y^,y,, ..., however u may also involve x and other sets

The criteria to be obtained depend on compound operators

of the type

(r, n)= (Dq) - ri) {Dm- r + .i) ... (Day - ni\ 1

where r, n are not fractional, and ^r^n^w. For instance

(r, r) is Dco — rt, and (0, n) is Deo (Bco — i) ... {D(o—ni).
The mam facts are as follows :

Lemma. For any n, (0, w) =/>"''&)"".

Theorem (O). (O, iv) u vanishes identically.
Theorem (r), for r= l, 2, ,.., ?<;. According as (r, to) u is

or is not identically zero^ u is or is not an r"' derivative D^c

at least.

Theorem {w-\- l). u cannot he a {io-\- Ij"' derivative.

The last of these theorems is at once clear. In fact, if

u z=Dv' is integral in ?/,, 3/,, 2/3, ..., v cannot be fractional in
them. Also the greatest sum of y-suffixes in u exceeds by 1
the greatest in v. Thus in a i)""v, where v involves any ot
y, ?/|, ?/j, ..., the greatest sum of y-suffixes in a term cainiot
be less than io+ 1, whereas in our u the greatest sum is xv.
Another immediate fact is the half of theorem (l) that n
is a Dv when (1, w)u = 0. For upon transposition this
relation expresses io\.i"'u as a Dw {...}.
 Prof. Elliott, A set of criteria for exact derivatives. 35

3. We will now prove the lemma, and deduce theorem (0).

Tbe lemma is true for a = 1. For an operation with w or
D does not alter y-degree t, so that use of the alternant
above gives
(U, 1) u = Bco (Day - i) u = l) [(i)D . co — iw} u
= D [{Doi -\-i)a) - {(i)\ II = D'oj'a.

We have then only to prove that, if true for n - 1, it is for n.

Now, on the assumption foi n — l we have

(0, n) = i>"ft)" {Bco - ni) = i>"a)"-' {{D(o + i)(a- ma}\

= Z>"<u""' {I)a)-n-l.i\(o
= i)''<u"-' \Da}-n-2.i} ca'

: 2)". i>a).ft>" =/>"+'&>"'.

The deduction of theorem (0) is immediate, u contains

no term with sum of ?/-suffixes exceeding w. Now operation
with (o lowers sum of ?/-.suffixes by 1, and annihilates terms
free from 3/,, ?/„ Thus w"'"« = 0, and so (0, w) u, i.e.

4. We
next prove the half of the general theorem (>•),
that a D'^v, then (r, w) ii = 0.
if u is

It has already been seen that if w is the greatest sum of

y-sutfixes in any term of u =
D'v, then the greatest sum in
any term of v must be iv r. —
Thus <u" "*i' = 0, and so
(0, t{>-r)u = 0.
Now by repeated use, moving backwards, of
{D(o - ni) D^B{Du) + i)- niD = D {Deo -n-l.i)
we obtain, with u — D'v,
(r, w) u = {D<jj — ri) (Deo — r+l.i)... {Deo — loi) D'v
= D{D<a=r-\.i){D(o-ri)...{D(o-w-\.i)D'~'v
= D{r-\, io-\)D''v
= D\r-2^io-2)D''-'v

= D''(0, w-r)v = ^.
5. Conversely, we have to prove that if (?•, w)u = 0, then
u is a D'v. This follows from a fact, to be proved in the
36 Prof. Elliott, A set of criteria for exact derivatives.

next article, that any u o given i and w can always be

expressed as a sum ot" xo-\-\ ^larts, some perhaps vanishing,

where the coefficients are definite numerical constants, and the

(?•+ 1)"' part, for r=l, 2, ..., to, is expressed as an r"" derivative.
The deduction from the fact is as follows. Given
(/•, lo) u = 0, we have also
()•—!, lo) u = (i)a) - r —1 . t) (r, w) M = 0,

and in succession

{r-2, iv)u = 0, {r-3, w)u = 0, ... {l, lo) u = 0.

Thus (/•, w) 11 = necessitates

u = D'-{Ay[r + l, io) + A^^^Do>'-''{r + 2, w)+...-{ A^D"'-'-(o'"]u.

6. The precise theorem of separation of which a part has

been used may be thus stated
Theorem. Ani/ u such as specified at the end <?/ § 1, and
in fact any u of 7ion-zero y-degree i throughout which satisfies
(t>^'''^\i = for some 2V, can be expressed by direct oiieration as a
sum of IV + 1 parts {some perhaps zero) each satisfying one of
the equations (Deo — ri) u = 0, for r — 0, 1, 2, ..., iv ; and of
these io-\-\ parts, the first, u^, is not a derivative, lohi/e generally
the (r + 1)"', u,., is an r"' but not an (r + l)'* derivative.

It is not stated (or true) that in all cases the parts

Wj, M,, ,.., 11^ involve no higher derivatives than the sum ii does.
'J'iie separation, like others which 1 have considered else-
where, is effected by use of the identity among polynomials
s-n (
I I \

where F{z) = (z — a^{z — a^ ... {z — a^.

Taking lo for «, particular values for a„, a,, ... a,, and the
operator Day for z, this tells us that

A, A, A.. A
\D(ii
+ Tr-^.+
Dw — i ,.
Doi — 'li.+.-.+
'
'"
.
JJt

X Dot) D(a — i) ... (Dw — wi) u,

(

where, for r = 0, 1, 2, ... iv,

A={-ir-'-" ^
— r) *

rl (w !
 Prof. Elliott, A set of criteria for exact derivatives. 37

u is thus -wriitcn as a sum of ?o + 1 parts, of which the (r 4- 1)'*",

for each ?•, is presented in a form whicli shows that it satisHes

{Dw — ri) i(^= A^(0, to) u=0.

Also, for each r,

u^ = A^D(o(^D(a-i) ...{Dcd-r-l .i).{D(o-r\\ .%)... {Dw-ioi) u

= A^D''t£)'{r + 1, to) u,

where the final (io+ 1, to) denotes 1.

Thus so much of the theorem as was required in § 5 has
been proved.

7. The theorem, however, states further that the first

part u^, when it does not vanish, is not a derivative, and that
the (r+l)"" part u^, presented above as an ?•"' derivative, is
notan(r+iy\
Now u^ satisfies {Doi - ri) u^.= 0. were an If it (r + 1)*^''

derivative it would also, by theorem (r+ 1), have to satisfy

(Do}-r+ l.i) (Dco-r + 2.i) ... (JDo) -wi) u^=0.

But this equation is inconsistent with the otljer. For on
substituting in it, from the other, riu^ for Do) u^ we arrive at
the unsatisfied
(- «) (— 21) . . . {r — IV . i) u^ = 0.
This applies for r = 0, 1, 2, ... r« - 1, but not for r = to. How-
ever w,„, i.e. A^D'^co'^u, lias the same lo as u, and cannot be a
[lo + l)"" derivative by theorem {w + 1).

Corollary Any u satisfying {Dw — ri)u = is an r""

1.

derivative, by theorem (?•), and not an (?*+ 1)"' by the above.

It must not be assumed conversely that every r"*, but not
(r+ 1)"\ derivative satisfies this equation.

Corollary 2. (Dco — k) u = cannot be satisfied except for

one of the values 0, i, 2i, ... xvi of k.

Corollary 3. If w?< =
(with i^'S) u cannot be a deri-
vative. For if it were (l,t«)M would give io\i'"u = ^. =
[N.B. This does not apply with' 2 0. If i= for v we have =
(&)/> — Dw) u =
0, and so coDv whenever wu or c. For = =
instance o) annihilates all of

i)" iyfy), I.e. i>-' \ogy, D'^' log [yy-y;%

I)"<f>{x', ^,^.,^„...; B'hgy).]
Corollary 4. (1, w) m, when not zero, is annihilated by
Bo), and so, with i^O, by (o] and generally (r, iv) u, with
i^O, is annihilated by &>''.
D2
38 Prof. Elliott, A set of criteria for exact derivatives.

8. The process for examining a given u may proceed as

follows:
FormDuiu. If this is a multiple of ii, then u is exhibited
as a Dv. In such a case the multiplier must be one of
i, 2i, ... tvi. If I)(au = riu, then m is an r"' but not an
(j-^-iy*' derivative. In particular if I)(ou ioiu, then u is =
a 10^^ derivative. [Example. ?/-V is an integrating factor of
<\^'j^ _45y?/y^-]- 40^1^= 0, which makes it an exact Z)^y = 0.]

it' no \D(o — ri) u = 0, take [Deo - loi) u = u\ and operate

on it with JJo}. Jf the result is a multiple of u\ the multiple
must be ri, with r one of 1, 2, ... w — 1 [not w because
(iJ, - 1) i/=0 and [wi—i] {ivi—2i) ... [wi—w— 1 .i) ui^^\.
IV

If be ri, then u is an r^^ derivative by theorem (r).

it

If, however, no {Dco—rij [Dw-wi) u=0, take (Deo— to— I .%)

[Dm - loi) u = u", and form Dtnu'. If this is an riu' with r ,

necessarily one of 1, 2, ... w — 2, then u is an ?-'^ derivative.

If not, proceed again in like manner. Finally, if [Dw-'li]
(Deo — Si) ... {Dm — ivi) u ^ 0, then u is a first derivative (only)
or not a derivative according as this is or is not annihilated
by Da) — I.

9. A few words as to the excluded case of i=0 may

be added.
The substitution of e^' =^ in this case gives to

the form free from y'

u=/{x', y,',y,', ...', z,z^,z.^,...] ...),

where notice that f would also be free from ?// if &)F=

were satistied.
It is not to be expected that / will be homogeneous in
?/,', 7//, .... if it is a derivative (first or r"') its various
But
liomogeneous parts must be so separately, and conversely.
Deal with them one at a time.
If, according to § 1, we are still concerned with functions
i^ which are rational and integral in y^, y,, •••, so that their
liomogcneity of degree arises from negative powers of _y as
factors of terms, the functionsy will be rational and integral
in y,', 3/j', ..., and they do not involve y'. Any part of/
whicli may be of degree zero must be free from all of
?/', ?//, ?/./, .... If it be a constant or a ^ [x], it is of course
a derivative of any order. ]f it be a </)(x-; z, z^, 0^, ...; ...),
it must be examined by consideration of another set s, z^, z^,...

Our conclusions, however, witii regard to functions with F

ii^ have applied, not only to functions rational and integral
 Mr. Hargj-eaves, A transformation of central motion. 3U

in y , y^, ..., but to other functions annihilated by some power

a)"" of u). The functions y
which are the transformations of

these are annihilated by l^^j , and so are rational and

integral in y,' though not in the whole set y^\ y,',

part of y
of degree in the set may now involve ?/,',
....

3/,', —A
and we may proceed by use of a second exponential trans-
formation applied to ?/,'.
To the homogeneous parts of with non-zero degrees f
criteria such as have been developed apply, using y', ?/,', y.^', ...
instead of y, ?/,, ?/.^, The applicability is complete in the
ordinary cases of/ rational and integral in ?/,', y^', ...; but
in the additional cases of / rational and integral in y,', while
not so in the set, there is applicability only when /, or a part
of it in question, is annihilated by some power of

8y, (^i/i

A TRANSFORMATION OF CENTRAL MOTION.

By R. Hargreaves, MA.
The title is used because the suggestion is derived from
the problem of central motion and tlie examples given are
connected with it, but the transformation is not limited to
that problem.

§1. If the expression i(f' + r'6J' + r'^' sin'^) is used for

kinetic energy, and no preliminary argument is adduced to
shew that the motion must be plane, then the kinetic potential
on ignoring <p is

L = W^r'0')-^^-F^r) (,).

But this may be regarded as defining a problem of plane

motion with d an angle in the plane, a problem in which the
central force is supplemented by a repulsive force k' j y^ in a
fixed direction y. We have then the assurance that this
problem can be made to depend on that of

L = \{P + r'n-F{r)
by a transformation, which in fact is

cos ^' cos a = cos ^, sin^'=sin^sin </>, cos^'sina=sin^cos^...(2).

Here 6 is a polar distance measured from OZ, <p an azimuth

40 Mr. Hargreaves, A transformation of central motion.

measured from a plane ZOX

perpendicular to the plane of
motion, & an angle in the plane of motion measured from its
intersection with ZOX, and a the angle between OZ and this
line of intersection.
The new derived from the original by attributing
orbit is

to any radius an angle in the plane, which in the primary

orbit stood as polar distance for the same radius.
The general position for central forces is that the kinetic
potential

L = \{r- + r^&^)-F{r)J^ \

lakes r depend on L^ = ^i-' — F{r) —

2r'

while h being r^6, K^ ^/i^) = k' (constant), ..(3),

and ^„ (constant) =i f f" + ^J -^rFij-)

+ F{r)
where ru= 1. Also the connexion with the problem

=1
i' + ,.VO-F(r)
(;.•-•

(4:
is given by }idd' = kdd, or dd' = kdQl>^\k' -f{d)]

A more general proposition is that if T^ and U^ be kinetic

and potential energies for coordinates x^...x^, a positive X
function of these co-ordinates, then

T -T TJ ^-^ R- -^^^^

makes x^...x^ depend on L^=T^— U^ — —y ;

•(5),

while {Xdy-{-f{e) = k\
and E^ (constant) = 1\ +U^ + £^ .

The connexion with the problem L' = T„+ Z7„ +

X
^ 6>"
\
)
-
[...(6),
is given by Xd' = k, making dO' = kddjW[k' -/{O)} )

exactly as in (4). The 6 component of force in (5) gives

— (XO) +----^^
ut 2JL
=0^ the integral of which is used in (5).
 Mr. Hargrea'ces^ A transformation of central motion. 41

The x^ component of force has a term

dx\2 *"
X }~^\ ^ X' 1 dx~ ax, 2X
in agreement with derivation from L^. It' f{6) is negative
we may have - for k\ The most general form reducible
/:''

to (5) IS L=T^-U^+^ ad^ + Xr,, where a and the coefficients

of a quadric '1\ in Oj...d may be dependent on 6^, but not on

§ 2. For the problem (1) with which we started and

F(7') = — fifr, the orbit is

+ {^ cos ^±^\/(sin*^- sin'a)}/cosa \

,?/?•= 1

with k' = Rnd 2E/ 1 k' = A' + B' - 1,

fjil, L.(7).

f(e) = sin'a/sin'0, A sin ^ = k\/(s\n'd - sin'a)j

Jc'

The case B= is symmetrical with respect to the line

= ~; the case ^= represents part of an ellipse or hyper-

bola traversed from 0~a to 6 = it a. and back. —

The condition for the existence of asymptotes is yl' + i?V 1.
If A''->rB'<l then as increases from A
the single line
becomes a closed curve with 6=- a. and 6 it — a for tangents, =
and two points of inflexion on the + section so long as A
A A
< cot' a, but for > cot'a tlie oval is convex.
For A'' + B^>1 there are two asymptotes which for B
positive and <1 both lie on the section, the —A
section +A
connecting the tangents ^ = a and 8 7r — a. by a finite arc. =
For A' + B''>1, but B positive and > 1, one asymptote lies in

the +A section the other in the —A section ; in this case the

tangent 6 = it -a does not belong to the orbit, which only
proceeds to the asymptote on the + A section, that asymptote
for which is nearest tt — a. The change of sign in B
corresponds to writing 6 for.^. tt —
Tiie problem of repulsion from each of two axes at right-
angles is solved by taking

/(^) _ cos^acos^/8 sin'asin^/3 ^

'
k^ cos^'t' sn\'6

which corresponds to the transformation l .(8),

sin'^ = sin'/S sin'^^' + sin'a cos^^', I

and makes h^ ^m'd cQd'd= k' (siuY3 - sin'^) (siu"'^- ain'a)/.

42 Mr. Hargreaves^ A transformation of central motion.

where /?> a. The angles a and j3 may be found in terms of

the ratios iy/F and M\U' when the repulsive forces are i/a;^
and M\}f\ and if L=M, /3=- -a. The independent solution

is Z/ r =1+ {± -4 V (siu^^ - sin'a)

±5V(sin'';8- sin'''^)}/V(siir/3 - sin'a)...(9),

with F = /i?, and 2EJ'lk' = A' + B'-l as in the last case;

and here also the condition for asymptotes is A^ + B'^ > 1.
The typical form when A' + B' < 1 is a distorted Hgure of
eight, and the lines d = a, 6 = ^ touch the curve, eacli at two
points. In the case with asymptotes one or both of the njore
distant of these points of contact may be excluded, the
exclusion turning on A or B being separately greater than 1.
If we follow the curve from each asymptotic end the sections
cross and form a loop touching 6 = a and 6 = 13 at the less
distant points.
When the primary orbit is an ellipse to the centre, i.e.
F{r) = iJLr^j2j these transformations give respectively for the
orbits

cos=a/r' = ^(sin'^-sin'a) + 5cos'^±2Ccos^V(si"'^-sin'a)

(sin';3- sin'a)/»-' = ^ (sin^^ - sin'a) + 5(sin"'/3 - sin'^)
±2C^J\ {^m'O - sin-a) (sin'/3 - sin'^^)}, f

with filk' = AB- C\ and 2EJk'=A-\-B )

in each case ; forms which present less variety than those

derived from focal orbits.
In these examples the centre of force lies outside the new
orbit. But if we take f^B) = k' siu'e siu'^, we get

0' = [
(Z^/V(l-sin''esin"^^),

and a complete circuit for 6 is possible. So also for

f(6) = — 2ma cos 9 when 2?»a < k^,

and dd' = kdei^{k' + 2ma cos 6) ;

i.e. we have an exact solution for an attracting centre in

combination with a doublet at the origin.

 ( 43 )

ON THE STEADY MOTION OF FLUID

UNDER GRAVITY.
By TV. Burjiside.

The steady motion which corresponds to Rankine's

trochoidal waves isan instance of a two-dimensional rotational
motion of a fluid under gravity for which the stream lines are
lines of constant pressure.
It" ;r, y are measured horizontally and vertically down-
wards, and xp is the stream-function, this moiion is determined,
with suitable units, by the equations
x=6 \-e~'' cos 9,

y =r—e ''
sin 6,

These equations in fact give

fdxp\' fd4^
.

(iy-(i)'-^^=^('-+-'^=/w.
It is not, I believe, known that the only steady two-
dimensional irrotational motion of a fluid under gravity for
which the stream-lines are lines of constant pressure is a
uniform horizontal stream.
Assuming the existence of such a motion, and taking the
origin at a point in the fluid which is not a point of zero-
velocity, the motion in the neighbourhood of the origin must
be given by
z= a^io + OL.^iv^ + a^iv^ + (i),

where z —x + ty, ty = ^ + i\p, a, ^ 0,

and the series on the right-hand (i) is absolutely side of
convergent so long as |m?| does not exceed some finite positive
quantity. If the axes are taken horizontally and vertically
downwards the pressure equation- is

p+C
ffy-W (''0.
p
and if the pressure is constant along each stream-line, the
pressure in the neighbourhood of the origin must be given by

where the series is absolutely convergent so long as |;/-| does

44 Prof. Burnside, On steady motion offluid under gramty.

not exceed some finite positive quantity. If xo and w are

conjugate iraaginaries,

1 dz dz , ^ „ , . ,_ ^ „ , ,

q* dw dw

y
1
= -{z-z) = -1 {a^w-a,to + a.y-ay- +...),
2i

Now equation (il) Implies that, for sufficiently small

values of the relation
|?('j,

.
. ,» ^ dz dz \

with the preceding values entered, must be an identity.

Writing the earlier terms at length this identity is

p,4&^«.-?^'s-(2;>4 + ^.i,o
2i 2i 2i>
[

^f.^-(f 2ij \8i 2iJ

8i 8i \8i 2iJ

+ — 1
=0.

Equating to zero the coefficients of ?<?, w, lo^, low, w\ and

taking into account that a,^0,

i^a, =
4i

- 2^ - «! -

,(ui)

4;>„«A + ^^^ 2a3«. - ^ 2a, a. +

f a, a. = /
Frof. Burnside, On steady motion offluid under gravity. 45

These relutlous determine aj, a,, a,, oCg, and y^ in terms of

a,a,2\ ^"^ Pi' When the coefficients of the terms of the
third order in w and w are eqn;ited to zero, there are four
additional equations and only three more coefficients, so
that a rehition between a,, a„ p^, and p^ must arise. The
coefficient of lo'w^ omitting terms which obviously cancel,
gives the relation

.(iv).
2.1 ^

From the preceding relations (iii)

P,P, = \{Px-^d{V,-^x)
1\-
and + 2i
2i '
2«/^o L

a,+ ^
V 4 2iJ

The above relation (iv) then becomes

p. — a, [ 2a,
= 0,

or, entering their values for p, and a,,

I.e. 6^V;73
- (;>,- aj (2^, - a,) (7^, + a, -a,) = 0.
The constants [>^, p^, etc., are essentially real, and therefore a,

must be real.
Hence, at every point in the fluid which is not a point of
zero-velocity, the fluid velocity is horizontal. This condition
is only by a uniform liorizontal stream.
satisfied
Tlie following considerations give an independent proof of
the same result. Jf ;// is the stream-function for a steady
irrotational motion of a fluid under gravity, in which the
stream lines are lines of constant pressure, while the force-
potential is a function of ?/ only, then

hold simultaneously.
m +
Since ^
=fj{y)+/{4^)

satisfies (v), so also does

(vi).

\dx J \dy
46 Dr. Wilton, A transformation of the 'partial

This gives the equation

where /' and/" are the first and second differential coefficients
oi f{\p) with respect to \p, and g' and g" are the first and
second differential coefficients ot"^ (?/) with respect to y. The
lastequation is of the form

^=^'(^,y) (vil),

Hence, from (vi),

(viii)-
(f^)'=^+/-{^(^,?y)r
Differentiating (vii) and (viii), with respect to y and x re-
spectively,
d^ ^dF dF d^P

of ~ dy
'
d^ dy

dx'
~ 2^ ^ dxp'

Adding these equations, and taking account of (v) and (vii),

there results -^ ci

so that ^ is a function of y only. The motion is therefore

a uniform stream.

A TRANSFORMATION OF THE PARTIAL

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF
THE SECOND ORDER.
By J. B. Wiltun, 31. A., D.Sc.

The equation
r=/ix,y,^-p,q, s, t) (1)

may, by the properties of equations in involution, be trans-

formed into a partial differential equation of the second order
which is linear in the derivatives of the second order. In
general this new equation will involve five independent
variables x, y, z^ p, and q\ but in particular cases it may
involve only two, which may be either x and y or 'p and q.
We assume
t=^<l>[x,y,z,i->,q,s, ^)]
^^
and therefore r =f {x, y, z, p, q^ s, ^) J
 differential equation of the second order. 47

and we determine ^ by solving the ordinary equation of the

tirst order
8^8/^9/3^-1 f3l

in which «3, 3/, 2;, />, and q are treated as constants. The
solution will involve an arbitrary function of x, y, 2;, 2^, and 5',

which we call A.
Putting f=e (x, y, z, p, q, s, \)

1 d9 d(p . ,.. .
we have ;r- 7r-=l (4):
ds ds

and the elimination of X between the equations

r=e, t =^ (5)

leads to the original equation (1).

( d\ _
~
d ^ a A A. ^ '
\dxj dsG ^ dz dp dq

/^\ ^ ^
~ dy
^ s - -
Kdy) dz dp dq'
Then differentiating the tirst of equations (5) with regard
to ?/, the second with regard to x, we have
di _
~
(dd\ dO d\ ^ ^\
dx \dy) 8a, dy ds 8y

8s _ /^\
~ \dx)
8^ ^ 8^ 8s
dy 8A, dx ds dx )

and, on account of (4), these lead to

fd6\ dd dx c^ U<H\ 80 ^]_
"^ "^
\dy} dx dy as \\dx}
"^
dx dx]—^-''
from which, since 6 and are known functions, we derive
s in the form ,
^^ ^^.

and then from (5) we have r and t as functions of the same

variables.
There are two conditions to be satisfied, namely
8>- 8s ,85 dt
7— = 77- and >r- = ;r-
dy dx oy ox
which, on account of (4) and (7) reduce to one. Substituting
in the first of equations (G) we obtain

_dj^ da- _dl dx

da^
_ fdO\^^ ^ ''
dx da dy dX dy \dy)
48 D7\ Wilton, Transformation of a diferential equation.

er is a known function,
wliicli, since is an equation, of the type
indicated, to determine \. When any vahie of \ lias been
determined from this equation, the result, on substitution in

leads to consistent values of r, s, and t, and Iience by three

quadratures to a value of z.
Whenthe original equation (1) does not contain z, p, or
q,
we may regard A, as a function of x and y only; and wlien
(1)
does not contain x, 7/, or z, we may regard X as a function
of ;; and q only; but in general X is a function of the five
variables x, 3/, z, ;>, and q.
Tiie expanded form of equation (8) is extremely compli-
cated, but it belongs to the particular class of equations in
which the characteristic invai'iant* is resoluble into two linear
factors. The factors are

/du\
(du\ dd j(lu\
do j(

\dx) da- \dy

Bo-

^^, \dxj y
fdu\ da-
+.-.-( 3. 1=0,
d\
/du\
\d]/

d\ dX
,
where
^
X
^
,
^
X
"
= —
dx'
,
—
dy
- .

If equation (8) possesses an intermediate integral of the

first order, it must clearly be of the form

u [x, y, z, p, q, X, 0-) = ;

and the equation itself must be the same as

(du\ du dX dn da _dO ( /dn\ du dX du da)
\dxj cX dx da dx ~ da \\dy / dX dy da dy ]
'

Comparing this with equation (8), and making use of (7). we

readily find that u must be a common integral of the two
equations
g du
dx^
/du\ dd /du
\dxj da \dy
The conditions of co-existence of tliese equations appear
to be the same as the conditions that (l) should possess an
intermediate integral of the first order.

* Forsyth, Theory oj Difftrentud Equations, vol. vi., §§32$ and 334.

The UniTersity, Sheffield.
 ( 49 )

FACTORISATION OF N=(Y^+i) AND {X^^ ^ Y^^).

By Lt.-Col. Allan Cunningham, R.E., Fellow of King's College, London,

[The author is indebted to Mr H. J. Woodall, A.R.C.Sc , for useful suggestions

and for help in reading the proof-sheets.

1. Introduction. Tins Paper is intended to give Rules

for the factorisation of the four allied numbers

N^Y^-\, N'=Y'^+\ (1),

N=X^'''^ r^^ N'^X^''+ Y^^, [X prime to r].(2),

and to introduce the Tables (printed at the end of the Paper)
of the factorisaliun thereof up to very high limits.

2. Rarity of primes. The salient property of these num-

bers is that they are nearly all composite, and are indeed
nearly all algebraically resolvable.
In fact the only form among them not so resolvable is
that of " Fermat's Numbers "

^V'=r^+l, where F=2<', [e=:2'"] (3);

and, among these, the only known primes aie the lowest two,
2'+ 1 = 5, and 4*+ 1 =257, whilst the next two are known to
be composite, viz.
16'«+1 = 274177. 67280421310721 ;

256256 4-1 has the factors* (2'3.39 + l) (2'M 19 + 1).

3. Notation. All symbols integers,

p, q denote odd primes.
£ denotes an even number ; <u denotes an odd number.
6 = 2"' ; «' denotes a square.
m denotes any factor of n.

F{n), F'{7i), ^{n'l, *'(«), see Art. 6; («), 0'(«), see Art. 6.

4. Algehraic and Arithmetical Factorisations. The general

process of factorisation of large numbers is naturally divided
into two main, and very distinct, steps

I, Algebraic, 11. Arithmetical.

The algebraic resolution is described in Art. 5—16; the

* Discovered by the author.

VOL. XLV. E
50 Lt.-Col. Caiiningham, Factorisation of N=Y + 1, dr.
aritlnnetical resolution Is described in Art. 17-21/. The
Factorisation Tables of iV, N\ wliicli are the outcome of
this Memoir, are described in Art. 22-22c.

5.Ahjehraie Factors. An algebraic function f(x,y)^

which exact divisor of the algeliraic expression
is ail {x, y) F
for all values of x, y is styled an ahjehraie factor ot
F{.r, y). U
f{x, y) itself has no such algebraic factors, or is
in otlier words ir reducible, it is styled an algebraic prime
factor of F
{x, y), and is denoted (for shortness) by A.P.F.
The maximum al-cbraic prin)e factor of i^ (a, ?/) is denoted
(for shortness; by M.A.P.F. These are denoted symbollcully
thus
f{x,y}is an A.V.T. oiF{x,y) (4rt),

(p{x,y) is <Ae M.A.P.F. oi F{x,y) (4&).

The most important property of these algebraic factors, in

relation to factorisation, is that

F(x, y)= the continued product of all its A.P.F.

(including the M.A.P.F.). ..(5).

[The Hrithmetical factors of the various A.P.F. are generally of quite

different forms, involving different modes of search (described in Art.
17-21/)].

The resolution of F{x,y) into its A.P.F. is therefore

a most important —
(usually the first) step in the factori- —
sation of large numbers.

6. Algebraic Factors of Binomials. The number and

nature of the A.P.F. of Binomials (.t" ? ?/"), where x, y have
the same exponent (n), depend chiefly on the nature (prime
or composite) of that index (/() so that a short notation :

exhibiting distinctly the relation to the exponent {it) is con-

venient. Let
F{7i) = x''~y, F'{n)=x''+y» [.v, j both + ] ...(6a),

/(n)= an A.P.F. of 7''(n), /'(«) an A.P.F. of F'(«) (66),

{n) = the M.A.P.F. of F(n), 0' (u) =the M.A.P.F. of t" (»)• -{Gc).

Hereby
F(l)=/(l)=.0(l) = (.v-:y), i^'(l)=/'(l) = 0'(l) = (.v+j) i&d).

It will now be shown how to obtain the M.A.P.F. as the

quotient of the products of various A.P.F. of F{u), F' {n).
Here five types should be distinguished according to the
form of n.
i. K =e= '2'-'; ii. rt = w; iii. n = eui; iv. .t = $'", j>' = ij'" ; v. nxy = n-
 Lt .-Col. Cunningham^ Factorisation of N^Y -i-l.ctr. 51

7. Type!. ?? =e= 2^; [.r^^r, yi-rf'\

F{e)=F(\e)\\F'{le); 0(e) = F'(ie) (7"),

F(2) = F(1)1|F'(1); 0(2)=F'(I) (76),

F{4.) = F{l)\F'{i)\\F'{2); 0(4) = F'(2) (7f),

F[S) = F{l)\F'(\)\F'{2)\\F'{^); 0(8)=F'(4) (7^0,

F(<;) = F(I)|F'(1)1F'(2)|F'(4)| \\F'[le) (7^),

and the factors F' (e) are irreducible for all values of e, so that
0'(1)=^'(1), 0'(2)=i^'(2), 0'(4) = F"(4), ...0-(e) = !-(*) (8).

[The single bars used above are merely special multiplication symbols
(|)
used to separate distinctly the various A.P.F. ot' Fin) the double bar (|j) is
;

used to separate all the minor A.P.F. from the M. A.P.F. of F{n). These
symbols are most useluL iu arithmetical work see tlie Tables ou pages
:

72—74].

8. TypeH. n = oy; [xii^'\ yi^i"].

Let a, 6, c denote unequal odd priines \a <h <g].
The values of ^ (?*), ^'(") ai-e shown in the scheme helow,
for all the (odd) values of n required in this l\Ietnoir.

n
52 Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N= } T 1, &c.

9. Type iii, ?? = e<w = 2". <» ;

[a; ^t ^""j
3^
7^ t?"].

The reduction ot" i^('O) -^ ('0 '•'^ treated separately iu

Art. 9a, %.
9a. Type ilia. ?< = e&>, [a;^^^'", y:^rf"^. Reduction
of F{n).
The function i^('0 nv.xy be tirst resolved, as far as the
quantity e = 2'' is concerned, in a way similar to that used
tor F{e) in Art. 7, and with similar notation; thus
F(*a,)=F(i*w)||F'(ie<o); (P(ew)=4>'{}eio) (12a),

F{2i,i)=F{w)\\F'{io); ^(2a;; = <^'((o) (12i),

F{i..) = Fia,]\F'lu,)\\F'{2u>)i 0(4a>)=«^'(2«.) (12o),

F {Su,) = F(w) F' (00) F' (2a,) F' (4<«)

I I 1
1
^(8e«) = <^'(4w) (12rf),

F(e(>i) = F('«)iF(a<)|F'(2w}|F'(4a.)|...||F'(iew) (12e).

The factors F{u3), above are of the Type ii. of Art. 8.

F' (co)
This A.P.F. may be found by the Rules of that Article;
and they may tlien be expressed as the continued product of
their A.P.F. by tlie Rules of tiiat Article.
fThe use of the single bar (|) and double bar (\\) is s-imilar to that
explained at foot of Art. 7].

9h. Type Vub. n=e(o', [x^^"\ y^ztf]. Reduction

of F' (n).
Here F\ea)) is irreducible, as far as the tactor 6 2"* of =
the exponent is concerned (compare Art. 7). The reduction
of the factor (o is simitar to that of the n a> in Art. 8. The =
value of (f>' (n) is shown in the scheme below for all the
values of n required in this Memoir: those of F' {)i) are also
shown alongside, expressed as the continued product of their
A.P.F. tlie A.P.F. being arranged in order ot magnitude
;

(tiie smallest on the left).

,p'{n) F'{n)

'2a f{-la)^F\'2) ^>'{2).cp'(2a) .(13«),

4a F'(ia)^F'{i) .I>'(i).'t>'(ia) .(136),
ea F'(ea}-^F'{e) (j)'(e).(p'{ea) .(i3c|,
2«2 F'{-la'']-^F'(2a) ^,'{2).(p'{2a}.(t>'{2a-) .(13r/),

F'(4a^)^F'(4a) <^/(4).<^'(4a)<^'(4«*) .(13e),

F'(2ab).F'{2)
2a6 <l)'(2).,t>'(2a).<p'{2b).4,\2ah) .(13/),
'y'~C2^)Tr(2b}
F'{2a^b).F'{2a)
^'{2).<p'{2a).(t>'{2a'^).(i>'{2b).<p'{2ab)<p'(2a^b). .(13^).
F\2a*).F'{2ab)

10. Type iv. x= ^"\ ]/

= v"-
When x, ?/, the bases appeiiiing in F(;n), F'(n), i\re them-
selves both m"' powers of smaller bases s, r) — a case excluded
Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N=Y + 1, cLr. 53

from Art. 7, 8, 9— then

tlie A.P.F. of F{n)^ F'(n), viewed as

functions of are further reducible, as functions ot ^, r].

a', ?/,

For, writing $' as functional symbols ot

<t>, f, ??, wlien a*, y
are changed to ^"j ?;'", then
F (n) = -r" ~jy" = ^""i ~ r)™" = * (nm) ( 14«),

F'(n)=.v'»+jy" = ^"'''4-»j'"'' = <l>'(mJi) (14<^))

and tiie A.P.F. of *P(inn), ^' (vin) may now be found by the
Rules of Art. 7, 8, 9, where inn now takes the place of the n
of those Articles. And <P{mu), <!>'(»*/<) may also be expressed
as the continued product of their A.P.F. by the Rules uf those
Articles.

11. Type V. nxy=u.

The development of this case (for tacttorisation purposes)
depends on the expression of the M.iV.P.F. of F(ii), F'Qi),
i.e. of ^(n), 0'(»O in one or other of the impure* 2'" forms,

(P'^^nxy Q'), or in some derivative thereof {P'+mxyQ^)

Avhere m is some factor of n, in the general case {i.e. inde-
pendently of the condition n xy, or m ory = D). The necessary
and sufficient condition for this is
w = o), or 2aj only, \_n^im~\ (l''5)-

A preliminary discussion of the general case occupies Art.

12, 12a-o?. The application to factorisation occupies Art. 15.
12. Impure 2'" Forms (n^ms'). When n has the form
)i = w, or 2&», and =t= m«- (16),

the M. A.P.F. ^ (>0, always (algebraically) expres-

(j)' {n) are
sible in one or other of the impure 2"" forms as below
n 0'(")
P--nxyQ' P'^ + nxyQ- '17a),
4i-l P^ + nxyQ- P^-nxyQ^ (176).
P* + nxyQ' (176),

where P, Q are certain functions of n, x, y explained in

Art. 13 and tabulated up to ?i = 46 in the Table A therewith.

12a. Impure 2'° Forms {n composite).

If n be as in Art. 12, but composite, i.e. if

>» = w, or 2tt}=km, and 4=ju.>*, [A = w, and prime to ni] (18),

then «^(?0, 0'('O, the M. A.P.F. of F{n), F' (n) are always
(algebraically) expressible not only in one or other of the
impure 2"" forms {P'^nxyQ') as in Kvi. 12, but also in one
or other of each of the derivatives thereof,
{P'TrnxyQ'), {P'^kxyQ'),
* In this Memoir (/''-+ nxyQ^) is styled an impure *2'<= form ; and (/"-T^Q") is
styled a pure 2'<^ form when n does not depend on x, y. J, i;, Ac.

Ji2
 r
54 Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N= F + 1, &c.
similar to (17ni,Z>,c), Avliere ???, h now take the place of n in
those foriuulse, the (T) being determined hy the forms of
si{,Mi

m or k: and this is possible for every way in which n can be

resolved into two cofactors {n hni): but the P, Q are quite =
different.
process of finding the P, Q in this case from those of
The
Art. 12 is rather troublesome. One way of effecting it is
shown below, for the case of (^ (n) {P'+m xy Q'): it depends =
on expressing <p (») as a quotient of two 2"= forms of same
determinant (D=±m.ry). The case of ^'(??) is precisely similar.
Write a;*^=|, /=->?, [_k = a»\ whereby F{n) becomes a
S, V, which may be written with
function of 4>^.("0, ^,.(va) as

its M.A.P.F. Then, by Art. 8,

_ F{km).F{\) ^ %[m) PCO ^ <\>Jj^
'^^"-
F{k).F{m) 4>,(1)
-
F(m) '^.(»0'

and, by Art. 12,

(p,^{m) = one of (P/T m E.V QJ),

= one of (P;/+ "2 xij Q^'),

M'here Q,' = [xyY^"-'^

.'q, [k being odd],

and <^, (m) = one of (P,'T »« 3:2/ (J,')

therefore (^f «) = one of ,/.,^"'"^"^

^V »
[same sign in both] (19).

As these 2'" forms are of same determinant {D±inxy),

their quotient ^ (/«) is (algebraically) expressible in the
reduced forms,
(p{n) = F--mxyQ- {19a),
*
bv the process of conformal division
Here P^., Q^. and'P,, Q^ are given by the Kules of Art. 12.
The carrying through of this whole process is rather trouble-
some where n is large.

12h. Impure 2'" Forms of Suh-Factors {n = km) :

When n is composite, as in (181, every A.P.F. of F{n),

P ("), s:iy '^(^•), ^("0, <t>'i^),
</>'('") 'S also (algebraically)
expressible in its own impure 2'" forms of determinant
I>= ±kxy, mxy under Rules similar to those of Art. 12, 12a.
Here k, m take the place of n of these Articles.

12c. Impure 2'" Forms. n = ms\ [no square factor in rn].

When n = 7ns'; then, by a suitable substitution for .r,

y.

* i.e. division with preservation of 2^" form. See the author's Paper on
Connexion of Quadnitic Forms in I'roc. Land. Math. Soc, vol. xxviii., 1897,
pp. 289 et seq. for a full explanation of the process.
Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of ]S'=Y^+l^ &c. 55

the quantities F{n), F' (n), wliicli are functions of x, y, may

be brought to the forms ^{in), ^\vi), where 4>, <t>' are functions
of s, r] (and m
is free from squares). Hereby <t>(j/0) *'("«)
and their A.P.F. now fall under the forms of Art. 12a.

The only cases required for this Paper are

Type!. n=^a-,a', a*, ... Type ii. n=a-b; Type iii. w = 2a',
; 2ff*.

The reduction of F(^ii), F\n) to the forms ^(ii), ^'(») is here

first shown for each type and followed by the expression of
^""^''" {P'^'n
^ ("0, ^'("0 '" ^^'^ ^v Q')'
Type i. n=d\ a\ a\ ... «". Take ^ = 03"-", 77 ^t/"-",
7t = «'* gives F(n)=.v"~y" = ^"- yf = ^(a) m = a ; ('20«),

F'{H) =.v" +_)•" = ^^ + ij" = ^'(a) ; f)i =a (206).

Type ii, n = a^b. Take ^ = x", r} = if.

n—arb gives F(») = .v"-j)'" — 5"'' -!)«* = ^ {ab) ; m=ab (21a),
f'(»)=.v''+j"' = ^«'' + »j''«' = <l>'(a6) ; m=ab (216).

Type iii. n= ^ci", 2a', ... 2a". Take ^ = a;"--«, = ?/«-2a^Ji

?i = 2a" gives f '('^) = -^'"+J'" = ^""+''"'' = *'(2«) ; m = '2a (23).

And the reduced function under Art.

(j) (vi), (p' {m) now fall

12 (since qh is free fiom square factors), so that the A.P.F.

0(?>i), <j)Xvi) may now be expressed in the form {P' + m^rj Q')
as in the scheme below. Here P, Q are the same functions
of ^, 7] as shown in Art. 12 for ft', y.

Type
 56 Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N= Y^ T 1, &c.

Ex. 3°. f (45), r(45) have 0(4o), 0'{45) as M.A.P.F., and have also
0(15), 0(9), 0(5), 0(3), 0(1); 0'(15), 0'(9), 0'(5), 0'(2), <p'{\) as lower
AP.F.

(p'{l5) = P- + 5xyQ'=P^- 3xy Q' = P^-\ 5xy'' ;

0(15), 0(5), 0(3) end 0'(15). 0'(5), 0'(3) have the forms shown in Ex. P.
( 9) = P2 + 3.13' Q\ 0'( 9 ) = P' - 3.VJ ^=.

13. Values of P, ^. Tlie quantities of P, Q are homo-

geneous symmetric functions of x^ y so tliat tliey may be
written
P = J„.v'=^ + ^,.v^ '^ + J,.v'=^-y+... + ^,.vj-=^-> + ^„j-=r (27a),

Q= ^^.v" + i^.-v-j- + A-v'^-=/ +...+ i?,.vj^'' + ^^j-' (276).

Here, using t {£) to denote the Totient of 2, then

7i= aj has = iT (a>), « = »•— 1
tij- (28a),
n = '2a* has nr = ^T (2(ti), = -nr— I 'c (286).
And .4,, ^r are functions of 71 only, (not ot .v, j) (29a),
also ^0 = 1, Bf,= \ alwai/s (296).

^1,= |(h+1), when ii=ii+\=p; J,=i(?«~I), when n = ii—\ =pq..(29c),

Ai=^(n—'[), when = 4i— 1=;?; --1,=^(k + 1), when )t=ii+l=pq..i29cl},
;i

^1 = |h when m = 2w
1
, (29e).

The rest of the coefficients (J^., B^) are complicated

functions of n, and are difficult* to calculate, so that (for the
present purpose) they are most conveniently taken from Tables.
U'ablef A
on page 57 gives the values of the coefficients
A^^ B^ which appear in the terms
A,x'^-^y% AyX'^y'^-'-, B,.x^'ryr^ ^...v'/'" (30),

for all the values of the index n (except n = 43), up to n= 46

the middle coefficient —
(or the middle pair of coefficients, if
equal) —
being enclosed in brackets. They are tabulated tn
the same order as in the formulae 27a, i, so that it should be
easy to allocate them to those terms, as the Table gives the
value of CT, K also in the same line.
"^J'he Table is drawn up really for those values of
^{n),<p'{n) which are ex[)res3ible in the form
0(«) or (p'{u) = P'-I).Q^ "...(31).

where D=nxy, as in Art. I2a,b or =n|»j, as in Art, 12^,

this being the form required for the important Auiifeuillian

notation (Art. 15).
* The method of calculation is explained in Ed. Lucas's Memoir Stir lex
fnrimilts de Cauclnj et de Lejeutie Diricklet in the Report of the Association
Francdise ponv P Aoancement des Sciences, Congress of Paris, 1878.
t This Table is extracted (with some alterations and corrections by the present
author) partly from Ed. Lucas's Memoir Suv la Serie recurente de Fennat, Rome,
1879, and partly (with some cliiintres) from the Memoir above quoted. Both these
Metnoirs are out of print, and difficult to obtain (see Appendix IL for err.ita in
:

the originals).
Lt -Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N=Y F_+l,(ir. 57

Tab. a.
58 Lt.-Col. Cunningham Factorisation of ^=
y ^ + 1) <^'^

14. Sam of coefficients A^, B^.

Let 2 (^), 2 (i?) denote the sums of llie coefficients in

Let (t'j v), (t, v)* be solutions of

T'' — nv'-= - 1, T2-Jil;2=+1 (31a),

whereby {nu')" — nT'- = n (316).

Now take x=\, y=\. These values reduce P, Q to

P = Z(^), <2 = I,IB) (32),

wherebj- 0(«) or 0'(«) = 'P'-«^' = {S (^)}--w {-(^)}* (33),

But (n) or ^'(»0 are at same time reduced to either

n or 1,
(p

as follows :
—
i. « = 4«+l=r;) gives 0(«) = =w,

whence Z(A)=nv', 1(2?) = .(34a)

(l»._lm)(]l_l.)
ii. ?j = 48+l=;)y gives 0()<) = 1,
(1^- P)(i«-1«)
whence L{A)=^T, 2(i?)=u (346).

iii. ?t = 4i— 1 =p gives 0'(n) = 1, always,

whence 2(.4) = t, Z(2?) = i' (34c),

iv. n = 2i=2p gives (ji'{m)=\, ahoays,

whence 1.{A)^t, I.{B) =v (34rf).

These Results (dia-d), giving the values of ^{A), ^(B)

in terms of the known solutions (t', v'), (t, v) of (31f/, i). are
very useful— (being
the tabulated
easily applied)
coefficients (^^., B^).
test^] of the correctness of

A Table
subjoined giving the values of <p (n) or ^'(»),
is

2(^), 2 — as
in the formulae (34a— c?)
(i5) for ready appli- —
cation of the Test, for all the values of n in the general
Table of A^, B^. (Table A).

n
Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N= Y + 1, d:c. 59

In most of tlie cases the minimum values of (t', i>'), (t, v)

are the ones to be used in the formulEe (34a— of) for 2 (^),
S (Z?), but, in the cases marked * the solutions next greater
than tlie minimum (t', v), (t, v) are the ones required, viz.
n T- — 7iv"— +1
;
771 ; t'- — Jill'- = — I VI ; r-—nv"= + 1
15; 31- - 15.8-= + 1 37; 8822-37.145*= •
30; 241--30.442= +l
35; 71''-35.12==-1 42; 337^-42.522= +!
39; 1249--39.2002=+i

15. AurifeuilUans. The formulas of Art. 12- 12c show

that when the determinant {± D) of the impure 2'° forms
(17rt-c, 19a, 23a-26) has the form

+ Z) = ?j .vy or m xy = 4*, a perfect square ( 35)

so that one or other of the R.P.F., i.e. 0('O) ^ ('0? [oi*

("0? '/>'("0] '•'5 (algebraically) expressible as a difference
of squares, viz.
i. 71, or m = 'ii+l gives (f>{n or 7n)=P^-(sQ)- (36a),

ii. 71, orm = 4« — 1 gives (p'(n or }n)=P' -{sQ)'- (36i),

iii. M, or7« = 2w gives (p'{/i or m) = P- -{sQf (36c),

and is therefore at once (algebraically) resolvable into two

cofactors (say L, M) so that

q)[7iorm), or (p'{n or vi)== L.M (37a),

where L = P-sQ, M=P + sQ (376).

functions
'J'he {n or m), (^'(n or «0, which are resolvable
in way, are styled* AurifeuilUans, and are described as
this
off order n or m. The two algebraic co-factors are styled
Aurifeuillian Factors.
Tlie condition of this resolution (35), styled the Auri-
feuillian condition, may be satisfied in the following ways:
1°. When y=\, so that f («)=y'-l, F'(«) = v»-M,
then y = 7in- gives D = {nnf=s-...{Z%a),
2°. When x and j'> 1 ; then .v = ?-, y = 7iii- ;

or = »t^ >' = ')^;

.^• give X) = (»*?'/)' = s2... (386),

* From having been firsttabulated, and used for factorisation, by M. Auiifeuille

of Toulouse ; see Lucas's Memoirs above quoted. They ai'e obviously of great use
in factorisation thu.s : nearly all numbers N'= 1'^+ 1, in which Y^\n, are of this
kind, or else some of their algebraic factor's are of this kind.
orders. Thu.'j those of order
t Special names are applied to distinguish the
2. 3, 5, 0, JiC, are styled Bin-, Trin-, Quint-, Sexi-,
iic.—AurittuiUians Ihese
names are due to the pi-esent author, who has made a special study of
them, see
oj Math<^-
his Papers in Lond. Math. Soc. Proc, vol. xxix., 1898, and MesAemjer
Educational Times Ueprints.
mutigs, vol. xxxix., 1909, and many places in tlie
60 Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N= Y +1, <lr.

3. "When a- and^'>l ; and n — nitin, then .v = ?i,S^, j = n2'r;

or .v = ??2?"> y = '>hif; give Z> = ())5t))' = s^...(38e).

[In the formulae (38a, b, c) m may be substituted for «, when required].
It will be seen (Art. 12, 12c, 15) that Aurifeuillians can
only occur among the A.P.F. of F{n)^ F' in) ; and that, when
n is composite {n = hn)^ the M. A.P.F. ^(»i), ^'(»0 'ii^y have
an Aiiriteuillian ot" any order [h. m) for wliich the Auri-
feuillian condition (35) is satisfied; hut. yor particular values
of a*, y, this condition can only be satisfied in one way.
Similarly, when n composite (u = /:««), the lower A.P.F.
is

(t>(vi), <f)' (m) niay possibly each have one

of i^(??), F' [n), say
Aurifeuillian form (of order m) for particular values of x, y.

15a. Tabulation. In the Factorisation Tables at end of

this Paper the Aurifeuillians are recognisable at sight, because
their Aurifeuillian Factors (L, M) are shown separated by
a colon (:), thus
0(m) or (p'{m} = L:M (39).

The m') of Aurifeuillians (p (wi), <p' (m) occur-

07'der (7n or
ring in each F(n) or F" (ii) is shown by the figures in the
columed headed Aur.
Ex. \. 7? = 27. iV' = 27-' + 1=381 + 1.
Here iV' = 0'(l)0'(3) . 0'(9) . 0' (27) . 0' (81), by Art I2c.

And each of the A.P.F. after 0'(1) is a Trin-Aiirifenillian (>n' = Z, Art. 15).

Ux. 2. ?ir=45. iY=45<5-l.

Here A^ = 0(l).0(3) .
0(5) 0(9) .0(15) .0(4.j).
.

And each of the algebraic factors 0(5), 0(15), 0(45) is a Quint- Aur i-
femllian, (m = 5, see Art. 12^, 15) but 0(3), 0^9) are not Aurifeuillians.
;

Exceptional Cases, {L = \). In a few cases, when x, y are small, the

lesser Aurifeuillian factor {L) reduces to Z, = l. In these cases the niimber
^y or 3' may be written i\ or ^¥' = 1 M, to show that JV or -V is tlie :

limiting case of an Aurifeuillian.

Ex. ,v = 2; iY'= 1-+(2.P)2 =1 :5; [L = l, J/=5].

x = 3; A'' = {P + (3.12)3} + (1 + 3.P) = 1:7; [L=l, M = 7].

16. Quotient- Aurifeuillians.

If -4, = Z/,il/j and A^=L^M^ be Aurifeuillians of same
order (m), and A^ he a divisor of A^ with quotient !E, thus
21 = jLi- Ai is an AurifeuUian of same order («») (40),

and n = 1L.m = ~= ^^' (40a),

^1 LiMi
Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N= Y T 1, ctr. 61

and the co-factors H, iH of E can be found directly by

tlie preceding E,ules, or by the property of sucli Quotients,
viz.
5f4
L2 Lo IfVV M'y Mn
^ = l,''m.^ •^ = m°'Z7 (^'^

These divisions can be performed algebraically; but, it is

often more convenient (in practical factorisation) to find the
(numerical) values of Z«,, il/,, L.^, J/^, and then perform the
divisions (arithmetically).

[When either L, or Mx contains a small divisor p,, the proper divisor

L, or 3/, ot either Lo or M2 is easily found, by determining Hrst (by trial)
which ot Ao, 3/2 contains ^1- Then the Hule is
"The multiple Lx or Mi of px is a divisor of the multiple
L2 or Mn of /),"... (42).
This process is most useful when 0'(w,) = /^,. (p'{m.,) — Ai are both Bin-
Aurifeuillians.

Ux. n = 2w^ gives iV' = (-'w')-'""+ = 0'(2).0'(2w).0' (2^-^), [Art. 96].

^
1

Here = =
0'(2.) , 0'(2.^)
^^^ ,
[Art. 96].

Now f (2), F'i'Ioj), F'i'lio-) are all Bin-Aurifeuillians so that 0'(2w),

0'(2«j') are Quotifiit Bin-Aunfeuillians, and may be resolved as abovej.

^x. ;i=18; A"' = (2.32)2-^'=0'(2).0'(6).0'(18);

0'(2) = F'(2)-l^'-l-l = (l^+l)'-2-18=(19-6):(19 + 6) = 2o: 13; =Z,,3/,
F'(6) = (182)=+ =(i83 4-l)=_2.183 = (58o3- 108) :(5833 + 10S)
1

= 5725 :5941 =L..M.,;

f '(18) = (18^)2+1 =( 18»+ 1)^-2. 18» = (18" + 1)- -(25.3')-

= 198358660513 98359920225 = £3 : 1 •
-'-^a

= 33358093: 37.37.25309;

[Here the small factor 5 in Lo and il/3 shows that Lj is the divisor of 3/,].

Pakt II. Arithmetical Factors.

17. The
finding of the arithmetical prime factors {p) of
the various is the most difficult, and
A.P.F. of F{n), F' (n)
most laborious, part of this research. The Theory of Numbers
is the guide in this part of the work.
The five following Articles, 18—205, apply equally to all

forms of <p, <p'.

62 Lt.-Col. Cunm)}gham, Factorisation of N= Y -+- 1, dec.

18. Linear forms of factors (p). All prime factors (/))

of the A.P.F., whicli occur in this Memoir, must be of the
following* linear forms,

For0(«). 0'('O> 7' = "'nr-t-l; for 0(?»), (f>\m), ;j = ww+ 1 .-.(43).

19. 2"= forms of factors (p). The A.P.F. of F(}i), &c.,

can always be (algebraically) expressed in the following
forms,
71 or m = ii+l gives (?t or w), 0'(» or w) = S- — mT- (44a),

71 or wi = 4i-l gives (Z!)(« or mj, 0'(?4 or tn) = S-\-mT'^ (446). ,

n or m= 2/jL, [m = w] gives 0'(« or m) = a* + b-= both i>- + ;u.7'=...(44c),

norvi = efi, [« = 2'', «> 1, /i = w], gives

0'{«or»n)=a2 + b* = c' + 2d« = S' + MT==S'^ + 2/x7"-...(44r;).

[The S, T in the above forms are of course different].

Each of these 2" forms involves in general a set of linear

forms of factors; but the fact of their being representations
of A.P.F. of F, F' reduces these to the single type (43)
already quoted. These 2'" forms are thus of little use in
factorisation, so will not be further treated of.

Quasi- Aur ifeuillian Forms.

20. The impure 2" forms
(P-+nxy Q') treated of in Art. 12-12r/ form an important
help in limiting the linear forms (45) of the arithmetical
factors of the various A.P.P". of F, F'.
When the determinant ±D = n xtj, or m xy of those forms,
has the form
±D = n.\y, or m.vj=/u,s' (45),

then the impure 2'" form, in which such A.P.F. would be in

general (algebraically) expressible under Art. 12— 12c^, reduces
to a pure 2'" form of determinant = fi, for then ±D
The A.P.F. = P- + »«.v}'(?-, or P'* + »i a;)' ^- becomes P- + iM{sQf (46).

These functions are here styled Quasi-Aurifeuillians, and

the conditions (45) which lead to them is styled the Quasi-
Aurifeuillian condition (from the analogy of the functions
treated of in Art. 15). The algebraic values of P, Q may be
taken from the Table of Art. 15. A
It will be seen that the pure
2'''
forms thus produced
depending on particular values of the elements u;, y are —
* Except that n or in itself is a divisor of </> [n or in) when n or in = {x~y), and
of when n or ?«= [x-¥y)\ but these cases do not occur with the foims
(/)'(» oi' "*)

(1), (2) of F{n), I<'(n) of this

Memoir.
 Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of JY -^ Y^^ 1, dtr. 63

additional to, and usually of difftrent determinant {±T) = fx)

to, those of Art. 15, wliicli are common to A.P.F. in j2;enenil
{i.e. for all values of x, y). Some examples will make this
clear.

Ex. Taking »i = lo, the two examples below show for 0(15) and (ji'dH),
when ^.v, y) = {l\ 3),^), or (5-, 5),').

Toji Line; The three impure 2>"= forms, common to all x, y.

2nd Line ; The Quasi-Aurifeuillian 2i<= forms of the above for certain x, y.
3rd Line ; The normal pure 2'« forms, common to all .r, y.
(x, y, \.ixtj F^+\hxvQ\ ; P'-^-^xyQ^ , P^-5x>,Q^ ; Im2mre2^<^.
0(15) \P,[W,o[HuY; P^ + b{sQY , p-'+{sQ)' , P--\5{s(2)^; Quas-Aw.
[x, y. ; t^-ou- ,
.
, T' + loV'' formal.
;

(X, y, \bxy ; P^-l5xvQ\ P'-3x>/Q- P' + .ixr/Q'' , ; Impure 2''^.

0'(15) r, 5.;^ 3(5?.)/^ P--3(sQ)-, P^-\5xyQ\ P- + {sQ,^ ; Qiias-Attr.
[x, y, ; A- + 3B^ , r^+15f7'^ , . ; ^-or7nal.

[Note that the P, Q are of course different in each form].

20a. Case of IX = I. The important case of the A.P.F.

— F''—{sQ'), which gives immediate (algebraic) factorisation,
has been fully tieatcd of in Art. 15 under the name Auri-
feitiUian. Referring to that Article it is seen that, under
the condition fx — 1 (whicli is that of Art. 15),
When 0(7!) or (p\n)=^P--{sQf, then 0'(h) or (j){n)= P'^ + {sQf...{M).

The latter form, conjugate to that of Art. 15, is styled Ant-

Aurifeuillian. An example will exhibit this property (47)
clearly.

Ex. Take « = 27;

i^(?0 = 27-"-l = 38'-l=*(Sl); i^'(")=27"+l=3"+I=*'(8I).
*(81)=0(1).0(3).0(9).0(27).0(81);
4>'(81) = 0'(1).0\3).0'(9).0'(27).0'(81).
Here, except 0(1) and 0'(I)
All the 0(3)... 0(81) are Trin-Ant-Aurifeidllians, (algebraically) ex-
pressible in form P'^+{sQ)''.

All the 0'(3)...0'(81) are Trin-Aurifeuillians, (algebraically) expressible

in form P- ~{!.Qf = L.M.

20b. Quasi- Aurifeuillians, Linear Forms of Factors.

The pure 2'"forms [P'^ jxisQ)'] arising from the Quasi-
Aurifeuillian condition (45) involve certain definite linear
forms of all arithmetical factors (p), usually different'^ from
that given by (43), which is connnon to all A.P.F. And,
wiien n is small, these linear forms are simple and few in

* This considerably limits the linear forms possible in such cases.

64 Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N ^ i^^T 1, &€.

nuni1)er. Tliose for sniall^* values of n or m are tabulated

below, up to n or m "^ 10.

2'"^
form
P= 4-gr+l ; f'-ar+],^; fi-tg-+l ; 20tB-+ 1, 3, 7, 9 ; 24-nr + l, 5, 7, 11

H-BT + l.Q.ll ; 40-or+l, 2, 9. II. 13, 19. 23, 37; . ; 8'nj-+

A'*— SB'-; t--bu^; g' — <-'h^ ; t' — ~iu^ ; t-—l{)u^
P= V2-m+\ 10^+1; ; 24-tir+l,5; 2S-nr+1,3. 9; 40w+ 1, 3. 9, 13

21. Residuacitij The following five Articles (21a— e) .

apply only to the A.P.F. of F(n)^ ^'('0 wherein A! = 1

i.e. only to the forms (1^ -F l)t of this Paper.

21a. 2"^ Residaacity.

When /( or m=2}—\, then 0(n or m) = (ji{hn or ^m) 110'(i« or ^m) ...(48a),

then 0(g« or ^m)~Q (mod;j), when (t/Jp).,= + 1 (486),

and 0'(^« or5w) = (mod ;:>), when (ijjp)„z= —l (48c),

Here these cases are at once determinable by the simple laws

of 2'" llesiduacity.

21^. Residuacity of order v.

Let ^ be the hast exponent satisfying the Congruence
^yp-ir"^! (mod;;)
/ (49),

where p = v%-\-\, ^ = (p — \)-^v (49a).

Here ^ is styled the Haupt-Exponent of y (modulo p), and y

is said to be a Residue of p of order v. this last relation is
often expressed thus

{ylp)i, = l, which means j'^ '

"^
=1 (496).

and here it is clear that

r,i=t, = [p—\)-^v, with (j/p)v=l (49e),

is the condition that ^(«0 or ip,' {m) =Q (mod p).

21c. Case of {Y T 1). As a result of Art. 18, taking

a; =3/,
0(«) or0'(;O = M-A.F.F. of (y^+l) = (mod ja)

requires p = kY -^\ (50),

whence ( — A-F) in + 1 (mod p).

Hence F^ + l = (modp), if (--6)^= ±1 (mod p) (50a).

* For the linear forms when n or vi> 10, see Legendre's Theorie des Nombre.i
3rd Ed., Paris, 1830; t. i., Tab, 111. to VII.
t And therefore not to the form (A'-^-^ + Y^^).
 Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N=Y + 1, dc 65

When k is small (compared to 1^) tills affords an easy way

of testing whether ^ is a divisor of ^ (») or ^' {n).

21d. Residuacity-Ruhs. The above test may be written

^(p-i).i-_
+(_i)r [mod^j], or (/c/;;)*= ±(-1)^ (506).

Hules are known for determining whether (^z/p)^=l for the

cases of small indices (A), viz.
k = 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24,

but they are dependent on the theory of complex numbers,

and are too ditficult for ordinary use. They have been
reduced to really simple forms tor the eight small bases (z)
z = 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12,

but these Rules* are too lengthy to quote here.

21e. Simple Cases. A simple application is when ^- = 2,

4, 8, 16; the reduced results are shown in the Table below:

p Y Y^^+\ {modp) r^=-l (mod jo)

2r+l . p = Sto-+1,3; p^S-xir+0,7 (51«),

4F+1 . j9 = S-cr+l,5; . (516),

fw (2//;)s=-l; (2/;^)s= + l (-51^).

"^ + ^
\. + i; {i/Pk=-^ (old),
{2lp),=.

Ifiy+l
^"^^^ i*^
(2»,= -l; (2/;^),= + l (ole),
\. (2lp),= + l; {2IpU=-1 (51/;.

To apply these Rules, note that

p = 8'rsr+l=a.- + {i(3y- gives (2//;),= (T)/3 (52a),

p = S^+l=iU + \y- + iSliy- gives (2/p), = (T)"^'^ (526).

21f. Table of Roots y {mod p)- The short Table B

following gives the Results of the above Art. 21— 21e, i.e.
the proper' roots (y) of the Congruences

M.A.P.F. of{yy-\) = 0, {y''+l) =Q (mod p &;/> 1000) [y< p&p"]... {53),

omitting however (for shortness' soke) all primes (p) of forms

p = 2y + 1, 4_?/+ 1, where y is a prime as the roots (y) thereof :

can be at once inferred by the simple Rules of Art. 2lZ»,

„=2y + l= 1^'^ + ^' gives jyi' -1 = (modj*), [y prime] (53rt),

1 8tsr + 7, gives3'»+l =0 (modp), [jy prime] (536),

p = 4y + l gives j'y-l EEO, and (23')«s'-l=0 (modp), [y prime]... (53c).

* See two Papers On the mimei-ical factors o/"(a"-l) by the late C. E. Bickraoic
in Mesteiiger of Maths., vol. xxv., 189G, pp. 1-44; and xxvi., 1897, pp. 1-38.

VOL. XLV. I"

66 Lt.-Cd. CuiiningJmm, Factorisation of N =Y^ -v- 1, &c.

Proper Roots [y] of if =± 1 [mod p d' p"), [;/ </>]•

Tab. B.

p
 Lt.-Col. Cunningham. Factorisation of JS =Y T 1- &c. 67

22. Factorisation-Tahles. At the end of tliis Paper

follow three Tables (I,— 111.) the principal outcome of this—
]\len)oir —
giving the factorisation into prime factors as com-
pletely as practically possible with the means available.

Tab.I.,II.; F(r) = (r^-]); F\Y)={Y^ +\); [up to r= 50].

Tab. III.; f (Xr) = (X^^- F^^); F'{XY) = {X^^ +Y^^^); [uptoXr=30].
The following is an Abstract of the degree of complete-
ness of the factorisation attained; tiie larger numbers are of
course very incomplete.

y Bi'Ses Cotnpltte Good Pi ogress Limit

F(Y); r= ,
1 to 16; 18,20,21,22,24,25,30; 27,28,82,84,35,36,40,42,44,4.5,48; 50
F'[Y); r- 1 iol6; 18,27; 21,23,24,25,28,30,33 35,36,45; 50
F{XY); XY= 1 to 2i; 24, 15.2,6.5; 28,10.3 30
F'iXY); XY= 1 to 18; 21; 22,24,15.2,10.3,6.5 30

The Tables themselves are described ia the Articles 22 a-c, following

22a. Arrangement of Factors. Each number i^ or F" is shown resolved

as far as possible into its A.P.F., and those A.P.F. which are Auiifeuillians
are (usually) resolved into their twin co-factors (L, M).
Each A.P.F. and each L, M
are shown resolved as far as possible into
their arithmetical factors.
The A.P.F. are arranged in order of magnitude, the lowest on the left,
and the highest (the M. A.P.F) on the rigl.t; and the L precedes the M.
Within each A.P.F., and within each L or J/, the arithmetical factors
{p and p*-) are arranged in order of magnitude of the primes (;j), the
lowest on the left, and the highest on the right.
In incomplete factorisation a blank space is left on the right (of the
incomplete A.P.F., L, or M) to admit of the insertion in MS. of new
factors.

226. Special multiplication symbols (• | || ; :)• These are used to

separate various kinds of factors in such a way as to indicate the nature of
the factors.
Use of dot (.). This is used between arithmetical factors in the same
A.P.F., (but not between the A.P.F. themselves).
Adot on tlie right of an arithmetical factor, followed by a blank,
indicates the existence of other unknown arithmetical factors.

Use of bars (| and ||). These are used between the A.P.F. of (X*- F«),
where e = 'l'^, (see Art. 7), thus

X'- Y'={X- T) {X+ Y) (X2+ I I

Y^) I
(X^+ F^) I
... II
(x''+ Y^"),

the double bar (||) being placed just before the M. A.P.F.
Thus the arithmetical factor, or group of factors, between a pair of bars
(I ... I)
is always an A.P.F. of above form.

Use of semi-colon (;). This is used between A.P.F. not of form (X'— Y').
This occurs in both F(>0, F\n) when n = w, (see Art. 8), and also in F'(")
when n = eu), (see Art. 96).
A semi-colon on the extreme right indicates the complete factorisation
of theM.A.P.F.
Use of semi-colons (;) between bars (! ... |). This occurs in the case of
68 Lt.-Col. Cunningliam^ Factorisation of N^ Y -f- 1, &c.

F(ew), which is first resolved into its A.P.F. with respect to the exponent
e = 2'\ (see Art. 9a), thus

Each of the above A.P.F. of form (X*'*'=y*"), where k = 2", is further

resolved (see Art. 96) into its A.P.F., which are separated by semi-colons
(;), thus taking the form

'*
Use of colon (:). This is used between the twin " Aurifeuillian Factors
(L, il/) of an Aurifeuillian. These Aurifeuillians occur as complete A.P.F.,
so that their ends are marked by either bars (|) or semi-colons (;)— [see
above].
Use of queries (?). These are used in two ways :
(1) A
query (?J on right of a large arithmetical factor (>10") indicates
that this factor is beyond the powers of the Tables available to resolve or
determine primes.
i'i) A query on right of the (small) arithmetical factors of an "Auri-
feuillian Z-Factor " indicates that it is uncertain whether this belongs to
the Z- or il/-factor.
Blank spaces. In the incomplete factorisations blank spaces have been
left for the insertion of the (as yet unknown) prime factors in MS.

22c. Special column-headings. The entries in four columns on the right,

headed Fac, Aur, Lim., In., have the following meanings :

Fac. This column shows the number of A.P.F. in F (I ) or F'{Y).

Aitr. This column shows the order of Aurifeuillians (if any) in F (Y)
or F\Y).
Lim. This column contains symbols (f, §) which show — (in case
J, If,
of incomplete factorisation only) — the limit to which the search for divisors
{p andp") has been carried, thus
* to 10000; •[[ to 50000 § to 100000 [or a little further].
t to 1000; ; ;

be seen that the search has been carried to at least lOOOO

[It will
throughout Tables I., II., and in all but three cases in Tab. Ill ].
In. This column indicates by "initials (B, C, &c.) according to the —
list below— the names (so far as known to the present author) of the
original workers who have effected, or have materially contributed to, the
various factorisations —
B. Bickmore, Chas. E. Lo. LoofF, Dr.
C. Cunningham, Allan Lu. Lucas, Ed.
E. Euler, L.
Where no initials are given, the present author is responsible.

Appendix.
In this Appendix is given a short description of the
extensive* Tables which were available tor the Factori-
sations of this Paper.

23. Tables for factors of {Y 1). T

It will be seen from
Art. 2lh that the search for factors (;>) of y"=pi = mod j) is
involved in that of finding 'proper roots (?/) of the Congruence
>'"'-l=0 (modi!)). [m = ?=(/)-l)-^j/] (51).

* These Tables have bten over 20 years under preparation.

Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of X=Y -\- 1, d:c. 69

Tlie search is llierefore dependent chiefly on Tables of the

sohitions, i.e. pruper roots {y) of that Congruence. The
Tables available are described in the Art. 2Za—d following.

23rt. Benschles Tables. These Tables* give the completef set of roots
{y<kp) ol the Congruence
j.m_i =o (mod />> 1000),

for the following values of m —

:

m — every odd prime, and prime power < 100,

every odd composite up to 69 (except 65),
every power of 2 up to 2'= 128.
every multiple of 4 up to 100 (except 88, 92) and 120.
Tlie roots (>') of y"'+l ==0 are not especially mentioned, but appear as
follows ;

The roots (y'<hp) of y'^+l rEO, with v)=io, appear as negatirs roots
(—jV) of y— 1=0, with ?«=((>
The roots {y' <\p) of j'"' + lEEO, with ;« = €, appear as roots (j) of
^"-1=0.
It will be seen that these tables give a very extended range of the
index (m); but the range of the modulus {p) is so restricted (/;;:)> 1000)
that their use in factorisation is very limited.

236. The auth:>r'' s Tables. The author has had extensive Tables of this
sort J compiled, giving the complete set of proper mots y, y' :—
When m = lo ; of j'"' -1=0, and y'"' + 1 = (mod ;; and p").

When m =t; ot v'"' +1= (mod p and p"

for the values of m stated below, and up to the limits of ;j and j)'^ stated :
—
?« =2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 I
5,7.9, I 10,11,13,14,15;
j9 and i&«> 100000 | 60000 | 50000 (or a little over).

23i:. Creak's Tables. Mr. T. G. Creak has compiled TablesJ§ of tlie

same sort as the above for the values vi,stated below, and within the limits
of p and'p" stated :

»«=i6 to 50, 52, 54, 56, 63, 64, 72, 75 (mod ;; and /;''> 103 up t^ iq').

23d. Small bases j';^12. Besides the above, the author has in —
conjunction with Mr. H. J. Woodall, A. R.C.Sc, compiled Tables giving
the Haupt-Exponents (^) and Max. -Residue Indices (i/) of the following
Bases (_>) :

2/ =2,11 for all primes and prime-powers ;f> 100000.

y = 3, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12,^ for all primes and prime-powers ;;|> 15000.
y = 3, 12,** for all f =
5, 6, 7, 11, w> 105 and = i :)> 210, for all primes
and prime-powers 50000. ^
* Tajchi complexer Primznhlen, by Dr. C. Reusclile, Berlin, 187.>. G
t Some errata have been found in this part of these Tables. list of these A
will be published heieafter.
I These fables aie now in
course of publication.
§ These Tables Mr. Cieak has kindly placed at the author's
dispo.=al.

In five papers on " Haupt-Expoueuts of 2" in the Quarterly Journal of

[]

Math., vol. xxxvii xlii., xliv., xlv., ;

1900-1914.
^ In course of publication.
** At present only iu ilS.

f2
70 Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N= Y^ + 1, dec.

24. Tables for factors of (Z^^? Y^^).

The Tables available for this purpose are described in
Art. 24a below. They differ in use from the Tables des-
cribed in Art. 22a— d for factorising the simpler forms
(F^+l) in that the particular A.P.F. of or F' {n) F{n)
to which the divisors formed belong cannot always be iden-
tiHed from the Tables themselves.
These Tables are also not nearly so exte»»slve as the
previous ones, so that the factorisation of {X ^
XT'
Y xr)
cannot be carried to such high limits as in the simpler case.

24a. Cano/i. Aiithmelicus. This Canon* gives two kinds of Tables for
every prime (p) and prime-power (;;") as moduli up to p and p" 1000. ^
One Table gives the Least + Residue (R) of all the powers gP of the base (j,
up to the limit p < p or ;/. {i.e., it gives R to Argument p). The other
Table gives p to Argument /{, with same limits.
Here g is in every case some prirnitice rooff of the modulus {p or p'^).

Use of the Table. The right-hand Table gives the powers {g", g^), such
that
= x, and g^^^y (mod p or p").
g"

Hence =
.r"':?:j"' =
«/'»"qrff'"/' [mod p or p«].
^'"/^{5r™»-»'/3q:l),

Hence .v"'-j"» = (mod p), m(a-/3) = [mod (p-1)],

if

.v™_y' = (mod ;;"), if m («-^) = [mod -r],

vm^^,m = o (mod p), if m(«-/3) = [mod i(P-')]'

but not =0 [mod (/; — !)],
x'"+y"' = (mod ;/), if m {a-fi) = [mod ^t],

but not ^0 [mod x],

where x = (p—l). ;;""'.
This Table suffices for finding all the divisors p and ;)''5>1000 for all
bases (.v, y) whatever, because the Base (^f) of each Table is always a
primitive root of themodulus {p or ;/).
[The use (in factorisation) is very limited on account of the lestricted
limit of the moduli {p and /;" '^ 1000)].

246. Binary Canon. This CanonJ is quite similar to the Cduon

Aritktneticus (Art. 24a), and has the same scope. It differs only in ihat the
Base 2 is used in e\ery Table throughout (instead of a primitive root, g).
It can be used in precisely the same way as described in Art. 24a but :

its use is of course limited to bases (.v, y) such that real values (a, /?) exist
giving 2** = ^;, 2P=y {raod. p or p'<).

* Canon Arithneticus, by C. G. J. Jacobi, Berlin, 1839. This Canon hag

unfortunately many Errata "the Appendix contains five 4to pages of these. The
;

present author has'found a few more a list of these will he given hereafter.
:

t The priuiiLive roots (g) selected are frequently so laige as to be very

inconvenient for numerical calculations, eg. with ;) = '.'97, the chosen = 6oi). _<7

Fortunately this is of no importance when" (as is usual) only the Residues of

g" are required.
XBinnrij Canon, London, 1900, by tlie present author, prepared for the British
Association.
 Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N= Y +1, dLr.. 71

24c. Other Canons. The author has had Tables* prepared giving (at
sight) the Least Residues {R, R'), both + and — of the powers [zl') of the
,

small Bases {z) named below on division by all primes (;;) and prime-
powers [pi^) up to the limits of p, ;;, named below:

Unse s =
 ;
2 Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N= Y +1, d:c.

Factorisation Table of F{Y] = Y^ — 1).

[ Tab. 1.

,c

1 o;
2 I
3;
3 2; 13;
4 3!5l'7;
5 4; 11:71;
6 5;43ll7;3J;
( 2-3;29.4733;
8 7l3;3!5; i3lli7;24i;
9 2; i3;7S7ll4; 1:7; 19:37;
10 9;4i.27i||ii; 9091;
11 2-5; 15797-1806113;
12 11; i57|i3;i7:i9ll5-29;
20593;
13 4.3; 1803647:53.264031;
14 13:8108731113.5; 7027567;
15 2.7; 241; 1. 4931; 61 39225301;
1

16 i|3l5l'7|2.S7lt)5537ll64i-67oo4i7;
17 16; 2699538733.^:19152352117.?
18 i7;343; 991-343271119; 307; 73465841;
19 2.9;
20 19; 251:11.61 13. 7; 15238111401; 41. 2801. 22236 1;
21 4-5; 463; 43-631-3319; 4789-6427:227633407;
3-7; 67.353-'i76469537l|23; 89-285451051007;
2.t i; 461.1289.
24 23; 60. I25; 7. 791577; 349: 13,7311331777; 97- '34793633; 1

2.5 4; ii-7i;938425i:'Oi.25i.40i||2.3; 521; 1901.50150933101;

26 25; l|27;937-6449.38299-397073.
27 2; '3; 757; 109.433.8209; 3889.
28 27; 113.4422461I29; 13007:35771115.137; 281.
29 4-7; 59-^
SO 29;49.i9;83793i;i22ii.5i94ii6i||3i;i3 67;ii.7i26t;27i483i.5i783i;
31 2-3-5;
32 3 '13; I '!5;5-4i| 17; 61681I257; 4275255361 II65537;
33 32; II23; 2113. ; 67.

34 3. II; 103.137.

115-7; 307-443- 153 II 12643.28051. 4708729;

3o 2.17; 31.49831; 43.44007727; 281.
36 5;43; 19.2467I7; 31; 46441I37; 13.97; 73-54i:55ii7
II1297; 1678321; 577. 3313. 2478750186961.?
37 4.9; 149.1999.7993.?
3S 37; 113-13; 191.
39 2.19; 7.223; 53. 131. 157. ;3I2l.
40 3.13; 2625641 141; 121.20641I1601; 281.5501:241.1758111
II769-3329;
41 8.5; 83?
42 41; 13.139; 3851. 1460117; 1009. II

II43; 1723; 29.337.548591; 547.19489.

43 2.3.7; 173.6709.
44 43; 6337- 19-5; 23.43i6489:89-99i.3037||
1113-149;
45 4.11; 19.109; 1471:2851; 10009.829639; 2891101:31.183451;
181.
46 9-5;
II47;
47 2.23; 1693.?

48 47; 13.181149; 37:6115.461; 53o6ii3!53o84i7; 8929. 3155927939II

II17-H3- ;97-'93-
49 2-3; 29-4733; 3529. II

8; 113:911; 197.883. :3823.

60 49; 6377551; 151- II

113.17; 11.557041; 251.

 Lt.-Col. Cunningham^ Factorisation of iV= I'^q: l, &c, 7H

Factorisation Table of F' [Y) = ri'+

[ 1) Tab. II.

)'
74 Lt.-Col. Cunninghcun, Factorisation of N=Y Y —+ 1, ttr

XUl'J

J71V «o ^ •
z :2 c^
.CD . OCO
.9»^ I
<M(MlMC^T(<CO<M-»<ca(M<MC4-*-<l<TJ<
F9

1^

H
>1
 Lt.-Col. Cunningham^ Factorisation of N=:- Y + 1, &c. 16

Appendix II.

Erraia in Ed. Lucas's Tables of {Y" — nzZ-).

\°. Comptes Rendus de V Association Fraiti-aise pour V Arancement dcs

Sciences, Paris, 1878, pp. 164 173. —
Sur les Formides de Cauchy et de
Leiennc-Dirichlet. By Ed. Lucas.
page 168. Col. of " Coefficients de F," :

Lineof = 29. ?j i^o>- 33 + 15, ^«<rf 33+ 13 + 15.

Lineof;i = 33. For-\^], Read +\^].
Lineofrt = 41. For —bl, Read +67.

2". Separate Reprint of above Paper, Paris, 1878 :

page 5, line 13. For z,. Read Z,.

page 5. Coi. of "Coefficients de }',''>

Line of w = 29. For 33 + 15, Read +33 + 13 + 15.

3°. Sur la Serie recurrente de Fermat, by Ed. Lucas, Rome, 1879.

page 6. Table of " Formules de Mm. Le Lasseur, &c."

In the formulae for Y

Line of ^ = 22. For +.v^>'^ Read +Ux^yK
Line of ^ = 29. For +I5.v"j'3, Read +13x'^y^.

Line of ^ = 33. For -19.v3y^ + , Read -59x^y^-.

The Tables in tlie above Memoirs are not identical they differ only in :

the signs (±) of the coefficients .4,., B, when « = 4? + 3 for all odd values of ?•.

The signs in the Table of Memoir 1° apply directly to (p [n) those in :

Paper apply diiectly to (/>'(«), when 7i = -ii-^3, this being the factorisable
3°
Aurifeuilliau form these signs are adopted in Tab.
: of the present A
Memoir.
 ( 76 )

NOrE ON CLASS RELATION FORMULA.

By L. J. Mordell, Birkbeck College, London.

Let F(m) be the munbi-r of uneven classes, G (^m) the

whole number ot classes of tonus of deterrniinint —m, the
classes (1, 0, 1), (2, 1, 2) and their derived classes being
counted as i and respectively; to F{0) we attribute the
-^-

value 0, to 6^(0) the value — j^^- Let a be any divisor of vi

which is <\/m and of the same parity as its conjugate
divisor d. In any summation involving a, we take ^a instead
of a when a = \//n. Further, call any divisor of in, h or c
according as its conjugate divisor is odd or even.

Put Q=^F{n)q\

where as usual <^ = e"^'". Then

II

where n — is omitted from the right-hand suninialion,

and e'(x)=^, ^o.

= ^oo(^-)-

We also have more or less similar equations when 0^,, [x, qj)
on the left-hand side is replaced by manv other functions,
e.g. ^00 (ic, men), or again when Q ami R are replaced by
series in which the coefficient of g" is equal to the class
number of particular kinds of quadratic forms of determinant
— 9i, e.g. taking amongst those reduced f^rms whose third
coefficient is odd the excess of the number of those whose
 Mr. Mordell^ Note on class relation formulce. 77

first coefificlent is odd over the number whose first coefficient

is even.
The derivation of formulsfi of this kind is extremely
simple, and will form the subject of a paper entitled '' Class
relation formulse," which 1 hope will appear in due course of
time in the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics. I may-
notice, however, a few obvious applications of the formulae
A and B.
Putting x =^ in (A), we find

•(!'),
11=0 V 1 +q''^''

w=0 1=0

where if t is zero, we Avrlte ^n for the coefficient n. Equating

coefficients of ^"', we have

F{m)- 2F{m-l'') + 2F(m - 2') -. . .= S a (-1 )5(n+'^)+i...( 1 ).

But, putting rw = 0, we have

8^/9„ =-4 2 ng^"- fiZJL ]

i
1 ^,0^00^0,"

The second term on tlie right-hand side can be written as

1 1' = 1
it' e^^ -n'
i:
dx
KM , when 03 = 0,

and this is found to be

00 i2k-1
8 S

so that equating coefficients of 5"', we find

i^(w) + 2F(m-rO + 2i^(wi-20+...=-2a + S5....(2).

Putting now 03 =^ in (^),

«>
Q 6 '6
/I _o2»«x \

=^J»(-'^""'^"HrT?=' +
---
78 M7'. Mordell, Note on class relation formulce.

and adding this to equation (l'), we have

=S [24F(»)- 12 G^ («)]?" (3)-

M=0
Putting rc = gives

\11B -
 ^[r. Mordell, Note on class relation formulcR. 79

But more than this, it contains Implicitly tiie following well-

known equations, due to Kronecker,*

4ii^(4« + l)2K4»+i) = ^^^^'^^,

7i=0

00

8 i F(8» + 3) ^J(8»+3) = B\^.

For remembeiing that

F{n)=G{ii) if ?j = l, 2mod4,
2F{n) = G {n) „ n = 7 mod 8,

4:F{n) = 3G [n] „ n = 3 mod 8,

and putting successively iq, I'q, L*q, t*q tor q in equation (3],
multiplying in older by t~\ t"', i"^, t"*, and adding, we have

48ii^(4n + l)$4«+l= 2 r[l+22*+ 2(2"+. .. + t'-(25 + 2r/+. ..)]',

J-

or if ^ = + 2f/+22''+..., B=2q + 2q^ +

l ...

4
*
the right hand is S t (^ + t'-^)^ which is easily found to be
»=i
12A^B. Writing now q for q* we have the first result, and
similarly foi' the others.
We also notice that we write a;=l/^, p an integer, in
it"

equations {A, B), we can find formula for ^ F{r/i — r'^),

r
^G{m — r'), where r takes all positive values =±/;modp,
)•

where k is given, for which r" is not negative. w—

These
t'ormulse involve finding the coefficient of 5'" in expressions

such as ——~ 6\, (lip) ^„„. We may notice that formulae for

expressions of this kind have been found by Hurwitz.f

They involve the coefficients of q'" in the expansion as a
power series in q' of the integrals of the first kind belonging

* Cf. Heimite, Collected Workg, vol. ii., pages 109, 240; Acta Afathematica,
vol. 5, page 2'J7 ; Kronecker, Monatsberichte, 1802, page 309 ; 1875, page 229.
t See Klein-Fricke, Modul-functionen, vol. ii., p. 6S5.
80 Mr. Mordell, Xote on class relation formulm.

to the fundamental polygon defined by the linear fractional

group of order /?. Tliere is no difficulty in identifying
products and quotients of theta functions as integrals of the
tirst kind whenever it is possible, but tliis need not trouble
us here.
But we find interesting results of this kind from the ex-
pansion of Qd^J\00., mw). For instance

2^^„(0, 2co) =S n (- l)«+'-+l $«-2,-^

where r takes all integral values from —\{n — X] to ^», both

included. From the coefficients of 5"' we find

2\F{m)-lF{m -2.1') + 2F(m - 2 . 2') - 2F(m - 2 . 3') +...]

= Sa: (— 1)^+2'+^ where m= a;'''—2/, aj> 0, and y is included

in the range \x, — ^(o; - 1). Similarly

2g^„„(0, 20)) = - la;5"'+H„^„„(0, 2c.) ^=,,(0, 2a,).

in—\

Again
F{2m) - 2F{2m - 3 . l') + 2i^(2?/? - 3 2") - . 2F{2m - 3 3=)+ . ...

= (-l)"'-2x-,
where now x^ ~?>y' = in, with x>
and -\{x-l)<y< \x.
These appear to be results of a new type.
In the formulae due to Hurwitz, the rpiadi-atic form is
taken a.s ax"^ + hxy + by' A
very simple expression for the
.

class number of such forms of given discriminant has been

found by Kronecker. I may add that, when tlie discriminant
is negative, 1 have found Kronecker's expression for the
class number in a simple and apparently general way without
evaluating expressions such as ^ (ax'' + hxy + by')'^ wherein
x,y ^

p->l. This investigation contained in a paper entitled

is

"The class number for definite binary quadratics," which

will, I hope, appear in the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics.
 ( 81 )

SOME FORMULA IN THE ANALYTIC THEORY

OF NUMBERS.
By 5. Ramanujan,

I HAVE found the followinj^ formulae incidentally in the

course of other investigations. None of thetn see»n to be of
particular importance, nor does their proof involve the use of
any new ideas, but some of them are so curious that they
seem to be worth printing. I denote by dix) the number of
divisors of x, if x is an integer, and zero otherwise, and by
^ [s] tlie Riemann Zeta-fauction.

where = 1"'- 3"'+ 5"'- 7-'+...

v (») .

(3) d\\) +ff (2) +ff (3) +...+ d'{n)

= An (log »)'+ Bn (logn)' + Gn logn ^Dn + (/«*+'),*

where
IT' IT

7 is Euler's constant, C, D more complicated constants,

and e any positive number.

(5) in-'d'-{n) = [^[s)f<i>{s\

1

where (^ is) is absolutely convergent for R [s] > i, and in

particular

* If we assume the Riemann hypothesis, the error term here is of the form
(«*"').

t Mr. Hardy has pointed out to me that this formula has been given ah-eady
by Liouville, Journal de Mathematiqaes, ser. 2, vol. 2, 1857, p. 393.

VOL. XLV. G
82 Mr. Ramanuja7i, Some formulce in

d{l) d{2) d{3) '" d{n)

and A,, A^...A^ are more complicated constants.

More generally

(8) d'(l) + d'(2) + d'{3)-\-...+ d'{n)

= n{^.(lognf-i+J,(lognf-2+...+ A,,| + 0(n^+*)*

if 2' is an integer, and

(9) d'(l)+d'(2) + d'{^)+...+ d'(n)

if 2' is not an integer, the ^'s being constants.

(10) d{l)d(2)diS)...d(in) = 2''^'''^''^''^''^-''^^''\

where

0=7+ ||log,(l+-^)-|;| (2-^ + 3-^ + 5-^+-.. .)•

Here 2, 3, 5, ... are the primes and

*W = ^-^' + ^1^ (7 +,,- +^.(^ + '

1) -y,+V -1)+...
n iogn (logy</^ O^g'O

1
= — + 7" 7,« + 72* 3
.,

where ^(1 +s) "Ta*' +•••

or

r!7,= Lim|(logiy+i(log2r4-...-f^(log.)'---^ (logvr'l

(u) <;o„) = s^(»).;(|)<^(^) = SM(S)i(|)rf(|),

* Assuming the Riemann hypothesis.

 the analytic theory of numbers. 83

where S is a common factor of it and v, and

1 ^~At(n)

If Z)„(n) = c?(v) + c^(2y)+...+ ^(»?;),

we liave

(12) i)„(») = S/.(8)^(|)A(|).

where h is a divisor of v, and

(13) DXn) = a(v) nQogn + 2y - l) + ^(y) « + A„(»0,

where
"a(v)
2 —
;— = ^
r(-^)
-^
r—
+ s)' ,
r.^(v)
i,
—V
t"
= 1^(5)^1+5)
>^^7TX7\~
4(1+5)
'
1 f' ^(1 1

and ^„(»0 = 0(n^ logn).*

(14) (/(y + c) + d{2v + c) + d{3c + c) -^...+d (nv + c)

= a/y) n (log« + 27 - 1) + l3^(v) n \^ {n),

r v^ r(i-H^) kc-^-) r(i+-'') <^-.(ici)i'

a/j<) being the sum powers of the divisors of n

of the sth
and a\{H) tlie derivative of cr^{n) with respect to s, and
Ajn)= 0{n^ logn)t.
The formulae (1) and (2) are special cases of

^^^ ^{2s-a-b)
= 1-aJl) cT,(l) + 2-V„(2) cr,(2) + 3-V„(3) c7,(3) +...;
. .X »,(s)77(s-a)»7(s-^')»7(s-a-J)
^ ^ (l-2^^'""''')^(2s-a-^)
= rV„(l) (T,(l)- 3-(r„(3) (7,(3) + 5-V,(5) .7,(5) -...

* It seems not unlikely that A„ («) ia of the form [n***). Mr. Hardy has
recently shown that A,(m) is not of the form o{(?j log w)' log lop; ?j}. The same is

true in this case also.

t It is very likely that the order of Aj,_<.(w) is the same as that of A,(«).
84 Mr. Ramannjan, Formula in theory of numbers.

It is possible to find an approximate formula for the

general sum

(17) ^„(l)^i(l) + <^„(2)<r,(2)+...+ o-„(n)cr,(n).

The general formula is complicated. The most interesting
cases are a = 0, J = 0, when the formula is (3); a = 0,6=1,
when it is

^^^^ ^^^^^0og« + 2c) + «^(^)»

r(3)
where = 7-4 + r(2)
jr^ - YT^. '

and the order of E{n) is the same as that of Aj(?0; and

a= 1, J= 1, when it is

(19) %n'^{^)^E{n),

where E{n)=0\n\\ogn)% Ein)i^o{n'\ogn).

If s> 0, then

(20) <T, (1) <T^ (2) (T, (3) 0-. (4) ...a, {n) = 6 c' (w !)\
where 1>^> (1 -2"*) (1-3'') (1 - 5-')...(l --=7"'),

m is the greatest prime not exceeeding »j, and

If

(i + 2 + 2* + 2' + 2" +-}'^ = i + S r (n) 2",

so that K («) '/ («) =2 >• (v<) /«"',

1

then

(22) /(l) + r^(2) + r'(3)+...+/^(H)

= - (log«H-C)+0(n'*+^),
4
where

C= 47 - 1 + I log2 - logTT 4- 4 log r(|) - ^, r (2).

These formulae are analogous to (1) and (3).
 ( 85 )

AN INTERPRETATION OF PENTASPHERICAL
COORDINATES.
By T. a Lewis, M.A.

1. In Cartesian coordinates the position of a point is at

once determined by its coordinates but if the system of ;

coordinates due to M. Gaston Darboux is employed (called

pentaspherical in 3-space, and by extension available for
7«-space in general) the position of a point when its coordinates
are given has not, so far as I know, been investigated so as
to lead to a similarly easy geometrical determination. This
can however be done.

2. It is known [Messenger of Mathematics, vol. xliv., 1915,

p. 161) that if a:, ?/, 3, ..., be the rectangular Cartesian
coordinates of a point, and a;,, a?,, x^, ..., x^^^ its Darboux
coordinates; and if a^., Z>^., ... be the Cartesian coordinates of
the X;"' vertex of reference of the Darboux system, then

2a; +2
86 ilir. Leivis, Interprelation of pentaspkerical coordinates.

any point whatever may be regarded as the mean centre of

the ?i + 2 vertices for the system of multiples

^n.^PnJPx^ '"n.JPn.JPjj &C., &C.,

since the sum of these multiples is zero.

Therefore the system of multiples for the n + 1 vertices
from the first to the {n + I)"' is

ip»^X-Pn..^nJpi'^ (P,»'v-P«.20p/) &C., &C.

4. This leads to an equally simple method for determining

geometrically the centre of a circle or ??-sphere.
If the equation of the circle, &c., be given in its general
form

the coordinates of the centre are given by

^'k =P {p-^^kPk)IPv

where p is the radius of the circle or ??-sphere.

The system of multiples at the vertices for which the
centre of the circle, &c., is the mean centre is therefore

p7/)/ - 2a, p/p,, />Vp./

- 2a, p/pj, &c.

Since —.,+ —,+...+ -^r- = 0,

Pi Pi P «+»

this is equivalent to the system

Thus the centre is at once determined.

Jfor instance, take the equation to the circle

P,a;, + p,:r, + P3«^3 = 0.

The centre is seen to be at the centre of gravity of the
triangle of reference.
 ( S7 )

A CIRCLE SIMPLY RELATED TO A TRIANGLE.

By T. C. Lewis, M.A.

1. Let ABG be a triangle, P tlie ortliocentre.

On AD^ BE, CF, the perpendiculars from the angular
points on the opposite sides, measure distances AB, BK, CL
equal to p^, p,, Pj respectively, i.e.

AH'=p^'= 1 (6*+ c'- a') = he cos A •

&c.

Take points at one third of the distance from A to K, and

from A to L, from B to H
and from B to Z, from 6' to //
and G to K.
A circle passes through these six points, and its centre is at
G, centre of gravity at the triangle.
the It has interesting
geometrical properties.
Through B and G draw lines parallel to AC, AB, meeting
at A'
Then A'IC=\[d'+V+c'')

= A'L\
Therefore a circle with centre at A', the square of whose
radius is pi'+ P,^+ P^\ passes through the points K, L.
Now AA'=^AG.
Therefore -4 is a centre of similitude of this circle, with
centre at A\ and of a circle with centre at the square G
of whose radius, /o, is ^ (/3,^-f/3/ + /3j"). And the latter circle
will pass through the points at one third of the distance from
A ^and to L.
to
Similarly it passes through the remaining four of the six
points mentioned. Therefore the proposition is established.
The six points determine a hexagon, three alternate sides
of which are parallel to, and two thirds of the length of the
sides of the triangle ABG] while the remaining sides are
parallel to, and one third of the length of the sides of the
triangle HKL.
Six other points on the circle are similarly determined If
AH, BK, GL be taken in the opposite direction.
The remaining centre of siijiiiitude of the two circles is at
D', the middle point of BG. Therefore if any one of the four
points K, L be joined to D' and produced to a point whose
,

distance from D' is one third of the joining line, such point
88 Mr. Leivis^ A ch-cle i^elated to a triangle.

also lies on the circle with the centre at G. Thus altogether

twenty-four points on the circle are deternained, and the circle
might be called the 24-polnt circle.

2. The square of the tangent from any angular point A is

aq^-p'^Ip:
whence the Intersections with the sides can be determined.
So the product of the segments of a chord through P Is

AP.PD,ox-pI.
3. Using Darboux coordinates the equation to the
circle is

for this circle has Its centre at G and Its radius equal to p.
So also the circle with centre A passing througii K
and L is

The interpretation of the former equation is that the circle

is the locus of a point Q such that

qa:'^qb'^qc'=p',\-p:\p'.

It be noted that the circumscribing and nine-point

may
have equations and corresponding geometrical relations
circles
which are not so simple. Their equations respectively are

and P,a;, + Pv^'2+P3^3+P.^4=0,

and they are the loci of a point Q such that for the cir-
cumscribing circle
QA^QB-^^QG^-Qr - p: ^ p:-^ p:- p:,
and for the nine-point circle

QA^QB'^qc'^Qr=p:^p:^p:'rp:

when i?, B' are the radii of the circumscribing and nine-
point circles.
 ( 89 )

THE BROCARD AND LEMOINE CIRCLES.

By T. C. Lewis, M.A.

1. Tf K isogonal conjugate of the centroid of a

is tlie

triangle ABC, and

the centre of the circumscribed circle,
the Brocard circle is the circle on as diameter. OK
The equation to the circuracircle in Darboux coordinates is

and Its centre (x/, a?,', x^, x^) is determined by

E' = p, x; + p,' = p,x; + p/ = pX + Pz = P, < - P'-

K is the mean centre of A, B, C for the system of multiples
a*, b\ c\ It is therefore the centre of the circle

d'p^x^ + b'p^x^ + d'p^x^ = 0.

Let R' be the radius of this circle, then

{a' -^ b'' -t c'

4^. ^ p^jp.'+p.y+p^jp'+py^Ps'jp^+py
{p' + P^'+PsV

_ {p:+ p:+p:) jp.w+p.w+p.W) + ^p:p:p:

(pZ + pZ + p/)'
•i -i 'i

P\ Pt Ps ^„ •!
I ^ 2 1 « * q^ '^

(p, + pj + Pa J p,

iP, +P, +Pz) P,

But the perpendiculars from K on the sides of the triangle

are proportional to those sides. Let the perpendicular on BG
be Jca. Then

'^~(a=' + 6^ + cV
90 Mr. Letvis, The Brocard and Lemoine circlea.

therefore 1^ =
Pi' + P,^-^ P3)'
2 -2 -i

-Pi P2 Pz

^{P' + P' + P^jpy

Therefore R" = 4/c' [R - p^)
Also

OK' - R" = ^V.^Z + ^V.^a' + ^Va^/

d' + b' + c"

a' + b' + 6'

therefore

^ (P/ + P/ + Pz)

= (1-12/;') 72',

The equation to the circle on OK a.H diameter therefore is

- p.^j + i^- ^'^- ^ +y''^^^ + ^'

i (P. ^, +P.-.A P.^. j^'-

or p.a^i+p^a'.^ + p.a^j-p.x^
aV,a;, + /;V,ft;, + cV3a;3 '^p'p'p"
^ _q
Pi' + Ps' + Ps' (P,' + P2' + P»'0 P/
Making this homogeneous it hecomes

P,a;, + ^,a3, + p3a'3-p,aj^ + Hi-''

p. +P, +P:

+ , .
(Pi'+pZ +
'
V '
'
.,
Ps )Pa
. p
V,
+ -'
P,
+ -'
Ps
+ -M = 0,
pJ
which reduces to

P^^Pi^P'^^ I ^. •'^o ^, s'A

Pi +P, +P3 Vi p, p, pJ
 Mr. Letvis, The Brocard and Lemoine circles. 91

From this it appears tliat the Brocard circle passes through

the intersection of the circumcircle and a circle whose centre
is jfiT which cuts the circumcircle orthogonally, this last circle

being, however, unreal.

2. If LK be drawn through K parallel to 5(7, and meet

AB in Z, the Lemoine circle is the locus of a point such that
the sum of the squares of its distances from and K is

constant, viz. the same as for the point L.

Now OU = W-AL.LB
_ „3 a' {1/ + c*) c"

and LK* = ^-^, — j-- j-7,

therefore OU f LIC = R'-

Therefore the equation to the Lemoine circle is

^ \Pi + P-i + Pa ;

= (1 - ik') R\

that is, when rendered homogeneous,

a^p.x.+h'p.x.+c'p X
P,oc^+P,x, + p,x^-p,x^+ '

\^p\lp.

where the distance of the symmedian point from any side is

k times the length of that side, this value having been
already determined.
 ( 92 )

SUCCESSIVE TRANSFORMS OF AN OPERATOR

AVITH RESPECT TO A GIVEN OPERATOR.
By G. A. Miller.

Let Sq and t be any two non-cominutative operators, and

let s,, 5,, ..., s^ represent the n commutators obtained as
follows

If these n commutators are all commutative with each other

then it results directly that

where the exponents of the symbols in the second member

are the binominal coefficients in order.
If t"" is any power of t wiiich is commutative with s,, it
results that
o s" <fi(«C«-l)} «« — 1

Hence it follows that

 Di'. Miller^ Successive transforms of an operator. 93

the (a + l)"" transform can be deduced directly from the a"*

transform according to the law involved in deriving the a"*
transform from the (a— ly*". Hence the following rule:
To obtain the ?/"' transform multiply the [n — 1)"' transform on
the left by the e.rpression obtained by increasing each subscript
of this transform by unify. When n is even the first half of
the former of these two expressions and the last half of the
latter are identical, in order, and hence this part may be
written in the form of a square.
From the given rule to write down the Ji'" transform if the
(n — 1)"' transform is given, it is easy to derive the following
rule to find the n"" transform directly: when n>5 write the
expression -s^s'„_,*„_2? then multiply it on the right by the
square of the expression obtained by diminishing each of the
subscripts in s„s^„.,s,_3 by unity, then multiply this product
on the right by the result obtained by diminishing each of the
subscripts in s^^s\_^s^^_^ by 2. The product thus obtained is
again multiplied on the right by the square of the result
obtained by diminishing each of its subscripts by unity, and
this latter result is multiplied on the right by the expression
obtained by diminishing each of these subscripts by 2. If s^
has not been reached by these operations, the last product is
to be treated in exactly the same manner as the preceding
product was treated, and the operations are repeated until s^
is reached. The expression in which s^ occurs is never
squared even if the above rule would require that this factor
be squared.
Tliis rule clearly gives rise to an expression consisting of
two factors which are such that the second can be obtained by
merely diminishing each of the subscripts of the first by unity,
and if this expression is the ?*"" transform the second of these
factors is the (« — 1)"* transform. Hence this rule is equiva-
lent to the one given above. It should be observed that even

the first factors s' ,s , is formed from s„ according to this

rule, and that when « = 1 this rule gives s^s^, when n = 2 it
gives SjSi'Sft, when ?* = 3 it gives s^s.^'s^.s./^''s^, when ?2 = 4 it
gives s^s^'s^is^s^'s^s^s^s^', etc.
The n commutators s^, s.^, .. 5^ cannot be independent ,

unless the index vi of the lowest power of t which is conmiu-

tative with s^ exceeds ?«, since

In particular, when m=2 it results that

-2 -2 -2
S. = *. , S, = S„ , ..., 6- =S ,.
94 Mr. Neville, Systems of particles

Hence these commutators generate a cyclic group whenever

1^ commutative with s^. It" s^ is also commutative with t
is

then Sj must also transform this cyclic group into itself, and
hence we have the known results that if the square of each of
two operators is commutative with the other operator these
operators generate a group whose commutator is cyclic.
The successive transforms of an operator have been
employed frequently, especially in regard to prime power
groups where each of the n commutators s^, s,, ..., s^ may
be assumed to be contained in a smaller group than the
preceding, with the exception of the first of these commutators
which is contained in an invariant subgroup of the original
group. The special formula when each of these n commu-
tators is commutative with all of the others is also known,
but the general rule of finding the ?*'" transform and the
method of proof here outlined are supposed to be new.

UniTereity of Illinois.

SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES EQUIMO^IENTAL

WTTH A UNIFORM ^J^ETRAHEDRON.
By Eric H. Neville.

Simple systems of particles equimomental with a uniform

tetrahedron have long been known, but the methods given in
the standard text-books for demonstrating their property
leave much to be desired. Though as far as I am concerned
original, the following method may well have been known to
the teachers of the last generation, but there is evidence to
the contrary in its absence from the pages of Routh.
Let PQ, RS
be opposite edges of a uniform tetrahedron of
mass M, and let their mid-points be U, V and their lengths
2a, 2b] let the length of UV
be 2c, and let G be the mid-
point of UV. A plane parallel to FQ
and BS, cutting UV m
a point whose distance from G towards U
is ct, cuts the

surface of the tetrahedron in a parallelogi-am of sides a (1 + t),

h{l — t)j with angles independent of t. Since a parallelogram
of mass m is equimomental with particles of masses in j 12 at
the vertices and a particle of mass 2m/3 at the centre, the
 equimomental with a uniform tetrahedron. 95

tetrahedron Is equimomental with a distribution of varyinj^

line-density along the Hve lines FR, PS, QE, QS, UV, the
density in each line being proportional to 1 —
t\ and the total
mass of each of the first four lines being 71// 12 and of the
fifth line being 21//3. Since

k{l-t')dt=4:kld, [
k{l-t')fdt = 4kl\5,
J

the part of a line of density k{l t^) —

which corresponds to
values of t between —1 and 1 has mass n if ^ is equal to
3h/4, and the line is equimomental with three particles, one
of mass nj 10 at each end and one of mass 4n/5 at the mid-
point. It follows at once that
A uniform tetrahedron of mass M
is equimomental with
a si/stem of eleven particles, one of mass J// 60 at each vertex,
one of mass Mjlb at the mid-point of each edge, and one
of mass 8il//15 at the centroid.
The deduction of the familiar systems with five particles,
of which four are at the vertices, and with seven particles, of
which six are at the mid-points of the edges, requires only
applications of the theoreirj that a system of three equal
particles of mass «?/3 at the mid-points of the sides of a
triangle is equimomental with a system of four particles, one
of mass 7/2/12 at each vertex and one of mass 3?/i/4 at the
centroid.
It evident that the method used here is applicable to
is

many other problems, and it is interesting to use it in the

case of a triangle. A
uniform line of mass ?n is equi-
momental with particles of mass w/6 at its end-points and a
particle of mass 2m j 3 at Its raid-point, and the integrations
of t, i\ and from
«''
to 1 are sufficient to show that a line
PQ of mass n whose density is proportional to distance from
P has its centroid at the point of trisection nearer to Q and
is equimomental with three particles, one of mass »/l2 at P,

one of mass ??/6 at Q, and one of mass 3»/4 at the centroid.

It follows that a triangle ABC of mass M
equimomental
is

with a system of seven particles, one of mass Mj\2

at A, two
of mass J// 36 at B and G, one of mass i//9 at the mid-
point of BG, two of mass Ji/8 at the points of trisection of
AB, AG
which are the further from A, and one of mass i//2
at the centroid of the triangle. Supei posing three distri-
butions of this form each with total mass il//3, we find a
syujuietrical system composed of thirteen particles, one of
mass 5/1// 108 at each vertex, one of mass J// 27 at the mid-
96 Trof. Nanson, Note on an elimination.

point of each side, one of mass Mj 24: at each point of trlsection

of each side, and one of mass 7lf/2 at tlie centroid, and this
system can be replaced imniediately by a system of seven
particles, one of mass Mj IS at each vertex, one of mass i]//9
at the mid-point of each side, and one of mass J// 2 at the
centroid.

NOTE ON AN ELIMINATION.
By Prof. E. J. Nanson.

Professor Steggall having recently, Messenger, vol. xiiv.,

p. Ill, recalled attention to a verification by Cay ley, that
if «+ + c =
Z> and «; + +
?/ 2; = 0, then

reference may be made to a proof by Leudesdorf, Messenger,

vol. xii., p. 176.
The following verification, although not so elegant as
those of Leudesdorf and Steggall, may also be put on record.
Since a + h + c = =
and x-'ty -\- z Q we may take a, J, c
to be the roots of X^ + r qX+ =
and put x=Xn + iju{h—c),
&c., so that y — z = X (b - c) — 3/j,a, &c. Then, since
^a [a — h) (rt— c)= -9»* and 2&c(6 — c)=— S, where S = n(6— c),
so that— S^ = 4^* + 21r\ we have
xyz — — r)^ — SX-V + ^r\y? + S^Lt",

Y\\y-z)= 8\^- 27rVV - 98\fi' + 27?y,

so that

n(b-c){y-z) + 27abcxyz = X(X' - 9fjt,') (8' + 27r').

Also -
2 ax = X 2 a' = 2 j\,
and Ix' = X'la' + iM'^{b- cf = -2(X' + fi') q,
so that 4(2aa;)''-32a^.2a'.2a;* = -8X.(\'- V)^'.
Thus the relation to be proved is seen to be true because

8'+27r''+42'=0.
Melbourne,
August ^th, 1915.
 ( 9^ )

TIME AND ELECTROMAGNETISM.

By Prof. H. Bateman.

The interval hetioecn two moving 2Joints.

§ 1. For descriptive purposes a system of rectangular co-

ordinates z) and a time variable t will be used to
{x,
?/,

express the ideas of motion and the propagation of light in

mathematical language, but the observers whose experiences
we are about to discuss are supposed to have no direct know-
ledge of this system of coordinates. To fix ideas we shall
also assume that with the above system of coordinates the
velocity of lightis the constant quantity c and is independent

of the motion of the source and the state of the observer.*

It will be convenient to regard this system of coordinates as
the standard system, and to define motion in the usual way
as motion relative to the axes of coordinates.
Now consider two observers, and B, each of A whom
is provided with an ideal clock which can be regulated so as
to indicate at time t any arbitrarily chosen continuous mono-
tonic function of t. The two observers are supposed to have
no direct means of ascertaining whether they are moving
relatively to one another or not. They are supposed to set
their clocks so that they are 'together' according to Einstein's
criterionf, and the problem is to find what function oft each
clock must indicate in order that the criterion may be satisfied,
when the two observers are moving relatively to our standard
set of axes in an arbitrary manner, which may be specified
as follows

{A) x = x{t], y = y[t), z = z[t) |

x = l[tl y = v{t), = )
[B) ^ ?(0
We shall suppose, however, that each observer is always
moving with a velocity which is less than that of light so that
at any Instant t, B sees only one position^ of by means of A
light sent out from A at time t^, and the light sent out from B
* The foundations of an optical geometry of space and time, in which the
above condition is satisfied, have been laid by A. A. Eobb, A Theory of Space and
Time, Carab. Univ. Press (1914).
t Ann. of Phys. Bd. 17 (!905), pp. 891-921. .

L'eclaircfie ekctvtque t. 16
I This follows fioin a theoiem due to Lienard,
(1898), p. 5. See al.so H. Bateman, The physiail aspect nf Time, Manchester
Memoirs (1910); Electrical and Optical Ware Motion, Camb. Uiuv. Press (191o),
ch. 8, p. IIG A. W. Conway, Proc. Loud. Math. Soc. scr. 2, vol. i. (1903).
;

VOL. XLV. H
98 Frof. Bateman, Time and eUctromagnetism.

at the Instant t reaches A

at only one Instant t^. Tlie two
instants <„ ^^j which satisfy the inequality f, are the <T<f„
two real roots of an equation F
\t, t) =0, which, according to

the usual theory of liglit, is

[«'(0-^W+[y(0-'7W7+[^(0-nT)r=c'(«-Tr...(2).
Let ^'s clock indicate at time t the number /(^ and C's
clock the number «^(f), then ^'s clock will be said to be
running uniformly* with reference to B it

/{Q-/{t,) = 2T„, (3),

where Tj, is a constant. This means that a signal always

tMkes the same clock-time to go from to B and back again. A
If now <j) (t) be defined by the equations

/(g-^c.-^w=/(0 + ^«^ W'

the two clocks will be '•synchronous'' or 'together.''
It is easy to see that tlie function ^ (t) satisfies an equation
analogous to (3), for if t and t' are the two real roots of tlie
equation i^{<,, t) = 0, we have
<t>{r)=/[t,)+T„,,
consequently ^(t'j —^ {t) = 2T^^ (5).

Hence whenever a function of type f{t) exists there "is

a quantity 7'^^, symmetrically related to the two moving points
A and B, which remains constant during the motion. This
quantity will be called the interval between the two moving
points.

Determination of the interval in a particular case.

§ 2. Let us consider the case when the

movements of the
two observers A and B are specified by the equations
[A) x=l {a + lit)
,
y -= m {a + ut), z = n [a + ut)
^"'
[B] x = X{a + ut<, y= iJ, [a + ut), z = v{a + ut) ''

where I, m, n, \, /i, v, a, u are constants. Equation (2) then

gives

a + ut,=^'^PlR-[R^-FQ)^]
\ f7l

a^nt.=''-^[R+[R'-PQP,
* Cf. E. V. Huntingdon, Phil. Mag. April (1912), for the case in wliich the two
observers are not moving relative)}' to one another.
 Prof, Bateman, Time and electi'omagnetism. 99

wliei"e

u a

R= -^
W
— IX — mfi — nv.

Tiie condition (3) may now be satisfied by writing

/(<)=^ + -log(l + -)+-l„g(P^) (8).

where A and B are arbitrary constants. Equation (4) tiieu

gives
I aB UT\ aB / ^u'\ ^,
*(T)=^+-iog(i
, ^

+ -) +
A , ,

^iog(e-)...(io).
,

It is evident from the sj'mmetry of tiiis result that we can

find a set k observers A^, A^, ..., A^^ whose clocks are all
ot"

together by specifying their motions as follows:

(^^) x = l^{a+ut), ij^vi^ia + ut], z = n^[a + ut)...p = \,2,...h.

P 21
P * ^ * U * * *

PP2 = —.1P 11^

I
1
m — V P n <V
—vi Pi ,

the clock belonging to the /j"* observer should indicate at

time t the number

The Interval between the p^^ and 5"' observers is then

aB P +(P — PP)^ ""

^~2u ^ PPt -{Ppg'-Pp FY' ^ g'

When u->0, reduces to the form

f^{t) + Bt and T,^ A
becomes simply {Bjc) r where r^^ is the distance between,

the two observeis A , A .

A set of observers at constant intervals from one another

who are provided with clocks which are all running together
will be called an organised set of observers. It is clear from

the above example that the different observers may or may

not be at rest relatively to one another.
1 00 Prof. Bateman, Time and electromagnetism.

Reflexion in a moving plane mirror.

§ 3. The imaj^e of a point source (cc, ?/, z, t) in a plane

mirror moving, witli uniform velocity v in a direction per-
pendicular to itself, may be obtained by means of the
transformation*
2c'
vt)
C — V

2v
= [x -
.(11),
t t-- -, vt)
c'— V

y =!/'

where x = vt is the equation of the moving mirror and

(:/,"', the coordinates of the image.
y\ z\ t) These equations
may be obtained very easily by noticing that the locus of the
points in which I'ays of light, issuing from the point x, y. z at
time ^ strike the moving mirror is a quadrlc of revolution
having the source of liglit as one focus. Tlie image of the
source is at the other focus of the quadric, and it is easy
to calculate the time at which light must leave the image in
order to coincide with the rays from the source which have
been reflected.
We
sliall say that the above equations give the image

whether the velocity v is less than or greater than the velocity

of light.
It is eas3' to see that the moving mirror is completely and
uniquely determined when a point source and its image are
given. To prove this we shall make use of a representation
of a point source [x, y, z, t) by means of a directed spheref of
radius ci, whose centre is at the point [x. ?/, z).

Jn the first place it should be noticed that

c[t-t)
x'—x
Hence if is the semi-vertical angle of the tangent cone,
whose vertex is two directed
at the centre of similitude of the
spheres representing the point source and its image, we have
the relation
sin^ = t'/c (12).

H. Bateman, Phil. Mag. Dec. (1909), May (1910). V. Varicak, Fhys.

Zeitschr, Bd. xi. (1910,, p. 586.
t H. Bnteman. Phil Mag Oct. 1910), Amur. Jour. (1912). H. E. Timerding,
Jahrest d. Ueutsch. Math. Vereiii, Bd. 21 (1912). K. Ogura, Scitnce Reports,
Tolioku Univ. Vol. II. (1913).
 Prof. Bateman^ Time and eleciromagnetisin. 101

It is clear that tlie velocity of the mirror is greater than or

less than that of liglit according as the centre of similitude is
inside or outside the spheres.
Tlie plane through tlie common points of tlie two spheres
can be identified with the initial position of the mirror; for
since the equations of the spheres are

[X-xr + {Y-yY ^[Z-zY=c't\

{X-x'y+{Y-y'r+{Z-zr=c'i\
respectively, the plane through their common points is

[x'-x] {2X-X-X') +c"{t'-t) [t'+t) = 0.

Now X + x =v {t + 1') and c' [t' —t) v {x — o:), consequently =
the above equation reduces to = 0. The initial position X
and velocity of the mirror being known, its motion is com-
pletely determined.*

The determination of the time and position of an event fro^n the

recorded times at tohich it is loitnessed hy an
organised set of observers.
§
4.' Consider an organised set of four observers A^,A^,A^,A^,
whose clocks indicate the numbers 2',, T^, J!,, T^ respectively
when the event is witnessed. If T is the required clock-time
at which the event occurred, the quantities
T-T, T-T, T^-T, T-T
are the intervals between the event and the four observers.
We shall denote these by the symbols T„,, 2^^, T^^, T^^ res-
pectively, and the intervals between the diflerent observers by
the symbols T,,, T3,, 2',.^, 2',,, 2;,, T^, respectively. The
problem express
is to T in terms of 2',, T^, T^^ T, by means
of a relation of type
r=/(^., T,. T^, T^) (I-)

consider the special case in which the event occurs

If we
at a point occupiedby the observer ^4,, we have, when 2'= 2\
and T=T^^T^^, T^= T^+ T^,, T=T^+T^,; hence the
function nmst necessarily satisfy the functional equation
f
^,=/(^., ^.+ ^,.v T,+ T,3, T,+ TJ.
* When we use Minkowskis representation of a space-time point x, i/, z,t hy a.
point with rectangular coordinates (x, y, z, ict) in a space of four dimensions ^4,
a reflexion in a plane mirror moving with uniform velocity is represented by
a reflexion in an hyperplane, and the theorem becomes obvious. 'I'his represen-
tation of a ppace-time point ought perhaps to be associated \¥ith the name
of Poincare. Gf. Eend. Palermo, t. 21 (1906j, p. 168.
h2
 102 Prof.Bateman, Time and electromagnetism.

Similarly itcan be shown that It must satisfy three other

functional equations ot" a similar character.

The relation (I.) can be found very quickly when It is

known that the ten mutual intervals
rprpnirnrnrprprprprn
-'oi' -^02' -^0.1' -'04' -'-•al 31' -'-Ml -^14' ?4' 34

are connected by an identical relation. It should be noticed,

moreover, that since the last six quantities are constant, the
fourth quantity can be legaided as a function of the other
three, and is consequently constant when the other three
quantities are constant. We
may regard the first three
intervals, or three independent functions of them, as co-
ordinates tixino; the position of the point at which the event
occurred. ]f we call these coordinates X, Y, Z, the time T
is given by the equation

T=T-T^^=T^-^{X, Y,Z).

of course important that a good choice of coordinates

It is
X, Y, Z shouldbe made. Let us consider two events which
are witnessed by the observers ^,, A^, A^, A^ at times
T„ i;, T3, T^ and J\-^hl\, T^^IT^, T^^hT^, T^+hT^
respectively, where hl\^ hT„ ST^, 81\ are small quantities.
Let us suppose, moreover, that the second event consists of
a signal from an observer Q indicating that lie has just
witnessed the first event. When this is the case the four
increments 82\, 8T^, 8T^, hJ\ will not be independent, but
will be connected by an identical relation which will be
assumed to be of the form
^B ST .BT =0, m, « = 1.2.3.4,

Avhere 7?,^^^ is a function of 2\, T^, T^, 7\. This relation can
be expressed inthe form

ABX' + B8Y' + CBZ' + DST' + 2F8Y8Z+2GSZ8X

+ 2HBX8Y+ 2 U8X8T+ 2 V8 Y8T+ 2 W8Z8T== 0,
wliere the coefficients are functions of X, Y, Z^ T. Now
since this quadratic equation is of fundatnental importance in
the description of the propagation of light* by means of the

* It can be regarded as the equation determining the form of the wave front
of an elementary wave issuing from tlie point X, Y, Z at time T. An attempt to
formulate a sclieme of elecr.roiniij,'iietic equations consistent with the above
equation has been made by the author. Proc. Lund. Math. Soc, ser. 2, vol. viii.
(1910).
 Prqf.Bateman^ Time and electromagnetism. 103

coordinates X, Y, Z, T itis natural to endeavour to clioose

X, Y and Z so tluit the above equation takes a simple form

such as
A hX' + BB Y' + C8Z' + Dhr = 0.

Let us now consider a simple case in which this can be done.

If the four observers are stationary relative to one another
and space is Euclidean, and the configuration of the four
observers A^, A.^, A^, A^ is either at rest or is moving
unitbrmly without rotation relative to our standard set of
axes, we may assume that the ten quantities 2' are propor-
tional to thenmtual distances of five points in space. They
are consequently connected by the identical relation*

^0,-^
104 Prof. Batemmi, Time and electvomagnetism.

ratio of the radius of one of these spheres to the distance of

itscentre from the plane just mentioned. If the plane does
not cut the spheres in real points the velocity of the mirror is
greater than that of light.
If the velocity of the mirror is greater than that of light
the centre of similitude of the two directed spheres S, S' lies
within the two spheres, and it is easy to see that the radius of
any directed sphere such as T^\ which touches both, is
'

intermediate between the radii of S and >S". In this case

there is only one value of T
less than each of the quantities

2\, Tj, T^, T^ which satisfies our quadratic equation. The

position and time of the event can then be determined
uniquely, for when T
is known the distances of the place of

occurrence from ^,, A^, A^, A^ are known and the ordinary
rectangular coordinates of the place can be found without
difficulty. On the other hand, if the velocity of the mirror
is less than that of light, the centre of similitude of the two

directed spheres S, S' lies outside the two spheres, and it is

easy to see that the radius of a directed sphere which touches
both is not intermediate between the radii of the two spheres
iS and S'. Hence in this case there are either two solutions
of the problem or no solution at all.
Let us now consider an organised set of five observers
whose mutual intervals are connected b}' the identical relation
corresponding to that between the mutual distances of five
points in space. If a value of T, calculated from the
observations of one set of four observers, agrees with a value
of 2' calculated from the observations of another set of four
observers, all is well. If, however, the value of T
calculated
in the different ways do not agree, a reason must be found for
it. Several possible causes of the disagreement may be
suggested.
1. The observers may be moving relatively to one another.
2. Space may be non-Euclidean.
3. The observers may be at rest relatively to one another,

but the configuration of four observers may not be moving

uniformly relatively to our standard axes, and consequently
the assumption that T is proportional to the distance between
A and A is unjustifiable.

Geometrical representation of the interval between two moving

points in certain particular cases.

§ 5. In the motion considered in § 2 the two points and A

B pass through the origin at the same time t = — alu and
 Frof. Bateman, Time and electromagnetism. 105

travel along straight lines with constant velocities. If we

adopt Puincare's representation of a space-time point
{x, ?/, by a point with rectangular coordinates {x, 3/, z, ict)
z, t)

in a space of four dimensions, the two moving points A and

B will be represented by two intersecting straigiit lines
whose direction cosines are proportional to (/, m, ??, ic/u) and
(\, /A, V, icju) respectively. It' 6 is the angle between these

lines we have

cost/ = -

'
^I[J^Q]

„ iaBd
hence T,, = ±—- = ±ikd .,
say.

When we have an organised set of five points, which are

moving according to the equations
X= l {a-\-ut)y y=m^[a + ut), z = n^{a + ui), p=1.2...5,

we may deduce an identical relation between the mutual

intervals of the five points from the well-known relation
between the mutual inclinations of five points in a space of
four dimensions.* If c',.^=cosh(Z:2'^J the identical relation is

c,.

21 23 3i

31 3J
1 C..
J4
C 35 = .(III.

c.. c. c 1 C..

This may be regarded as an equation for the determination

of L If now we have observers at the moving points who
witness an event at the clock-times 2\, T^, ..., 1\ respectively
and 2' is the required clock-time for the event, the differences
T -T, 1\-T, T^-l\ T-T,
7;- Twill be the intervals
between the event and the observers. With the aid of the
identical relation of type (111.) between the intervals of five
points we may deduce an equation for from the obser- T
vations of each set of four observers obtained by leaving out
one of the five observers. The different values for T which
are found in this way ought to agree if they do not there ;

may be several possible explamvtions of the discrepancy just

as in § 4.

* Scott and Mathews, he. cit.

106 Prof. Baieman, Time and electromagnetism.

A more general type of motion, in which the interval

between two moving points can be expressed in a simple
form, and interpreted geometrically, may be obtained by
transforming the uniforn) rectilinear motion considered in § 2
by means of a transformation of the coordinates (a;, ?/, s, C)
which leave the equation

unaltered in form. Such a transformation corresponds to

a conformal transformation in Minkowski's four-dimensional
space 8^^ and consequently makes two intersecting straigiit
lines in 8^ correspond in general to two circles interse(;ting in
two points. Either or both of the circles can degenerate into
straight lines.
Since a conformal transformation in S^ leaves the angle
between two curves unaltered, it follows that the interval
between the two moving points corresponding to two doubly
intersecting circles is proportional to the angle between the
two circles.
A corresponds to a point moving along a conic
circle in S^
in our space*. we I'epreseiit each position of the moving
If
point by a directed sphere we obtain a chain of directed
spheres with some notable properties.
To discuss the motion it will be sufficient to consider the
transformation which corresponds to an inversion in 8^. This
is specified analytically by the equations

where s^ = o6' \- y' + z* — cW and ^ is a constant.

It may be specified geometrically by saying that the repre-

sentative spheres of two corresponding space-time points
[x, y, z^ i), ix' y\ z\ t') are transformed into one another by
,

an ordinary inversion with respect to a s[)here of radius b

whose centre is at the origin.
Let us now apply this transfornuxtion to a system of points
moving along straight lines in the manner specified by the
equations

x= a. + lp{a-\-ut], y=^ + m^{n + ut)^ z =y -] n^{a + ut),

p=l, 2, ....

* This type of motion has been considered by Born, Ann. d. Phys., Bd. 30
(1909),- Somnierfeld, Ann. d. Phys., Bd. aS (1912), p. 673; Kottler, Weinnv
BerichU,'\iA I'Jl (1912); Hasse. PVoc. Loud. Math. Soc, ser. 2, toI. xii. (1913),
p. 181 ; Schott, Eltctromaqnetic Radiation (1912), p. 63.
t H. Bateman, Proc. Lond. Math. Hoc, ser 2, vol. vii. (1909), p. 84.
 Frof. Bateman^ Time and dectromagneti&m. 107

The representative spheres of one of tlicse moving points

have their centres on a straight line and have a common
centre of similitude Avhich lies within all the spheres if the
velocity of the moving point is always less than that of
light. It is easy to see that two spheres whose radii have
the same sign do not intersect, also that there are two spheres
through each point in space and therefore two through the
centre of inversion. The inverse system of spheres must
therefore contain two planes, and so the curve descrihed by
the moving point extends to infinity and is consequently an
liyperbola.
Since the line through the centre of similitude and the
centre of inversion cuts each member of the first set of
spheres at the same angle, it also cuts each member of the
second set of spheres at the same angle. The system of
spheres obtained by inversion thus consists of spheres whose
centres lie on an hyperbola and which cut a chonl of the
hyperbola at a fixed angle, which is the complement of half
the angle between the asymptotes of the hyperbola; the
chord is the major axis of the hyperbola. The motion may
be specified analytically by substituting the above expressions
for X, ?/, z in the previous equation.
in S^ cuts a space i = const, in two points it
Since a circle
follows that the circle really corresponds to the motion of two
associated particles describing different branches of the same
hyperbola. To obtain an organised system of observers
moving along hyperbolic paths the representative circles in
S^ must have two points in common, consequently each
hyperbolic motion and its associated motion must be such
that either the moving particle or the associated moving
particle passes through two fixed points at specified times, it
is possible of course that one particle may pass through one

of the fixed points and the associated particle through the

other.
The cases that have been considered are clearly not the
only cases in which a simple expression for the interval can
be found. Let us suppose for instance that the observer A is
at rest while B moves along a straight line through A
according
to the law x — xi*-)-, tl'^^" ^ and t, satisfy the equations

c(t-<,) = xW' C(f,-T) = X(T)-

Hence the function /(/) must satisfy the functional equation

r 1 1 r 1 1
C ^ J
108 Prof.Bateman, Time and electromagnetlsm.

If the function /(<) is given it is generally easy to find

the function x(0) for instance \if{t) = t'^ we must have

A geometrical representation of space-time vectors.

§6. The four-dimensional vector analysis introduced into

tlietheory of relativit}' by Minkowiski* admits of an interesting
geometrical treatment with the aid of directed spheres.
A
4-vector whose components are A^, A^, A^, A^ may, for
instance, be represented by the relation to a sphere S, whose
centre is at the origin and whose radius is G of another sphere
whose centre is at the point ^,, A^, A^ and whose radius is
A^ + G. It is more convenient, however, to lepresent the
4-vector by the relation to the sphere S of a point and P
an associated number v. This point P
is the centre of
similitude of the two directed spiieres just mentioned; its
coordinates x, y, z are determined by the equations

vx = A^, vg = A^, vz = A^, -vc = A^ (13).

If V regarded as analogous to a mass, the point and

is

number representing the sum of a number of 4-vectors are

found by determining the centre of mass of the masses at the
different representative points of the vectors, and associating
with it the sum of the masses. If the representative point P
of a 4-vector lies within the sphere S, the vector is said to be
time-lihe, if it lies outside the sphere, the vector is said to be
space-like.
If (w, V, w) are the component velocities of a moving point,
the four quantities (w, v, w, —c) may be regarded as proportional
to the components of a 4-vector which is time-like or space-like
according as the velocity of the moving point is less than or
greater than that of light. If the |)oint moves with the
velocity of light the representative point is on the sphere and
the 4-vector is special.

* Gijlt. Nachr. (1908). Phys. Zeitsch: (1909). See also G. N. Lewis., Proc.
Amer. Acad, of Artsand Sciences, Oct (1910). A. Sommerfeld, Ann. d. P/ii/.i. Bd. 32
(1910), p. 7t)5; Bd. 33 (1910), p. 651. L. Silberstein, The Theory of Relativity
(1914). E. Cunninsjham, 'The t'rinciple of Relativitii (1914). B. Cabrera, Revida
d. R. Acad. Madrid, t. 12 (1913), pp. 646, 738 E. B. Wilson and G. N. Lewis,
Proc. Amer. Acad, of Arts and Sciences, vol xlviii. (1912).
t H. Bateiuan, Phil. Mag. Oct. (1910).
 Frof. Bateman, Time and electromagnetism. 109

The angle between two 4-vectors can be defined In the

following way. Let P
and P' be tlie two representative
points and let a circle be drawn to pass throngh and P' and P
to cut the sphere S orthogonally. The angle subtended by
tiie chord PP' at a point of this circle is then the angle
between the two vectors. If P
and P' are conjugate points
with regard to the sphere S, they are at the extremities of a
diameter of the circle and the angle is in this case a right
angle.
Hence two perpendicular 4-vectors are represented by
points which are conjugate with respect to 8. set of four A
iimtually perpendicular 4-vectors are thus represented by the
vertices of a tetrahedron which is self-polar with respect to S.
It is clear that one, and only one, of the four vectors can be
time-like.
If two 4-vectors (^„ A^, A^, v4J, (5,, B.^, B^,
5J are
represented by numbers v, /x at the points P, Q, respectively,
the special 6-vector whose components are A^B^— A^B,,
A,B-A^B^, A^B,^-A.^B^, A,B^-A^B,, A.^B^-A^B,,
A^B^ — A^'B^, may be represented geometrically by a force*
of magnitude fJ-vPQ acting in the direction along the PQ
line PQ.
The two whose
(FFFFFF)(FFF
respectively,
reciprocal G-vectors

represented by forces acting along lines

are
components are
-F F —F )

which are polar lines with regard to the sphere S, provided

of course that the relation

F F +F F
2J ^
14
+F F =0
' -^ 31 24 ' IJ 34

is satisfied. When this relation is not satisfied, the 6-vector

F cannot be represented by a single force. It can be repre-
sented by a wrench, but it is more convenient to represent it
by means of two forces acting along lines which are polar
lines with respect to the sphere S.
Let (i/, H, Z/, E^, F^, F^) be the components of a
general 6-vector, and let (h h h e e e) he the com-
, , , , ,

ponents of a special 6-vector which is the vector product ot

the two 4-vectors A and B.
Using the ordinary notation for vectors in a space of three

* The first three components of the 6-vector are equal to the moments of the
force about the axes, and the last three to the three components of the force
multiplied by c. The sum of a number of special G-vectors may be represented
geometrically by a system of forces or its simplest equivalent obtained by the
composition of forces.
110 Prof. Batenian^ Time and electromagnetism.

dimensions we shall endeavour to find vectors h and e such

that*
H= ll + /<:e and E=e-/cll (14),

whers k is a scalar quantity. Since (eh.) = 0, the constant k.

is determined by the equation

(1 - /c") (EH) - « (EE) + /f (HH) = (15),

and the vectors e, Jh., may then be determined from the

preceding equations.
Now let us consider the case when E and are the H
electric and magnetic forces at an arbitrary point in an
electro-magnetic field. We shall regard the 4-vectors and A
B as proportional to velocity 4-vectors, so that their com-
ponents are (ay^, av^^ ay^, —ac) and {hu^^ hu^^^ bii^, —be)
respectively. We
then have a representation of the vectors
E and H in terms of two velocities U and V,

H = ai Fvu] + CKab (U — v) 1
(16).
E = cab (U - V) - Kab [vu) i

Similarly if the 6-vector (e^, e^, e, — /?^, h^, 7?J is the vector
product of two 4-vectors A' and B', whose components are
(a'y'^, a'v' a'u'^, —a'c) and (^V^, b'v'^, b'v\^—b'c) respectively,
,

we have a second representation of E and H, viz.

H = -a'&'c(u'-v') + ««'^'rv'u'] ^

(17).
E = a'b' fv'u'] + CKa h [Vl - v') J

The G-vector (H, E) thus represented as the sum of two

is

special 6-vector.s (h, e), - «ll), and these can be repre-

(/ce,

sented geometrically by forces acting along lines L, L\ which

are polar lines with respect to the sphere S. The 4-vectors
A and B
are represented geometrically by numbers a and b
associated with two points and A
on the line L, while the B
4-vectors A' and B
are represented geometrically by numbers
a and b' associated with two points >4' and B' on the line L'
Since one of the two lines, say L, cuts the sphere S in real
points we can choose either one or both of the points and A B
so that they lie within the sphere S, consequently we can
choose the velocities U and V if necessary so that they are
less than the velocity of light, but the velocities u', v' will be

* Cf. E. B. Wilaon and G. N. Lewis, Amer. Proc. Acad, of Arts and Sciences,
Tol. xlviii., Nov. (1912). H. Batemun, I'loc. Land. Math. Soc, ser. 2, vol. x.
(1911), p. ye.
 Frof. Bateman, Time and eleclromagnetism. Ill

greater than the velocity of light, except perhaps in the case

Avhen the lines L and L
touch the sphere /S, one of the
velocities u', v' can then be equal to the velocity of light.
We shall now show that the velocity V is a possible
velocity for the aether in the electromagnetic field (H, E).
To do this we must prove that V satisfies Cunningham's
relation*
c'g + E (vE) + H (vH) = V {2z<; - (vg:)| (18),

where g = [EH]/c and - i (EE) + |(HH). ^(;

Now the equations (16) give

eg: = [EHJ = ca'h\\ + «0 {[U (VU)] - [V (VU)]}.
Now [u(vu)] =v(uu)-u(uv)
[v (vu)J = v(uv)-ufw).
therefore

g" = a%\\ + «'0 {V [(UU) - (UV)] + U [(VV) - (UV)]}.

Again
(vE) = caZ»{(uv)-(vv)}, (vH) = c«a5[(uv) -(vv)},
therefore «;(vE) = (vH).
Also E(vEj + H(vH)=cV(^'* (! + «'; {(uv)-(w)} {u-v},
consequently

c-'g-l-E(vE) + H(vH)=cV^Yi + «')v{(uu) + (vv)-2(uv)|.

On the other hand

2io = (EE) + (HH) = ceh\\ + «'0 [[(uu) (vv) - (UV)'}

+ c^{(uu) + (vv)-2(uv)}]
and {yg) = d'h\\ + «') {(UU) (vv) - (uv)'},
therefore aTc'(l + «*) {(UU) f (vv) - 2 (uv)} = 2ti?- (vg).
The relation (18) is now established. In a similar way it
can be proved that the velocities m, u', v are possible velocities
of the aether. It should be noticed that since the lines L and
JJ are polar lines with regard to the sphere S we have the
relations

(uu') = c'', (uv') = c',- (vu') = c', (vv') = c'.

* Proc, Roy. Soc. vol. Ixxxiii. (1909), p. 110. The Pr'mciple of Eelativiti/, ch. xv.
112 Prof. Bateman., Time and electroynagnetisin.

Five years ago Mr. Cunningliam remarkefl to r

letter that my vector* s, which satisfies the relations

c"-'E + c [sH] - s (sE), c'H - c [sE] = s (sH)
(ss) = o» J-^^^)'
is a particular case of his vector V. This may be proved as
follows :
We easily find from the above equations that
6' [EH] + cH (sH) - (HH = [sH] sE
cs j ( ),

or c% -H c'E (sE) + c'H (sH) = S |(sE)'+ c'(HHj}.

Equations (19) also give

c' (EE) - c' (Sg-) = (SE/, c'(HH) - c' (sg:) = (sHj',

hence (sE/ + c'^HH) = c' [2i(;- (sg")),

and so Cunningham's statement that S is a particular case of

V is verified.
There are four possible vectors of type s, and these are
represented geometrically by the two pairs of points in which
the two lines L and L' cut the sphere S.
If we compare the two representations (16) and (17) we
have the relations

ah [vu] = - a'h'c (u - v'), ca5 (u - v) = ah' [v'u'J. . . (20)

Now us suppose that the components of the 4-vectors

let
^, i5, A\
B' are proportional respectively to the partial
derivatives of four functions a, /S, a', [S' with respect to
ic, y, z, ct, then the above relations take the form

a(a, 3) ^/^ d(a,0') X d(a,0) d( a\ 13')

^ ^ ^ d(i/,z) '"^
d{y, z) c d{u;,t) '
c d{x,t) ''

and we have the following representationsf of E and H,

d{y,z) diy,z) ~ c d{x,t) c dy-*:, tj

[22!
_ i^ a;a,/3') x a(«,/3) ^ dioL',0') a(a./3)
' " d{x,t)^cd (X-, t) ^
'
c a (y, z) "^d [y, z))

' Phil. Maq. Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. ser. 2, vol. viii. (1910),
Oct. (1910).
p. 469; pp. 7, 96.
vol. X. (1911),
t These foimulje are a liitle more general than those given in a previous paper,
Proc. Lond. Mdlh. Soc, ser. 2, vol. x. (1911), p. 9(». It has not jet been proved
that the above repreaentatiou is possible whenever k is constant.
 Prof.Bateman, Time and electromagnetism. 113

The vectors and E H

will certainly satisfy Maxwell's
equations if \ is a function of a and /3, yu/c a function of a' and
j3', and K a constant. If these conditions are satisfied we may
replace a and |3 by functions of these quantities in such a way
as to make \ unity, and similarly we can make /u,« unity by a
proper choice of the variables a', /3'. If k is not a constant
there will be a volume density of electricity and convection
currents in the field specified by (22).
The equations (21) may also be written in the following
form,

. 9 {x, t) ^fi d (.y, z) \ d(y,z) ^ d (x, t)

^" ^*
8(a',/y') ca(a,i3)' cd{a',^') '^d{<x,ld)

If now we use the notation

,. _ dx dx dy d,y dz dz ., ^t dt
J

~ do. 8a' 9a da' oa 9a' 9a 8a'

'

we may deduce from the preceding equations that

|aa'}={a/3'j = {f3a'} = {i3/3'} = 0,

V[{a'a'} {/3'y8'} -|a'^'}'J = /.'[|aa} {/3/3} - {a,^}"^].
Hence there is a relation of type

dx'^dy'^-ch'-c'de
= Adx* + 2Hd<xd[6 + Bd^' + A' da" + 2H'dad^' + B'd^'\ . (24),

where A, H^ B^ A', H', B' are functions of a, /S, a', /?', satis-
fying the equation

\'[A'B' - H"] = fi'lAB - H'] (25).

From a remark made above we may conclude that it is

suflScient to put X,= /Lt=l when endeavouring to determine
functions a, /S, a' and yS', which satisfy the equations (24)
and (25).
The case in which (EH) = is of special interest, for then
K= 0. The equations a = const, /S=C()nst then give a moving
line of magnetic force and the equations a' = const, /3' = const
a moving line of electric force. It is frequently easy to find
the functions a and (3 with the aid of the scalar and vector
potentials.* To determine ff.' and /3' we may endeavour

* See, for instance, the formulae found by Hargreaves for the case of a moying
point charge. These formulae are given on p. 117 of tlie author's Ekclrical and
Optical Wave Motion.

VOL. XLV. I
 114 Prof. Bateinaii., Time and electrjomagnetism.

to choose A^ H, and B so that the quadratic differential

form
dx' + df + dz' - 6'dt' - {A da:' + 2Hdoidi3 + Bd^')
can be expressed in terms of the differentials of only two
variables a' and /8'. The functions ot! and /3' are both
solutions of the equations

'
dx d-e dy dy dz dz c" ct dt

dx d-e dy dy dz dz c* 9^ dt
^

for 6. This method is successful in the case of the field due

to a moving
point charge and the functions found for a' and
(5' are derivable from the solutions of two Hiccatian equations
in accordance with a known result.*

Conjugate Electromagnetic Fields.

§ 7. Two fields (E, H), (E', H') are said to be conjugate

when the rehitions

(EH') + (E'H) = 0, (EE') - (HH') = 0,

are satisfied. If now we represent each field by means of

special 6-vectors (e, k) and (e', h') so that

H=h + «:e, E=e-«h,

H' = li'+ /c'e', E' = e'— /c'h',

the above relations take the form

( 1 - ««'}_[(eli') + (e'h)] + (k + «') [(ee') - (hh')] = o,

(1 - kk') [(ee') - (hh')] - (k + k') [(eh') + (e'h)] = o.
The determinant for these two linear equations is

( 1 - kk'Y + (k + k'Y =(1 + k')(1 + k"),

and cannot vanish

this if the two fields are real, consequently
we must have
(eh') + le'h) = o, (ee') - (hh') = o.
This means that the field (e, h) is conjugate to the field (e', h').
Now let the special 6-vector (e, h) be represented by a
force acting along a line L
as in §6, and the special 6-vector

* Amer. Jouvn. of Math , March (1915).

 Mr. Ckaundy^ On the validity of Taylor s expansion. 1 1

(e', h') by a force actln<? along a line M. The condition

(ell') + (e'h) = then implies that the two lines L and M
intersect, whilst the condition (ee') — (hh.') =
implies that
L intersects tlie polar line of M or that M intersects the polar
line of L. Denoting by the coordinates of the
(y^, u^, vj
first point, and by («_^, u^^ u~) the
coordinates of the point Iti
whicli L intersects the polar line of il/, we see that the field
vectors in two conjugate fields can be expressed as follows: —
H =ah [vu] + CKob (u - v) = mlS [ww'] - ca.8 (w' - w),
E =cah (U — v) — «;a& [vu] =a3 [ww'] + c«a/3 (w'— W),
H' = a'b' [VW] + CK'a'h\w-Y) — Ka'lS' [uu] — ca'/3' (u' - u),
E' = ca'b'{W-Y)-K'a'b'[YW'\ =a'/3'[uu'] + o«'a'/3'(u'~U).
The point of chief importtmce is that the velocity of the
aether V can he the same for both fields.
Conversely, if the velocity v of the aether is the same for
two fields the two fields are not necessardy conjugate.
The above equations may be made more symmetrical by
taking u' = w'. This is permissible sinceL and its polar both
meet M and its polar.

A CONDITION FOR THE VALIDITY OF

TAYLOR'S EXPANSION.
By T. W. Chaundy, Christ Church, Oxford.

The conditions for the validity of Taylor's expansion of

a function of a real variable have been given by Pringsheim*
and W. H. Young.t
Pringsheim proves that the necessary and sufficient
" cc"/"
'^" (a)
condition that 2 should converge \o f{a + x) over the
v'^^
f (a + x)
^i

interval <x<R is
'

that '-^ n —
^^ n tends to intiniiy,
^

should tend to zero, uniformly for all values of a;, y for which

Q <x <x-\-y <r, where r<R and p is some convenient

integer.

* Math. Annalen, vol. xliv., p. 57.

t Quur. Jour, of Math., vol. xl., p. 157; "The fundamental theorems of
the differential calculus" (Camb. ItilU), p. 57.
116 Mr. Ckaiuuhj^ On the validity of Taylor'' s expa?isio?i.

W. H. Young gives t!ie simpler condition that for eacli

fixed positive r<R the function

-; rr" /„ (a + x)
regarded as a function of the two variables (ic, ?i), should be
bounded in the region n>^, ^<x<B,.
1 seek to establish the following results:
00

(1) If f{a -\-x) can he expanded in a power series S A^x""

in the interval <aj <^, and if the interval of convergence of

this series is that given hy \x\<p, then the function

/., (a + x)
n\
regarded as a function of the two variables x, n, is bounded in
the region n>0, <x<k\ where k' <p and < k.
-
(2) If /„ (« + x)
I
n\ I

is bounded in the region ?? > 0, Q <x< k', and if

</:, (a)

converges for \x\ <p, the series toill converge to f{a + x) in the
interval <x
<k, where k < p, and < k'.
Similar results of course may be obtained for negative
values of x.
If we are not concerned to be precise as to the end-points
of these intervals, we may say briefly that the region of
validity of the expansion o^ f{a + x) in powers of x is the

common territory of the region of convergence of 2 —

ic"/"
•
" fa)

and the region in which j

/
<-^
(
—
w!
—
a Xi-\-

,
^

.j
~
" is bounded.
I

1. We have that
/(a-f x)=A^ + A^x+ A^x:'+... for <x<k,
and that the series converges for <x <p.
Being given any k' < p and ^ k, choose p' such that
k' <p' <p. Then since lini. | J^J« =p~', we have that

l-^nl" <P \ if '>i> some N.

 Mr. Chaundy, On the validity of Taylor'' s expansion. 117

In the Interval Q<x<h', since k' <p, we may differentiate

the series n times and obtain

f (a + x) , , , . (n
^
+ l)(n + 2) . „

n! -A+0» + l)A..^ + ^1 -A..^+-"

Thus
1 f , ^1' (« + l)(n + 2) ^'"
)

-n-l
if n>iV, t.e. <(p'-/c')
<(p'-Ic)\-8n
I

Hence f«('' + ^^ \» <{p'-ky\ for every ti > .Y,

and every x in the interval <cc < ^'.

But, for a fixed s,f^(a + x) is bounded in the interval
<x<k' ; the same is therefore true of
'

fja + x)
s\

and also of the aggregate of these functions when 5 = 1, 2, 3,

..., N. It follows that we may remove the restriction 7J> iV

in the preceding result, and say that

n\
is bounded in the region

?? > and < a; < //.

2. We suppose that

\frM^!^ I
" < Jf, when <x<U
I
n! I

Now /(a+x) =/(«)+<(«) +...+ ^^-^^^^\

But if 0<a:</y, then 0<^x<^', so that '

"^^,'^ < 3/".

It is therefore sufficient to take I*] <M~^ to secure that

x^'fiex)
^"\ —^->0, asn->a3.

In other words, /(a + x) is equal to its Taylor-expansion in

the interval <a;<Z' where K<k', and < J/ '.
12
118 Mr. Ghaiindt/, On the validity of Taylor s expansion.

Now M is the upper bound (or at any rate a superior

lunit) to 1

fJ^^J!^ In
71 \
I

in the interval Q <x <h\ while p'^ is the upper Tunit of

/„M|-1

i.e.of the precedinf^ funetion when a? = 0. Thus M>p'^.

If p =
M~^ or if k' <M~\ the restriction <k' and <M~^ K
is identical with the restriction K<k' and <p.
In this case we have established the validity of the expan-
sion over the required interval. But if M~^<p^ and <k\
we have established the expansion over too small an interval.
It willbe shown that the restriction K<]c and <i/~' may
be replaced by the restriction K<k' and </3 by a process of
''
continuation."
Choose two positive quantities x, ?/, each <l/J/ and such
that x+ y <k' and < p. Thus x, y are separately < k' and < p,
but x + y need not be less than 1 j (i\i ljM<k' and <p): M
it need only be less than 2jM.

By Taylor's formula
/(x + y + a) =f(x + a) +yf (x + a) +...
V"/ (x + a
^ ^_/^ + By)
-U ,
where
^
<n< ,
1.
n !

Since \x-\- y\<k' so also l^ + %i<A;', and accordingly

/;,
(:e +a+ %) < 2r.
But y<\jM.
;/"/„ (a; + a + %) ->
Hence -> as ;i cx>.

The expansion
/(.c+^ + a)=/(:c+a) + 2//' (.'«+«) + y'I-,/" (x + a) +
is therefore established for the specified range of values of
a?, y. But since 0<a:;</i;' and x<M'^ we may expand
/{x + and therefore also f'{x + a), J"" (x + a), ..., in
a),
powers of X. We then have f(x + y + a) represented by a
double series in powers of x, y. humming "diagonally,"
i.e. tirst collecting terms of like degree in x, y, we have

f{x+y + a)=f{a) + {x + y)f{a) + ^~^^/'\a)+....

 Mr. Chauncbj, On the validity of Taylor'' s expansion. 119

Now this change In the order of" summation is permissible,

if the double series is absolutely convergent, i.e. if

SS .L.M)\
m ! n I

is convergent.
This, being a series of positive terms, is convergent if

pi

2
(x + yY
is convergent, i.e. if
P-
fM)
is absolutely convergent. But, being a power scries, it is
absolutely convergent within its limits of convergence, i.e. if

x-\-y<p, which has been stipulated.

Thus f(x + y + a) in powers of (x + y)
the expansion of
has been effected under the restriction 0<x' + y</C where
K<p, 2/ M, and <k'.
Wehave thus replaced the conditions and <k', K<ljM
where (0, A") Is the interval of validity of the expansion of
f{a-\-x) in powers of x, by the condition i^<2/il/, <p
and <h' By a similar process of "continuation" we could
.

leplace these by K
<'^/M^ <p and < k\ and so on, Jt is
clear then that ultimately we shall get 2'lM>p or > k'
when this condition may be removed and we are left with
K<p and <k\ which is what we require.
The conditions of expansibility that have been proved
establish the expansions of the elementary functions without
difficult}', and apply also to the discussion of the expansion of
a function of a function. Moreover, they "explain" why the
expansion fails for such a function as e~"'^', for then /^{x), in
the neighbourhood of x=0, is of the order e~^!^^x~^"', so that

/> )
'

Is of the order e~^ '"*'.»;"'' (??!)-'''". If we set u-'=l/n, this

expression -> co as ?* -> co and x-^0, so that

is not bounded in any region <x < k, n > 0.

 ( 120 )

^^OTE ON THE PRIMARY MINORS OF A

CIRCULANT HAVING A VANISHING
SUM OF ELEMENTS.
By Si?- Thomas 3Iuir, LL.D.

1. It is known from Borchardt that any axl-symraetric

deterrainsinthaving the sura of every row equal to zero has
all its primary minors equal. Such a unique minor can be
expressed in a variety of ways as a function of ^n [n - l)
elements, the result being neatest and most convenient when
the elements chosen are those outside the diagonal. Thus, if
the given determinant be

abed
^ ^ / 9
c f h I

d g i j
it is best
that the letters removed with the help of the
conditioning equations

be a,e,hj',
the minor in question, U^ say, then being

h + c-\- d —b —c
-b b+f+g -f
-c -/ c+/+t
and its expansion*
dgi-Y dg [c +/) + di (/-f-^) + ig [b + c)

^{d + g^i)[bc + bf-Vcf).

* It is worth noting that this expansion consists of three-letter combinations
formed from b, c, d, f, g, i; and contains every such combination except
fgi, cdi, bdff, be/,
each of these four being formed of the letters on striking
left ^ out a frame-line of
the Pfaffian
\
b c d
f 9
i

The case where/, g, i-d, c, b is also worth noting.

 Sir T. Muir, Note on the 7)iinors of a circulant. 121

Determinants of this type received at an early date tlie

attention of Sylvester, wlio noted that the signs of all the
terms in the tinal development are positive, and^ that the
number of these terms in the case of the n"' order is
{n + iy-K
2. Since a circulant is viewable as a special axi-symmetric
determinant, it also must have a unique primary minor when
the sum of its elements vanishes. On inquiry, however, the
special is found to be not included in the general. The reason
for this is that in the one case it is the diagonal of symmetry
from which the elements have to be removed by substitution,
and in the other it is not. Thus, the circulant being
I m n r

r I m n

n r I 771

m n I

impossible to get rid of one of the letters by using the

it is

equation of condition
Z + ?n + + =
?i »•

on the elements lying in the diagonal of symmetry, as was

done iu the previous instance; the substitution of — ?n — n — r
for I must now be made in the other diagonal, with the result
that the unique minor, F, say, is seen to be

m+n+ r —n
—r m + n-\-r —m
— n —r 711 +n+r
the expansion of which is

711" + 2wi'« + n^r + In'm + Inr + 7nr'' + 2«r^ + 4m«)- + »•'.

3. In regard to the outward form of this determinant

note should be taken that reading the elements of its three
rows in succession we are merely repeating
7n + + r, — m, — n, — r,
/I

2^ times as were. it

Similarly in the case of the next order, to obtain the

sixteen required elements, we" repeat
w + n + r + s, — W2, — n, — r, — s,
3l times.
122 Si?' T. 3Iid}', Note on the minors of a circulant

This observation involves the fact that the determinant

can be viewed as persjmraetric ; thus the one of the third
order is
P{n, ???, — 7i—r, »', n). —m
Further, either way
of writing shows that the determinant
is invariant to the interchange of and r. m
4. Closely related in form to the two determinants above
is a third, of which a three-line example, W^ say, is
u-\-v-\-io —V w
U i- V ^ w
—V —10 it + v-i-w
Laving the expansion
u^ + 3u {v + iv) + Bu {v- +VW + 10^ j,

with u every term in accordance with the fact that each

in
row-sum is equal to ii.
All three determinants, U, V, W, are unisignants, the
non-diagonal elements in every case being negative and yet
all the row-sums positive. They differ in that the first is
symmetric witii respect to the main diagonal, the second
persymmetric with respect to the secondary diagonal, and
and the third circulant.

5. The
third, TF, being circulant is resolvable into linear
factors; and therefore if it be expanded in descending powers
of M, the last term of the expansion must be so resolvable.
But the said last term can be shown to be, save for an
arithmetical factor, a determinant of the form V. Conse-
quently we have the important proposition that the unique
primary minor of a circulant having a vanishing sum of
elements is resolvable into linear factors.
The form of the factors will appear from the consideration
of an individual case.

6. Taking W^, with S written for u-'t-v-^io + x-{-y,and

expanding it in Cay ley's manner according to descending
powers of a letter in the diagonal, we have
S —V —10 —X —y
—y S —V -10 —X
—X —y S —V —IV
— lo-x —y S — V

— V — 10 —X —y S
 having a tanialnng sum of elements. 123

= u^+5(t'*(y f lo + .-c + y) +,..+ 5u S-u —V —lo -x

— y S—n —V —10
—X —7/S—U —V
— w —X —y S-u
From this it follows that

W { u, V, w, X, y)
=oV{v,w,x,y).
\
J u=0

But the TFliere bein;^ the circulant

C [S, — V, - 10, — X, —y)

is expressible in the form
— we^—xe^ - ye*)
[S - ve • [S - ve' — we*— ae — ye')
• {S— i06 — xe*- ye')
ye'— • (5'— ve*— ive^-xe'^ — ye)
' — —
[S V 10 — X — y)
where the last of the five factors is manifestly u, and e is a
prime fifth-root of unity. On dividing by ic and thereafter
putting M = we thus have
{(1-e) V + {1 - e") 10 + [1 - e') x + {i - e*) y}
. {[l-6'')v+{l-e*)io + (l -e) x+{l-e')y\
. {(l-eV + (l-e) io+{l-e*)x+{l-e')i/]
• {(1-e*) y+ (1 -e^)io+ (1 — e') x + (1 - e) ?/] = 5F(v, io,x,y).

Similarly, as a test of the extension in § 2, we have

AV{m, n, r) = [|l -\/(- 1)} m + {l + l\n+{l + V(- l)} r]
»[{l+l]m + {l-l]n + {l + l]r]
[{1 + V(- 1)} m + {1 + 1} » + {1 - V(- 1)1 r]
.

= 2 [m + r) [{2n + m + r)"'+ (m - r]^\

= 4 (?n + \{m V n)-^ [n + rf].
)•)

That m4 7- is a factor of the determinant in § 2 is seen by

adding the first and last rows.

7. Another mode of verifying the resolvability of V Is to

increase the first row by all the others, arriving readily at

F(y, 10, x, y) = V W X y
-y v + io-\-x+y —V — 10

—X —y '
v+io-\-o:^y — V

— 10 —X y V4 io + x-[ y
124 Sir T. Muir, Note on the minors of a circulant.

then to perform the operation

(1 - 6) colj+ (1 - e-) col^f (1 - e^) C0I3+ (1 - e') col,,

when it is found that the first column has become such that
the factor
(1 - e) y + (1 - e-) !<; + (1 - e'j + (1 -
a: e') y,
can be removed from it, and the elements
1, -e% -e\ -6*
left in the column.

8. Fromthe irrational factors of V^ rational factors must

arise by grouping, save when n + 1 is prime. The formal
result in regard to this is that the rational factors of V„ are
in nuynher the same of those of (a;""^'— 1) 4- {x—\), and are
similar in degree. Thus when n is 3, we have
x*—l
--=(a3 + l)(c«^+l),
x—\ ^ '

and hence the linear and quadratic factor of § 6. When n is 5,

x^—\
'
= + [x'^x + -«+
x—\r 1) (x'
(a? 1)I 1)I
^ \

and F^ is resolvable into a linear factor and two quadratics.

When n is 4 the F-function, V {I, m, ??, r) say, is irresolvable:

and we have for its equivalent

+ + n* + r*
Z* ?«''

+3 [?m + ??iV + nH + r^n) + 2 [Fn + ??iV + n'^r + r^m)

+ {Vr + rn^n + n^m + rU)
+ + r') [m' + n') + IV + m'n^
4 [r

4- 7 {Pmn + Im^r + In^r -i mtir^) + 6 {l^mr +77i'nr + n'lm + r^?il)

+ 4 (py?r + m"7>- + n'mr + r7??i)

+ 11 ?mnr.
9. In order to compare with Boole's and other uni- V
signants that have no negative terms in the elements we
increase each row by the sum of all the rows in front of it,
and thereafter perform on the columns the same operation.
The result is

v+w+x-\-7/ tv +x +y x+y y
v-\-w+x v-\-2to-\-2x->ry w+2x-\-y x-i-y
V{v^w,x,7/) =
v-\-io v-\-2w+x v+2w+2r^y to \ x \
y
V v+w v + iv^x v+w+x+y
 3/r. Salmon^ The twisted cubic of constant torsion. 125

Equivalents of tlie like kind for U and W can similarly be

found.

10. It is also worth noting in conclusion that the converse

of the property with which we started also holds, namely,
if the primary minors of a circidant he equal and non-zero^
the sum of the elements must vanish. For it is known that
generally
C {a, b, c, d)=^{a + bco + ca>'' + do)^) [A + Boi^ + Cw' + Da>),
and therefore with the data just mentioned the second factor
on the right would \iQ A [I { lo + to' + lo'j, which is so that ;

the other general identity

C{a,b,c,d)=^aA + bB-{-cC+dD
becomes 0= {a + b + c + d) A,
whence the desired result.

Capetown, S.A.
7th JVov., 1915.

THE TWISTED CUBIC OF CONSTANT TOESION.

By IF. H. Salinon.

The following seems to be a shorter and more direct

method than any yet published of arriving at the general
equations of the cubic of constant torsion originally discovered
by M. Lyon.* These equations, by an appropriate choice of
origin, axes and parameter, are here obtained in their sim-
plest form, consistent with perfect generality, and refer the
curve, itself imaginary, to real axes.
The Cartesian coordinates x, y^ z of the general unicursal
twisted curve of the i^l^ degree can be written in the form

^-M ^_Aii
y~F{t)'
,-m F{t)
n)
''>'
""'Tit)'
where F, /,, f.^, f^ are polynomials of degree w of a single
parameter t. If the common denominator be divided into F
the numerators /j, /j, J\ giving a numerical quotient, the
remainder is a polynomial of degree ?i — 1, and we can, by a
change of origin, write the equations of a unicursal twisted
curve of degree n in the form
u V 10 , .

^=j^^ y=y^ ^=7' ^^^'

* Aunales de I' Enseignement Superieur de Grenoble, t. II., p. 353, 1890.

126 Mr. Salmon, The twisted cubic of constant torsion.

where w, v\ to are polynomials in t of degree n — \^ and F

a polynomial of degree n.
The torsion t at any point of the curve will be given by

^ [y^ ~ y^) +y (^^ — zx) +z [xy — xy)

7 •(3),
 Mr. Salmon^ The twisted cubic of constant torsion. 127

Without loss of generality we may take ^'^=1, and,

increasing the parameter ^ by a constant, we may also make
d^ zero. Hence we may write F=t^ + dt + e. In the above
equations the origin is on the curve at the point where t is
infinite; if in addition we take the axes along the tangent,
the principal normal and the binomial at this point, then
^0=0) c„ = 0, c, = 0. Therefore the equations of the general
twisted cubic mav be written

= a^f + aj + a^
X
f -\-dt-^e

y =
128 Mr. Salmon, The twisted cubic of constant torsion.

Equating the coefficients of f on both sides we have

ajb^b.^ = 0. But or J,a„ =Q =
makes the curve plane;
therefore for finite constant torsion it is necessarv tliat b, 0. =
Equating the constant term on both sides with the condition
b^ = 0, we have '^^aj^^c/ = T{iaJb'e' + iajc^d'] ; but from
the coefficients of t^ we see that 12aJ}^c^ = T.4aJb^\ Hence
fl'/c/(f = 0. Rejecting a^=0 and Cj=0, either of which
makes the curve plane, we have d=0.
Hence equation (6) reduces to
3a,5,c, + 2ee + e'\ = r [a^'b^ (f + 2ee + e')
{<«

+ {a;b;U' + a^c^") 9t' + {a;b;t' - 2a^nJj;U'

+ 4.aX ^a^a^c^t + a'^b^ + a'^c^^ + ^'/c/) 9«=
t' -f

- la^b^ti^U" + 3e<*j + [a'b^e - a^alj'^) {Qt* + 6et)

+ (- aoVe + a^aJ:>;t-2aXt-a,a^c;) m'\ .(7).

Equating the other coefficients we have the following

relations: —
Ta;V = 3«oV, (8),

HV-K«A' = o (9),

T(a„Ve+9a„a,c;0=3a„V,e
«
(10),

«.V + ^V + = (11),

«o«A'« = (12).

From equation (12), since flr„, a^, 5, must all be finite, e = 0.

Therefore from equation (10), a^a^c./ = 0, and so a, = 0.
Hence a/ + c/=0, 2,a^G^ = 2a^b^\ and T=3c,/a„^,. Thus
c^ = ± ia^
and 6, = ± iV (f a„a,).
Writing A for a,,, B for a,, and < for 1/^, we arrive at the
following result :

All twisted cubics of constant torsion are imaginary, and

their general equations can, by a proper clioice of origin, axes,
and the parameter t, be written
x = At+Bt', y = ±>^[-?^AB)t\ z = ±s/{-BY,
where A, B are finite, independent arbitrartf constants. The
magnitude t of this constant torsion is \/ {6Bj/A -s/A.
 ( 129 )

ON BRTGGS'S PROCESS FOR THE REPEATED

EXTRACTION OF SQUARE ROOTS.
By J. IV. L. Ghiisher.

§ 1. For tlie orig-inal calculation of the lof^aritliins of

certain prime numbers Brip^gs used a method which required
the repeated extraction of the given number a great luunber
of times. For example, by extracting the square I'oot of 10
fifty-four times in succession he found tlie resulting root to be

1.00000 00000 00000 12781 91493 20032 35.

This repeated extraction of square roots was very lai)orious,

and in chapter viii. of his Arithinetica Logarithmica (1624)
Briggs gave a method of proceeding by means of differences
from one root- to the next. The object of this paper is to
examine this method witii reference to the principles on which
it rests and the use which Briggs made of it, and also to
consider other methods to which Briggs might have been led
by it.

§ 2. Briggs seems to have observed that the decimal part

of each successive square root was approximately equal to
^ of the decimal part of its predecessor, and that if each
decimal part were subtracted from ^ of its predecessor the
differences so formed were such that each was approximately
equal to \ of its predecessor, and that if second differences
were formed by subtracting each first difference from ^ of its
predecessor, these second differences were such that each was
approximately equal to \ of its predecessor, and that if third
differences were formed by subtracting each second difference
from ^ of its predecessor, these third differences were such
that each was approximately y\, of its predecessor, and so on.
Briggs denoted the decimal part of the square root with
which he starts by A, and the first, second, third differ- . . .

ences by B, C^ D, . and he applied his method to the

. .

calculation of successive square roots in the following n>anner.

He first extracted the square root of the given number
continually, in the ordinary manner, a certain number of
times, and from the square roots thus obtained he calculated
the first, second, third differences B, C, B,
. . . until, . . .

to the number of places included, one of these differences

VOL. XLV. K
 130 I)}\ Glaishei\ On Briggss process for the

became Su[)pose that the i^-difference is the first

insensible.
to disappear. starting with ^^ of the /li'-difference as a
'J'lien
new i^-difFerence lie derived tVoni it new/)-, C-, i>-differences
and a new A^ which was the next square root*.
In the exjnnple which Brig<j;s gives he starts with the
number 1.0077G96 and extracts its square root 9 times
successively, tlie value of its 512'''' root being found to be

1.00001 51164 G5900 05G72 95048 Sf.

and by forming the first, second, third differences from . . .

this and ihe preceding square roots (viz. the 25G"', 128"\ &c.),
lie obtains tlie following vahies of B, U, D, and E-.

B, .00000 00001 14253 77215 03190 9,

C, .00000 00000 000017271197889 3,

I), . 00000 00000 00000 00004 5G894 3,

A', . 00000 00000 OOOUO 00000 00020 7 ;

i^ being insensible to tiiis number of phaccs. Tiien starting

witii J,jE^ that is, with

.00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 G5,

he derives from it the vahies of Z>, 0, Z?, and A for the next
root, the vahie of A being found to be

.00000 75582 0443G 30121 42907 60,

which therefore is the decimal part of the next I'oot.

Having thus exj)lained his method by woiking out an
example, Briggs concludes his chapter by giving expressions
for B, C, I) in terms of A as
. . . far as the term in ^'*.

* I Hse Briggs's leUeis A, B, C, D

exactly as lie did, but my fiist,
. . .

_ second, . . differences are liis second, tliird

. differences; for, the square
. . .

root being + A. Briggs calls

1 A
the first difference, viz., it is the difference between
the square root and unity and the difference between A and hiilf the previous .4
;

he calls 7?, itc. but A is merely the decimal part of the initial quantity, and it
:

seems more natural not to include it among the differences, as it does not belong
to the system formed by the others.
Briggs had no i)ot;ition for distinguishing the successive .4's, iJ's, such . . .

as is now afforded by suffixes, nor had lie a notation for powers which put in
evidence the quantity raised to the power, e f/. A* was denoted by (4).
t Although Briggs used decimal fraclions and liad a special notation for them
(by uuderliniiig them), still he practically treats his numbers as integers in the
course of work, e.r/. he writes this number
10000,1 5 116,46599,905fi7,29604,88.
Tlie commas are used, as now, to divide into convenient groups a long succession
of figures, but he starts witli the first figure, not with the first decimal.
 repeated extraction of square roots. 131

§3. In order to Iiivesti^-;ite tlie principle of Briggs's

process It is convenient to distinguish the successive square
roots and differences by suffixes. Denoting the original
quantity whose root is to be continually extracted by a, it is
supposed that a consists of unity followed by a decimal, viz.
a~l-\-A where A
is a decimal. I denote the decimal parts
of the successive square roots by A^, A.^, ... (in accordance
with which A is equivalent to
^J so that
a*=(l + ^)^-l + J„
ai=(l + ^ji=l+^„

and in general the 2''-th root of a, that is of 1 + A, is equal

to 1 + A^.
If for brevity we put h — —^, then

a''= (1 + Ay^'=. 1 + ^,._,, a'" = (1 + ^1)^''= 1 + .1„_^, &c.,

d"=[l + ^f = 1 + /!„,„ aV^ = {l 4- ^)^''= 1 f ^,,^.3, &c.,

Denoting the first, second, third, . . . differences corre-

sponding to A^ by i>^,, C,,, i>^, ..., it follows from their
definitions that these quantities are given by the equations

B= -A^A ,

C = ^B -B
J) — XQ _C
E n =T-V^
1 o
,-i>,&C.
n'
71—1

§ 4. Let the expansion of «*, that is of (l + ^)*, in ascend-

ing powers of A be 1 + VJi + K/*'+ VJi^ -'t&.c. Then
A^ = VJi + VJi'+ VJi'+ VJi'+&c.,
whence ^„_, = V^2h + V^Ir + V/'Ii' + V^2Vi* i etc.,

and therefore

B^ = VJi'+{2'- 1) VJi'+ [2'- 1) VJi'+ {2*- 1) VJt'+&c.

Putting 2h for h, dividing by 2', and subtracting, we find

C, = (2=- 1) 17.^+ (2^- 1)

(2-^- 1) VJi'-^ (2^-
1) (2^-1) VJi'+ &c.
 132 Dr. Glaisher, On Briggs's 2)roces8/or the

and, siiiiilarl}',

i>, = (2^- 1) (2^- 1) VJi'+ (2*- 1) (2'-l) (2^-1) VJi'

+ (2*- 1) (2*- 1) (2^- 1) VJiU- &c.,

E„= (2*- 1) (2'- 1) (2*- 1) VJi'
+ (2»-l)(2*-l)(2'-l)(2-^-l)T7i''+(2^-l)...(2^'-l)Ta'+&c.*
&c. &c.

§5. Now
suppose tliat to the nuaiber of places included
F^ is This expresses that ^V^,,., =^„.
insensible. Using
[E^^J, [D^^J, ... to denote the new E,'D" calculated . . .

by Briggs's method, he takes (^„+,) = Thus gV^.,-

(^„J = (2^-1)(2^-1)(2^-1)^5|

+ (2^-l)...(2'^-l)F,|[+(2<'-l)...(2'-l)T/;^'+&C.

The quantity (^„+,) is obtained from the formula

and theretoi'e

(Z)„ j= (2^- 1) (2^- 1) f/i;+ (2^- 1) (2^- 1) (2^_ 1) 1/

i;

-{(2'^-l)(2^-l)(2'-l)(2^-l)-2(2*-l)(2*-l)(2'-l)}F,|'

_|(2«_l)(2^-l)(2^-l)(2^-l)-2(2«-l)(2^-l)(2^-l)}F,~

+ &C.

* These series are convergent; for the «"» term in the series for the r^^
difference is
(2'-"-'-l)(2--^-=-l) ... (2'-])Tv„A'-^'.

Now, aswill beshowninS12, Fr,,/i'*' = 3 — -^— , the numerator of which is

(»• + «) I
A
approxiraately equal to A^^'^ and An is approximately equal to -- Thus Vr^\ A""*' .

^r+» 2"
is approximately equal to , p-- The ratio between this term and the
-^ .

(?• + «) Iv ')" !

previous term is therefore approximately

2'-^'-'-l A
2'-i-l (M-7) 2"
'

which nearly = ,
—— . The largest value of r is n, so that this factor is

aln'avs less than .

r + n
 repeated extraction of square roots. 1 33

Proceeding In this manner we find

(^.J = (2-i)F,f;K2^-i)(2'-i)T^^+(2^-i)(2^_i)F;^

+ {(2^- 1) (2*- 1) (2=' - 1) (2^- 1) -2 (2^- 1) (2*- 1) (2^- l)

+ 2=(2^-l)(2^-l)jF/i-; + &c.,

- {(2^- 1) (2*- 1) (2^-1) (2^- 1) -2 (2-^ - 1) (2^- l) (2^ - 1

+ 2-^(2^-l)(2*-l)-2^(2^-l)}F^^;-&c,

+ {(2^_ 1) (2*_ 1) (2^_ 1)

(2-^_ 1) _ 2 (2-^-1) (2^- l) (2'- 1)

+ 2=(2^-l)(2*-l)-2^'(2^-l)4 2^}F,|-&c.,

the gener.al term being

{(2'-'-l) (2'-'-l)(2'-'-l)(2'-'-l)-2(2'-'-l) (2'-'-l) (2'-'-l)

+ 2'(2'-^- 1)
(2'--'-
1) - 2^(2'--'-
1) + 2*} vjf, .

§ 6. Thus, up to and including terms of the order /**, (^„^,)

differs from A^ only by the substitution of ^h for k and, to
this degree of accuracy, it is equal to the value of ^„^.,, the
square root of A^^.
Now the fact that F^^ disappears (to the number of places
included) shows that (2"- l) (2'-l)(2'-l) (2'-l) VJi^ may
be neglected. The numerator {(2* - 1) (2*- 1) (2'- 1) (2'-l)
- 2 (2' - 1) (2' - 1) (2*- 1) + &c.} VJi^ of the corresponding
term in (>^„+,) is necessarily less than this quantity, and, in
addition, this numerator is divided by 32. Thus (^„+,) differs
from >4^^, by a quantity which is less than g^g'" 0^ ^''^ quantity
which is insensible, and therefore Briggs's rule gives the value
of A^_^^ with more than sufficient accuracy. The same is

also true of B^^^^^ C„^,, &c.

k2
134 Dr. Glaisher, On Bi'iggs^s process for the

§7. The quantities B^, C„, i>^^, . . . may be expressed in

terms of ^^ and tlie previous ^'s, for

1 ^ 3 .

and, similarly,

1 7 7

1 15 35 15

T. 1 ^ 31 . 155 . 155 ^ 31 ^

/^ _ ^ J ^^ A ^^^ A ^^^^ J
n 9^1 n-6 o20 n-5 ' olo n-4 ^IS ?l-3

651 . 63 ,

+ ^;tt
O" ^."-*, ^A n-1,+A.n
9° '

In general, if Q^ be the r"' difference, then

^„ = ^)}('?-2)(^-2-0(^-2')...(^-2-)M„

where rj is an operator such that 7]'A^= A^^ ^.

§ 8. Briggs, however, does not express his B, C^ D . . .

in terms of A and tiie preceding A's, but in terms of A only.

This, in tiie notation of the present paper, is equivalent to
expressing C. D„ B
in terms of A
, . . . .

The values given by Briggs, which include terms up to

A'\ are

B=hA\

J) = iA* + lA^ + j',A^ + yA^+^-,A^

E=2lA'i-7A'+10Y^A'i-12j%^gA'+nl-lA'+7\llA'\
 repeated extraction of square roots. 135

and so on, the values of / and K, the eighth and ninth

differences, being

/= 54902 ^s^\/i' + 25584G5 j-yg^'»,

/i:=2805527J§|-^'"*

§ 9. To obtain the values of B, C, D, . . . In this form we

notice that 1 + ^„_, = (1 + AJ\ 1 + A^^_^ = (1 + ^J*, &c., and
therefore, from § 7,

c„=^3{(i+Ar-i}-|i(i+-AJ-ii+A.

^„=^aKi+^j'-i|-^.{(i+A.r-i}+|[(i+Ay-i]-A,
&c. &c.

§ 10. It is however more

convenient to derive the
expressions for 6'^, D^^ . . . terms of ^^ directly from their
in
definitions (7^= ^Z?^_, — 5^, &c., in §3 {i.e. to derive each
difference from its predecessor) by making use of the fact
that the change of the suffix n into n— 1 is equivalent to the
change of A^ into {l-\-AJ'—\, that is into ^,, (2+yl^).
Thus,

(7„ I [^a: (2 + Ay- a:\ = 1^; + 1-^;,

Similarly

^„=i {tV^;(2 + AJ-^;n-i {tV^;(2 +^„r-^„^} +&c.,

or, as it may be conveniently v^'ritten

+/6A^{2\wi^j-i}+M;i2'(i+i^j'-i}
+ -L^;[2*(i+ij„r-il,
which on reduction gives Briggs's value; and so on.

* Briggs's values of the terms in -4'* in 1 and are inaccurate (in their K
fractional parts). These errors have been corrected in the values given above
(See §13).
136 Dr. Glaisher, On Briggsh process for the

These formula show tliat the complete expression for the

r**" difference contains 2' — ?• terms beginning with a term
in A-\
As has been mentioned the expressions given by Briggs
extended only to the term in A^".

§ 11. If we denote the (?•— ly*" difference by P„, then

n I r II '/r+1 n '
I ni n i--")

and therefore the r^^ difference Q^ Is

If therefore we put

*n irn 71 '
i)-+2 n '
Ins n ' '

then

(r+l)
?..3
()•)
= ^' Pr + —^' Pr.. + 2 (r + 2) 2^,.^, + 7^.,.^3,

&c. &c.,

where (?•), denotes the coefficient of x* in the expansion of

(l+a:/. ;

§ 12. By means
of these forraulse the coefficients In any
difference may
be deduced from those of its predecessor; but
the coefficients in any given difference P^, may be obtained
directly as follows.
From § 4 we have
P=(2^-^-0(2^"-l)...(2-l)F..A'-+(2--l)...(2'-l)F,,/rV...

Now the F's are defined by the equation

(1 + Af= 1 f F.A + V.]i'^ F,/i'+ &c.,

 repeated extraction of square roots. 1 37

and tlie expansion of tlie quantity on tiie left-liand side Is

1 + h log, (1 + ^) + ^'-g-, + ^
^^^1 ^+ &c.,
so tb at
^^
K=
jloff
- ^'
(1+.4)}'"
,
—=^ .

Thus

p,= ^- — ''
..,
' '
' {iog,(i + A)r.

+ ^^"'"1"
2'-'-l). ..(2'^-l
(2'--l) (
iiog,(i+A)r+&c,
T^ '

wliere
^2'-+''!-i
_ 1^
^g*"'"'-^- 1).,.(2'""-1
«„.„ =
(r 4- «ij !

Expanding the powers of log^(l + ^J we find that, if as

before

tben

~ o«r'
P,..l=a.>l-
2

r+1 ?-(3>-+5)
Pr,3= «r.,- -^ «r.l+ ^^^
"r'

r -h 2 ('* + !) (3r + 8) r'+ 5/ + 6r

&c. &c.,
where
(2'"'-l) (2''-'-l)...(2'-l)
a, =-

2'"-l

2-'^ -
«..„
V.s = -

'^"
(2'^-l) (r + 2)
(2'-"-l)
,
138 Dr. Glaishe7\ On Briggs's jn-ocessfor the

§ 13. By means of the formulge in tlie two preceding

sections 1 have calcuhited the vahies of ^^, 0^, ... in terras
of A^, thus verit"yiu|2^ Brif^<^s's vakies except in the case of
five of the coefficients of y1'" as mentioned below.
Suppressing tiie suffix throughout, the values of Z?^, (7„ . . .

in terms of A^ are found to be

B = hA\
C= \A' + IA\

D = lA^^lA^+^^A^+lA:' + -i^A^,
E=^-iA'+lA'+ Vg'^'+ W8^^'+ W^'+ V2'¥^"»
-^~16-^T^8^T^ 128 ^T 128~ ^ "1
256' "^ '

/7 _ 19 5 3 /17 ,
19J5 347 /J8 , 1 4C 8 8 7 3 ^» i 43 75 8 5 JlO

TT —
~ 2JL8 3_1 J84.GO3 5421 /19 9047 6197 -'^
410
-" 128 -^ T 128 ^ T
I

128 »

±7"_7027 545/|9i3 2748 3

12 8~'^^ ^ 128
5 974lu
-^ »

jr— 718215 099 /1 10*

Briggs expresses the coefficients as mixed fractions, and

his coefficients of ^'" in F, G, li, /, are K
1953|f|, 683722^18, 706845if||, 25584652|f|^-, 2805527,
the true values in this form being
1953i||, 68371§1, lOQUb^^^,
2558465/2^, 2805527|§f

§ 14. Briggs's formulae enabled him to calculate 5^, C^ . . .

from A^^ alone, but it is not clear why he should have desired
to do so. He mentions that i?^, C„ can be so expressed, . . .

Although the coefficient of the leading term increases, the term itself
*
decreases. For the first term of the i-^^ difference is (S""— 1) (2'"'— Ij...
(2-1) Tr+i /i*"^', and substituting approximate values, IV+i/i*"^' approximately
(l0g,(l+^„)'-H ^„'-+l ^rM
(r + l)! {r + l)I (r+ljl 2C-*^';»"

Also (2'"-l)(2''"'-l) ... (22-1) is less than, and may for the present purpose
2^''""'^''^*^
be replaced by, Making these substitutions, the term becomes
^4''^'
1
. .,
,r-n),n-iryi '
which diminishes with r. For the last (n"') difEerence

this Talue is 1 A"^^

(n + lj ! ihrnnnyl-
 repeated extraction of square roots. 1 39

and gives their values up to terms in ^"', without any indi-

cation of the manner In wliich they were obtained. He then
applies the formulge to calculate i?^, C^, D^, E^ from A^ to 30
places of decimals, A^ being the decimal portion of the num-
ber 1 .00001 511G4 ... quoted in §2.
Jt seems to me possible that Briggs liaving observed the
curious result that B^ was equal to i^,/, was so led to
express i> C in terms of
. , . . . A .

§ 15. The fundamental relations in § 3 show that

A n =^A
2 71-1 -IBn-l + Si(7n-1,-nVZ>
4> ,
lb
'
,+...,
ti-l '•••}

and therefore, if F^ may be neglected,

If therefore Briggs had only required ^„,,, he could have

derived its value from those of B^^ ^n without previously • • •

calculating i?„^,, 6'„^, . but these differences would have

. . ,

been required for the derivation of A^^^^.

§ 16. The
values which Briggs obtained for B^, (7^, . . .

in terms of would have enabled him to derive any

A^^ from A
its predecessor without calculating any differences. For, sub-
stituting: in the htst-written formula the values of i? (7 ... in ,

terms of A^, we have

if terms beyond ^
are neglected ; and Briggs's values of the
higher differences would have enabled him to extend this
expression up to the term in -4'".
Briggs does not give this formula, and so presumably he
did not obtain it. Jt may have escaped his notice, or it may
be that as a calculator he preferred to work by differences, a
method which he continually employed and of which he may
almost be said to be the inventor.
Series were unknown in Briggs's time, but if he had
noticed that A could be expressed in terms of the preceding
-<4, By C ... it would seem that he might have given the
formula for A^_^_^ in terms of A^ in a finite form, rejecting
powers of A
which were insensible to the number of places
included. There is however the important difference between
140 D7\ Glaishe7\ On Briggs^s process for the

the expressions for ^,_, C„, ... in terms of A^ (which he does

give) and of A^^^ in terms of A^^^ that the complete expressions
for the former are finite while the latter cannot be expressed
in finite terms.

§ 17. The preceding expansion of A , in terms of A of

course follows at once from the formula

and similarly we have

§18. As shown in §12, the quantities F,, F,, F3, ... are

log^a,^),i!^f4±^\i!^I^^ ...,thatis,the,

aie-^y— , —^j— , ....

Since Ji = 2~", Itfollows from the formulae of §4 that the

limit, when n is very large, of 2"A is log a, and that the
limits of 2'"^„, 2"'(7„, 2'"Z>„, ... are

—— ——
(log^ay
^j J
(2'-l)
§1 (loge^).
(2^-1) (2^-1)
^j (log^a),....

The first of these results, viz. that the limit of 2"A^ Is

log^a, involved in the formula by means of which Briggs

is

obtained the logarithms of the early primes, and for which he

calculated the value of -4^ for his actual process was equiva-
;

lent to log,„a=2M„x. 43429..., this multiplier .43429... being

derived from the repeated extraction of the square root of 10,
the logarithm of which was known.

§ 19. The differences C B

.do not seem at the
, . . .

present day to possess mathematical interest of their own.

They are derived from a system of successive square roots
which were constructed in order to obtain as the final result a
very high root, but which do not form a mathematical table
that would be calculated for its own sake. I am afraid that
the interest in the differences is almost entirely historic, and
consists in the fact that their existence was discovered by
Briggs, that he used them for calculating square roots, and
that he obtained formulae for them in terms of the decimal
part of the final square root to which they were attached.
 repeated extraction of square roots. 141

A^'itli reference to these formulge it is curious that any

matliematical work of so fine a calcuhvtor as Briggs should

not have been quite free from error; but it is likely that he
never used these formulae as far as the term in ^", and
that when lie wrote the Introduction to the Arithmetica
Logarithmica, he had partly forgotten the details of his work
coniTected with the calculation of these early primes, and
printed the formulje as he found them among his papers.
I may mention that Hutton has given a very good account
of chapter viii. of the Arithmetica Logarithmica, which forms
the subject of the present paper, in the Introduction to the
numerous editions of Also Delambre in
his Logarithms.
vol. i. Moderne (pp. 538—541)
of his Histoire de V Astronomie
has given a full account of Briggs's process and has quoted
his formula for B, C, D, E in terms of A (§13). He makes
no examination of Briggs's results and process, but after
quoting the formulje he remarks: " Le procede precedent
[i.e. the process] parait bien preferable a ces formules.
Briggs ne demontre parait avoir trouve le tout par
rien, il

le fait et d'apr^s ses calculs; cependant, pour donner ces

formules si longues, il a dil se faire une esp^ce de th^orie
empirique, dont il ne parle pas."

§ 20. If Briggs had repeatedly extracted cube roots

instead of the square roots he would have found that similar
differences existed and were capable of expression in a
similar manner. For, proceeding as in §§3 and 9, if a be a
decimal, and if

(H-a/ = l + a„ (l + a)* = l + ot„ (l + a)"" = 1 + a3, &c.,

and if

then we find

7„ = i«; + v«: + ¥«,; + ¥a,; 1< + 1^: + 2W.

&c. •
&c.
 ( 142

DETERMINANTS OF CYCLICALLY REPEATED

ARRAYS.
By Sir I'homas 3Iuir, LL.D.
1. Writers like Puchta, Noetlier, W. Buniside,* who
have dealt with determinants of the type here specified, have
restricted thenjselves to cases where the circulating arrays
were also themselves circulant, and where as a consequence
the determinant is expressible as a product of linear factors.
It will be found interesting to withdraw for a moment this
restriction, and to see how it conduces to the discovery of
additional properties of even the less general functions.

2. The circulant of two n-line arrays ts expressible as

a product of two n-line detenninauts. Eor, taking ii equal to
3 and the arrays of \a,hcA, \ah,cA as the two circulating
arrays, the determinant in question is
a,
Si)' T. Mui7\ Determinants of cyclically repeated arrays. 143

3. Taklnj^ the special case of the foregoing-," wliere the

circulating arrays are the arrays of the circulants C{a^,a^^a^,
C {a^, «j, a^), we find tlie result of the resolution to be
C {a^ •+ a^, a, + a., a^ + a^) .C (a, — a^, a.^ — a^, a^ — aj
whence there come six linear factors, in agreement with the
result obtained by the writers above mentioned.

4. We may note in passing that this circulant of two

three-line circulant arrays is not altered in substance by
changing
o„ a^, a^, a^, a., a^

into a„ aj, a^, -«^, -a^, -a„

as is readily seen on changing rows into columns and' multi-

plying by (—1)^. (—1)^- This being the case, if we take the

product of the two forms, it must be possible to extract the
square root of botii sides; and, doiiig so, we find that the
circulant of two three-line circulant arrays is itself expr'essihle
as an ordinary three-line circulant^ namely,

C[U, F, IF),
where
U = a,' + 2a^a^ - «/ — 2a^a^, V = a^^ + 2a, - a/ - a.^ 2a^a^,

W = + 2a fl^ — a^' - 2a^a^.

a,"'

5. The circulant of n two-line general arrays

is divisible by
a, + c<, + o,+... a^ + a^ + a^+..

]f, merely for shortness in writing, we take 7i equal to 3, the

circulant in question is

a, a.,
2
a,d a,4 a.
a
a,6
1

K b, K K K K
«5 «6 "l "3 ^'3 ^<4

h h ^ K K \
a^ a^ a^ a^ a, a.^

h. h^ K K Ik h..
 144 Sir T. JIuir, Determinants of cyclically repeated arrays.

and tliis is seen to be equal to

a 4 «3 + <7, «, + «, + «. a^ a, a a

h,^-h, + h^ h, + h^-tb^ b, b^ b^ b^

h + ^.^K K + KaK ^, K ^ ^4

/>3 4- ^>, + i. />^ + Z>^ + /;.^ ^,^ h^ h^ b^_

wlilch on perfoiiniiig the operations

roWg — row^, row^ — roWg, row^ - row^, row^ — row^,

becomes resolvable into

«.-«3 «'.2-«4 «3-«S "4-«'6

^ + ^3 + ^ ^^.+ ^4+^6
a^ — a^ ttg — a, a, - a^ a^ — a^

6. Taking the special case of the foregoing where the

given two-line arrays are themselves circuiant, that is to say,
where
/>„ b^, b^, b^. b^, b^,

= ^2' «P «4' ^35 ^61 "o->

we see that the first factor in the result is

C{a^ + a^ + a^, a^ + a^ + a^),

and the second is the axisymmetric determinant

«, - a^ a^-a^ a^- a. a, o^

«2-«4 «i-^ ^4-^6 «3-^5

^^6-«2 «5-^^ «2- «4 "l-^3

7.TAe circuiant of n two-line general arrays is equal to

the determinant of four u-line circuiant arrays. This follf)\vs
at once from advancing the odd-numbered columns to occupy
the tirst n places, and thereafter treating the rows in the same
manner.
Sir T. ifuir, Veterininants of cyclically repeated arrays. 145

For example, the circulant of the four aiTcays

is equal to the determinant of the arrays of tlie four circulants

8. If the four given two-line arrays in the preceding

paragraph be made circulants the arrays of G [b^, b^^ b^, b^),
G {b^, b^, b^, b^ become the arrays of
G [a,, a^, a^, a^), G{a^, a.^, a^, a^),

and the resulting determinant becomes the circulant of two

and as such resolvable into linear
four-line circulant arrays,
factors. Note must be taken, however, that it is not the
eight-line determinant considered by Puchta in his first
memoir. Both are eight-line deteruiinants which are cir-
culants of circuhmt arrays; but, while the one here appearing
is the circuhmt of four two-Hue circulant arrays, Puchta's is

the circulant of two four-line arrays each of which is a cir-

culant of two two-line circulant arrays. The distinction
between them is perhaps more simply brought out by viewing
them as eliminants, the one being the eliminant of
{l,x, y, xy, y\ xy\ y\ xtf^i,, a„ «„ ..., a,) =
x- = \, y = l
and the other, Puchta's, the elinjinant of

(1, X, y, xy, z, xz, yz, xyzjti^, a,, a^, ...,«,) =

a?" =!,/ = !, z'=l
Further, if in writing the eight-termed equations here, we use

(1, X] (1, 2/, /, y)

to stand for the first set of facients, so that

{l,x){l,y)[l,z)
stands for the second set, we have an additional aid to

clearness.

9. The circulant of u three-line general arrays

a^ a^ a^ a^ a. a^ a^ a^ a^

^hh KhK KKK

c, c, ^3, c, c^ Cg, c, r^ fg, ...,

VOL. XLV. L
146 Sir T. Midr, Determinants of cyclically repeated arrays.

is divisible by
a^ + a^ + a^+... a, + a^ + a^+... a^ + a^-{- ag+...
b^ + h^ + b^+... h, + b^ + b^+... K+K+h+...
.
c^ + c^ + c,+... c^+c^ + c^+... C3 + c, + c,+...

'J'lieproof of this is quite similar to tliat in §5, and the two

toj^ellier at onci suggest the forniuhiting of a wide generali-
zation.
Wlien 7i is 3 the cofactor is

«.-^4 «2-«5 ^3-^6 «4-^ «5-«8 ^6-^9

c, -c, c^-c, c^-c^ c^-c^ C^-C^ Cg-C,

«7-«. ",-". «9-^3 «l-«4 «2-«5 «3-«6

^7 - <^. ^8 - ^3 Cg -C, C, - C^ C, - C, C3 - C,

which like that at the close of §5 is conveniently viewahle as

the determinant of four arrays, two of which are identical.

The circidnnt of n three-line general arrays is equal to

10.
the determinant of nine {i.e. 3^) n-line circulant arrays. For
example, when n is 3, the circulant of the arrays of

kA^sK I^A^gI' kA^sI'

is eqnnl to the determinant of the arrays of the nine cir-

culants
C (a„ a^, flrj, C (a^, o„ a^), C[a^, a^, a J,
C{b,,h,h), A, *„?>«), 0{b,,b^,b:),

This is established exactly in the manner of §7, and the

general pro[)osition which includes the two is readily grasped.

11. By making the given arrays in §§9, 10 circulant

ari'ays we learn that the circulant of the arrays oj

is divisble by
C [a^ 4- «4 + «„ a^ + a, + a^, a^ + a^ + aj ,
(a),

and that the circulant of the arrays of

C (a„ a^, a^), C {a^, a^, aj, C (a,, a,, aj,
Si?' T. Mid?-, Determinants of cyclically repeated arrays. 14'

is equal to the circulant of the arrays of

G[a^^a^,a^\ C{o^,a^,a^), G)a^, a^, a^), (/?).

From the latter result it follows that the said circulant, Ca.S
say, is invariant to the interchange of
o^ with a^ \

a^ with (7, I (7),

«g ivith f/g J

and from this and the former result that (73.3 "is divisible hy

C{a^-\-a, + a^, a^ + a^ + a^, a^ + a^ + o\, (6).

JSJaturally eacli of these four results can be established

independently.

12. It is important, however, now to note that the theorem

of § 9 is susceptible of extension in a quite different direction
when the number ot given arrays is the same as the number
of elements in each array. For the case where this common
number is 3 the wider theorem h:—the circulant of the three
arrays
a, a^ a^ a^ a, a^ a^ a^ a,

K K K h h h K K K
Cj c, C3, c, c^ C3, c, c^ Og,

is divisible by
rt, + 0^7 + a,7'-' a^ + a^'y + a^r ^3 + «g7 + ^7^
l\ + ^7 + /^7" ^, + ^57 + ^\1 K + ^c7 ^ ^97'

c, + c,7 + cy 0^+^57 + ^87' ^3 + ^6^ + ^97'

where 7 is any third root of 1. On the given determinant

a, a^ a^ a^ a, «g a, a^ a^

b. b. K b, b.^ h, K ^ l>

a, a^ a^ a, a,^ a^ a^ a^ a^

K \ K K K K K h h
^7 ^8 ^9 «. ^2 ^3 ^4 ^5 ^6

«4 «5 «6 ^'l-% ^'9 «1 "2 ^'3

K K K K K ''. ^ ^ ^
c. c. c, c, c, c„ c. c.^ c.
148 Sir T. Maii\ Determinants of ct/clicalhj repeated a^n^ays.

we first perform tlie operations

col, + 7001^+7'" col^, col,+ 7Col. + 7"colg, C0I3 + 7Colg + 7'col5,

and then on the resnltlng determinant the operations

ro vVg — 7 row g, ro w^ — 7 ro w^, ro w^ — 7 ro w^,
followed by

ro vVg — 7 roWj, row. — 7 row^, row^ — 7 row,.

The resnit of this is that appears in every place of the

firstthree colnmns except those sitnated in the first three
rows; and the determinant oi' the non-zero elements being

I
"^t,
+ «47 + ^77' ^>2 + ^'37 + ^h
7' ^3 + ^57 + ^"97' 1
-,

is, as expected, a factor of the original determinant. The

CO factor is

«.-7«'4 «2-7a5 «3-7«6 «4-7«7 «5-7«s ^^6-7^9

differing from that of §9 merely in having 7 prefixed to the

second term of every element.

13. As we shall presently see that the three determinants,

got from the three-line factor by giving 7 its three values, do
not have a common factor, there follows the important theorem
that the circidant of the three arrays of\ah^c^\, \a])^c^\, 1^7^8*^9 1

is equal to the product of the three determinants

I <^i + ^i + "7 ^'2 + ^3 + ^s *^3 + ^6 + ^9 1

1
«, + «47 + ^',Y ^\ + ^'57 + ^7' C3 f Cg7 + c^i' I

where 7 is a privie third root of 1.

14. Taking the second of these determinant factors,

namely,

«, + ^'47 + ^',7' «2 + «57 + «s7' «3 + "eV + «97'

K + b,y + b^y- h^ + Ki + Ky" K + Ky + hy'

c, + c^7 + c,7' c^ + c,y + cj' c^ + c^y+c^y'

and seeking to express it as a sum of determinants with

monomial elements we find that there are nine of the deter-
minants free of 7, nine with 7 as a factor, and nine with 7' as
Sir 2\ jUuir, Determinants of cyclically repeated arrays. 1 49

a factor. If we denote each of the twenty-seven by the

suffixes occurring in it, for example,

I^A'^sl ^y 459,
tiie lesult of the development is

+ 456 + 789 + 159 + 267 + 348-168 -249-357)

(123

+ (126 - 135 + 234 + 189 - 279 + 378 + 459 - 468 + 567) 7

+ (129-138 + 237 + 156 -246 + 345 + 489- 579 + 678)7"':
or, say P+ Qj + Ry\
With this notation it follows that the product at the end of
§ 13 must be
(P+ Q-^E){P+Qy+ Rj') (P+ Qy' + Ry\
and this we know to be equal to the circulant

P Q R
R P Q
Q R P
AYe thus have the theorem that the circulant of the arrays of

I^.Val) l«A^6 kvVsl'

is expressible as an ordinary three-line circulant

C\P, Q, R),

where P, Q, R
are aggregates of nine determinants whose
columns are taken from the arrays

a. a. a„ a„ a, a„ a, a„ a„

^K^ KKK KhK

one f-om each.

15. Another notation for the determinants in P, Q^ R

would be that in which Imn would denote the determinant
whose columns are the Z"" of \af^c^\, the ?u"' of \a^b^c^\ and
the ?/"' of |t'3^gCg We should then have
P= 111 + 123 + 132 + 213 + 222 1 231 + 312 + 321 + 333,

^=112 + 121+ 133 + 211 + 223 + 232 + 313 + 322 + 331,

P = 113 + 122 \ 131 + 212 + 221 + 233 4 311 + 323 + 332,
l2
150 Sir T. ^fuir, Determinajits of cyclically repeated arrays.

wliere the sum of tlie intej^ers specify inp^ a determinant is in

P of the form 3;-, in Q of the form 3/-+ 1, and in of the R
form 3r + 2.

16. Continning now the specialization interrnpted at the

end of § 11 we learn from § 13 that the circulant C3.3, of the
arrays of G(a^, a^, a^), G (a^, a^, a^) C (a^, a^, a^) is equal to
the yrodact of three circalants

C(a+«, + a„ a, + a,+ «3, ^3 + ^6 + ^

• C (a, + fl,7 + a^f\ a^ + a.7 + «y , a^ + a^y + a^f)
. C (a, + a^i' + «_7, a., + a,7' + a^7, a, -^a^'y' + 0^7),

and therefore, by the allowable interchange, also equal to the

product of other three circulants

C (a, + a^ + a,, «, + o^ + «'«, «, + a^ + c/g)

• C (a, + a^7 + a37', a^ + a^y + ^^7=, «. + 0^7 + 0^7')
'C(a^ + a^y' + aj, a^ + a.Y + a^y, a^ + a^y' + a^y).
It should be noted, however, that independently of the
said interchange, the identity of these two products of three
circulants can be readily shown. As a matter of fact each
circulant is resolvable into three linear factors, and the nine
linear factors obtained from the one group are the same as
those obtained from the other.

17. Similarly from § 14 we learn that the same circulant

of circulant arrays, C3.3, is equal to

where (^=123 + 456 + 789 + 3(159-168),

X = S(12Q f 459 + 378),
^ = 3(129 + 345 + 678),

and the column-numbers refer to the array

«1 «3 «3 «4 «S «6 «7 ^8 %i
«S «1 ^2 «6 «4 «i ^9 ^7 «8'

«2 «3 «I ^'5 «6 «4 «8 ^9 «7-

the minors of which are no longer all different — for example,

126 =- 135 = 234, 459 = - 468 = 567, ....
Sir T. Muir^ Determinants of cyclically repeated arrays. 151

To this there is also a companion form, namel}',

where 0', x,
6' ai'e outwardly identical with (^, ;y, 6, but the
cohimii-nuinbers now refer to the array

«l «4 «7 «2 ^^3 «g «3 «6 «9'

«7 «. «4 «8 «» «5 «9 ^3 ^6'

«4 «7 «1 «S «8 «2 «G «9 ^3-

18. From the preceding paragraph we obtain two rational

cubic factors of C3.3, namely,

^^x-^^ ^"*^ ^' + x' + ^'-

As such, however, these are not new, being essentially the

same as those obtained in § 11 ; so that the resulting equalities

^ +x+^ = C(a, + fl^+a3, a^ + a^ + a^, o^-^ a^ + a^),

0' + X' + ^' = ^ («i + ^^4 + ^'7' «2 + «5 + ^9' ^'3 + «G + ^9)?
are nothing more than the expression of the change of a
three-line determinant with trinomial elements into a sum of
27 determinants with monomial elements. The tirst-obtained
forms, too, have the advantage of showing that the two cubics
have a common linear factor, namely, the sum of the a's: so
that, up to this point, three rational prime factors of Cs.s
have been found, one linear and two quadratics. It remains
to ascertain the character of tlie others.

19. To suffices to arrange the nine linear

do this it

factors of § 16, not in one uninterrupted series, but so as to

form a square array, say the array
F F F s

F F F
•^21 22 23',

F F F
^31 32 33',

the positions being chosen so that the Fh of the first row are
those of

^K + «3+«3' «4 + P5 + ^6' ^j + ^a + ^O)

the i^'s of the first column those of

C{a^-{a^ + a^, aj + «5+^8' ^a+^e + ^s^'

152 Sir T. Muir, Determinants of cyclically repeated arrays.

and therefore F^^ identical with la. The arrangement brings

at once to light the existence of two other circulant factors
simihu' to those just mentioned, namely,

C (a, + a. + ffg, a^+ + a^,

ttg «3 + «< + o^,
0(a, + ag + fl^, a^ + a^ + a^, a^ + a. + a,),

these being equal to

F F F
F .F .F
II 22 33
.

We thus learn that C^^ is resohahh into five rational factors,

one linear and four quadratic^ the latter being of the form
{x^ + %/ + z^ - ?>xijz) -^{x+y + z),
i.e. x'^ + y^ + z^ — xy —yz — zx.

20. After this, one

not surprised to find tiiat there are
is

two other of §11, and therefore also two

results like (/3)
additional ways of expressing C'3.3 as the product of three
oidinary circulauts, namely

C (a, + rtj + a^, a^ + «6 + ^'7' + «4 ^s)

<^'3 "I-

. C (a, + a^7 + 0^7', a^ + a^ry + a^ry\ a^ + a^y + a^f')

'C{a^ + a^f + a^Y, a^ + ^^7' + ^^7, a^ + 0.^7' + 0^7)

and
G (rtj + Og + Og, a^ + a^ + (Tg, ^3 + «5 + «J
•
(a, + ag7 + a37'-', a^ + a^y + ^1^7', «^ + «,7')
+ a.7
•
G (a, + flg7'-' + 0^7, a^ + a^7' + a^-^, a^ + a^7' + 0,7)

Of the two former expressions of this kind (§ IG) one com-

bined the i^'s of our square array by rows, and the other by
columns. In the first of the two just written the sets of tliree
i^'s forming a circulant are taken from the secondary diagonal
and its parallels, and in the second from the main diagonal
and its parallels. There are thus twelve three-line circulants
that are factors of C3.3, and each linear factor has a set of
four in each of which it occurs for example, F-i^ occurs as ;

iS\ + ffjT + %!') 7' + («7 + «87 + «97') 7,

+ «27 + ^'37') + («<

(«. + a,7'+ ^',7) + {% + a^f" + ^^7) 7 + (^3 + ag7' + ^^7) 7',

(a, + a, + + {a^ + a^ + «,) 7 + {a^ + + a^ y\

flg) a,,

an d (a^ + a^y + aj'') + (a^ + aj + a^r) 7 + (^3 + a^y + a^Y) 7*.

Sir T. Mid)', Determinants of cyclically repeated arrays. 153

21. It will have been observed that the formulae occurring

in these statements of tiie properties of G3.3 are characterized
by different groupings of the suffixes of the a's, the four
leading groups being

1, 2, 3 >^

1,4,7
with associates
1,5,9
1, 6, 8 ;

The first of the four is the originator, and the three others are

derivatives of equal status which evolve their associates in one

and the same manner, namely, by use of the cyclical changes
1, 2, 3 into 2, 3, 1,

4, 5, 6 into 5, 6, 4,

7, 8, 9 into 8, 9, 7.

Now it is very interesting to note that if we return to the

general determinant of § 12, which includes C3.3 as a special

case, a further segregation lakes place among the four groups,
1, 4, 7 being removed from its fellovvship with 1, 5, 9 and

1, 6, 8. Thus, while it will be found that in regard to the

two latter we have the theorem that the circidant of the

arrays of
l^l^^s!' l«4^Cfil' l«7^8C9l>

is equal to the circidant of the arrays

«I«S«9 «7«2^6 «4«8«3

h,Kb, bj,K hKK
and to the circidant of the arrays

«7 «3 ^;

C. C„ 0.2'

there is no corresponding theorem in regard to 1, 4, 7, the

nearest approach being the theorem of § 10. Again, while
we have the theorem of §12 in regard to 1, 4, 7, there is

no such theorem in regard ta 1, 5, 9 or 1, 6, 8.

Capetown, S.A.
27id Dec, 1915.
 ( 154 )

SOLUTION OF A PROBLEM IN LINEAR

DIOPHANTI^E APPROXIMATION.
By TV. U. H. £ertvick.

The theory of continued fractions supplies a solution to

the i'ollowing arithmetical problem given a positive number
:

a, it is required to find the least value of [a^ -h\ for integral

values of {h, Ic) with 0<k<N. In fact if a be expanded in
a continued fraction with integral partial quotients, and piq,
p' Iq are the inferior and superior convergents (principal or
intermediate) whose denominators are next less than N, qoL—p
takes a smaller positive value and q'a — p' a greater negative
value than k'a — h' for any integral values of h', k' within the
above limits for k'
This theory, iiowever, is Insufficient to determine what
pair of integers x, y, 0<7/<N, gives its least value to the
linear expression

f= ax + 1)1/ 4- c

when a, J, c are real numbers from zero. In the

all different
following note I have developed a modification of the method
of continued fractions, which enables a solution of this latter
problem to be given.
In giving a solution of the arithmetical problem it is con-
venient to make use of geometrical notation and ideas. The
geometry is only introduced formally, however, for the sake
of visualising the arithmetical processes involved. The solution
is a strictly arithmetical one and could be presented logically
without mention of any geometrical entity.
On a Cartesian plane, cut up into unit squares by the
straight lines
x = m, y = n,
for integral values of jh, ?«, the distance of a point (?», n) from
the line /,
ax -\-hy +c= 0,

is proportional to am-\-bn + c. So con6ning attention to the

strip of plane lying between y = 0, y = jSI (including the
boundary line 3/ = 0, but excluding y = when is integral),N N
if {m, n) [tn\ n) are the two integer-points within the strip
which are nearest to I, on its positive and negative sides
respectively, «m + 5n 4- c takes a smaller positive value and
am' + bn' + c a greater negative value than afx + hv ^c where
(/u., v) is any other pair of integers with 0<v<N.
It will be convenient to call a point with integral coordi-
 Mr. Berivick^ On linear diophantine approxi7nation. 155

nates a node, and the straight line joining two nodes a node-
line. For our purpose then it will be sufficient to show how
to find the nearest node to the line I on each side of it within
the strip.
The equation of any node-line PQ
can be put in the form
Ax-\-By-\- C-0,
where A, B, C are integers and A, B have no common factor.
Every node B then lies on a line
Ax + By+C=C'
for some integral value of C, and the distance of R from PQ
is ± C (^' + ByK Further, each of the lines
Ax + By+ C = ±l (1)

passes through nodes, and nodes lying on these two lines are
equidistant from
Ax-\- C=0, By+
and nearer to it From this property
than any other nodes.
the two lines (1) are called the node-lines nearest to

Ax + By+ (7=0.
If (^, 7}) is a solution of

Ax + B>/+\ =
(obtained by expanding Aj B in a continued fraction) all the
nodes on the lines
Ax + By +0=1, Ax + By+ 0=0, Ax + By+ 0=-l,
have coordinates of the form
{Bt+{0-l)l -At+{G-l)vl \

[Bt+Ol, -At+Ov), \ (2),

[Bt+[0+l)l, -At + [0+\)ri] )

respectively for integral values of t.

A
plane area is defined by Minkowski to be convex when
(1) it is limited in all directions, i.e. lies entirely within
the rectangle bounded by

a; = ^„ x = A^, y = B^, y= B^,

for finite values of ^„ A^, B^^ B^, and

(2) no part of the segment of the straight line joining two
arbitrary points on the boundary, and lying between them,
falls outside the area.
If Q, R, S are three non-coUinear nodes which lie within
156 Mr. Berwick, A solution of a problem in

a convex area It can be shown that there is at least one node

within the area and lying on one of the two node-lines
nearest to QR. For let Pbe that node on the segment QR
which is neai'er to Q than any otlier node on it. (If there is
no node on QR between Q and i?, P
coincides with R). The
triangle PQS then lies entirely within the convex area,
Sliould this triangle not contain any node other than its
vertices, neither can TSQ, T
being the fourth vertex of the
parallelogram PQS7\ and therefore a node. The entire
pai'allelogram thus contains no node other than its four
vertices. Now the whole strip of the plane between andPQ
TS can be cut up into parallelograms homothetic to PQST
and contiguous to each other, the four vertices of each
parallelogram being nodes, and no one of these parallelograms
can contain any node except its fi)ur corners. There can
thus be no node at all between PQand TS. Hence either
S lies on one of the node-lines nearest to PQ, or else there
is at least one node P' within PQS
or on PS or QS. In
the latter case P' lies in the convex area, so repeating the
argument for the triangle PQP' it either follows that P' lies
on a node-line nearest to PQor else that there is a node
distinct from P' within the triangle or on one of its sides.
And since the area PQS, lying within a convex area, can
only contain a finite number of nodes, a node in this area and
lying on one of the node-lines nearest to PQ
must be
discovered after a finite number of such steps. We
are thus
able to state the following theorem :

If P, Q aie two nodes within a convex area, and if the

area contains any other node at all, then it must contain at
least one node on PQ or PQproduced or on one of the two
node-lines nearest to PQ.
When the boundary of the area passes through nodes, these
nodes, or a part of them, can be included amongst the points
belonging to the area if desired, subject only to the restriction
that when two points P, Q on the boundary are included
amongst points in the ai'ea, then every point between andP
^,on the straight line PQ
is also included amongst them.

A solution of the problem enunciated at the beginning

of this note now follows immediatelj'.
Fii-st, when it is required to find the nearest node to ?,
given
^ by , ,

f = ax + hy + c = 0,
^

between y = M a.nd y = N, any two nodes

^.(a.,/3,), P,Kft,), M<0<N,
one on each side of the line, are to be chosen.
 linear diophantine approximation. 157

The parallelogram bounded by

y = il/, ax^-hy -\- aa^ +
c = +c Z^/S,

y = iV, aaj + hy + c = aa, + 6^?, + c

(Including P, and P,) is then a convex area, and this area
contains no point more distant from I than P, on one side or
Pj on the other. So if there is any node nearer to I than P^
or P. there must be one such node on P, P., or on one of the
node-lines nearest to it. rutting down the coordinates ot
nodes on these three lines in the form (2) above, that value
of t is to be found \vi)ich corresponds to a node Pj within the
area (3) and gives
\J'\
its least value. Should the only
possible values of belong to P,, P, these are the two nodes
t

nearest to I, one on each side of it, between the limits

M <y <N^ and there is no need for further calculation. But
when Pj is on the same side as Pp say, the convex area (3) is
made narrower on replacing the side
ax + % + c = aa, + h^^ + c
by ax-\-hy + c = aa^ + h^^ + c,
and this narrower area either contains a node P, on P,Pg, or
on a node-line nearest to P^P^, or else it contains no node at
all. In the latter case P^, P^ are the nodes nearest to I on its
respective sides within the limits considered, and no further
calculation is needed. But in the former case P^ replaces P,
or P3 (according as P, is on the same side of I as P, or PJ,
and a further narrowing of the convex area ensues.
Since the original area (3) is limited in all directions it
only contains a finite number of nodes, so after a finite
number of such steps a stage must be reached when there is
no node on P^P, or on a node-line nearest to it within the
area
y = M, ax + by + 5/3^ + c,
-i- c = aa^

y= xV, ax-\-hy-\-c = aa, + h^, + c.

When such a stage is attained P^ is the nearest node to I

on one side of it, and P, on the other, within the limits

M<y<N. course when I is parallel to a node-line it
Of
may happen (and will liappen if is great enough) M—N
that there are several nodes equidistant from I and nearer to
it than any other node on the same side.

When, secondly, it is required to find the node nearest

to I on one side of it, the positive side say, two nodes P„ P,
are to be chosen on the positive side of I in the strip
158 Mr, Berwick, A solution of a jjroblein in

M<y<N, P, being more distant from I than P,. The first

convex urea is bounded by

y ^N, ax + by + c = aa^ -{- hjS^ +c j

and Pj Is that node in tliis on P^P^ or on one

area which lies

of the node-lines nearest to it, and is nearer to I than any

other such node. P^ may or may not be nearer to I than P,,
but in either case the convex area (4) is narrowed when the
side through P, is replaced by a line parallel to it through P^
or P3 according as P^ or P, is nearer to I. The next node
required in the approximation lies on P.jP„ or on one of the
node-lines nearest to it, and is nearer to I than the more
distant of these two points.
Since the area (4) only contains a finite immber of nodes
a stage must be attained, after a finite number of such
steps, when no node on P^P„ or on a node-line nearest to it
within the limits < M<y ^
is nearer to I than P„, the nearer

of the two points P^^, P„. When this stage is reached P„ is

the nearest node to / within the limits considered and P,,^ the
second nearest.
If it is required to find the third nearest node to I on the
positive side within the same limits, the nearest node to
ax+by + c — «a,„ - 6^,„ -c =
on its positive side is determined. But it is unnecessary to
approximate again from the beginning in finding this third
nearest node, only from P^. the nearest of the nodes to I,
except P„ and P^, already discovered. A further approxi-
mation enables the fourth nearest node to be found, and the
process can be carried to any desired number of steps. It
may happen of course that a set of ^ nodes equidistant from I
isfound as the «*^ nearest instead of a single node.
As a numerical example we will find the four nearest
nodes to the line
f='7rx-€y-l=0,
7r = 3.141592 653 590... ,

6 = 2.718281 828460 ... ,

on its positive side within the limits 0<?/ < 10 000.

The first two nodes being taken to be

P,(2, 0), /, = 27r-l = 5.283185,

PAhO),/,= Tr- 1=2.141 593,
 linear diophantine approximation. 159

P3 lies on y = or y= 1, tlie other nearest line y = —\ being

entirely outside the area considered. Now
fit, 0)=7r«- 1 = 3.141 593^-1,
f[t, l) = 7r«-e-l = 3.141593^-3.718 282,
and the least positive values of these tvvo expressions for
intejrral values of t is taken bv the second when i = 2. So
P^ is (2, 1), /; = 2.504 903.

The line F^P^ isx — y—\ = Q, and P, must lie on this or

on x-y=0 or on ic — y — 2 = 0. Its coordinates are therefore
[t, t) or [t + 1, t) or + 2, t). Now
[t

/[t, <) = (7r-e)<-l = .423 31U- 1,

f{t+l, t) =(7r-e)^ + 7r-l = .423311« + 2.141 593,

/(«+2, t) = {7r-e) < + 27r-l = .423 31U + 5.283 185.

The least positive value of these three expressions is taken

by the second when t = — 5, but this gives a node (—4,-5)
outside the limits < 3/ < 10 000. Within these limits the least
value is taken by the tirst expression when < = 3. ISo

F. is (3,3), /,= .269 932.

Continuing the approximation we find

i'. (4, 4), y;=.693 243,

i'elQ, 10), /, = .091516,

P, (22,25), /, = .157 993,

P, (41,47), y;=.046 053,

P, (73,84), y;,
= .000 590,

P.J118, 136), /;„=.021604,

P,, (240, 277), /„ = .018 170,
Pj, (362, 418), /„=.014 736,

P,3(484,559), /,,= .011302,

P,^ (606, 700), /,^=.007 868,

P,, (728, 841), /,,= .004 434,

p,^(85o, 982), .
y;^=.ooiooo,
P,^(5634, 6511), /,,= 000 023, .

P,J6411, 7409), Z.^^. 000435.

 160 Mr. Berwick^ On linear diophantine approximation.

There is no node on P^^P^^, or on a node-line nearest to

it, within the parallelogram

^ = 0, y=10 000, TTX- €2/-l=0, TTj; - e_y - 1 =/,,,

so the nearest node to ttx— ey —1 =0 within our limits is
(5634, 6511) and the second nearest is (6411, 7409). To find
the next one, we tind the nearest node to
iTx-ey- 1-/^ = 0,
on its positive side. Among the points already noticed the
nearest is P^ (73, 84). Tiie equation of P^P^^ is

F= 7325a; - 6338^ - 2333 = 0,

and the coordinates of all nodes on

i^+l = 0, F=0, F-1 = Q,

are of the form
(6338^+5634, 7325^ + 6511),

(6338^ + 73, 7325^+84),

(6338^ + 850, 7325^+982),
respectively, for integral values of t. Now writing
jr= 63387r - 7325e = - . 000 155,
we have
/(6338<+5634, 7325^ + 6511) =7r/+y;^ = -. 000 155< + 000 023, .

/(6338< + 73, 7325^ + 84)=ia+/3 -- .000 155<+.000 590,

/(6338i + 850, 7325f+982) =Zf +y;g = -.000 155<+ 001 000, .

and within the limits concerned there no node nearer than

is

that given by i = in the second of these expressions. Since

this point lies on the further boundary of the parallelogram

3^ = 0, 2/=10000, rrx-ey-l-f^^ = Q, ;r.c - 6?/ - 1 -/, = 0,

it must be the nearest node, except P,, and P|g, to

TTX — €y —1 = Q.
Carrying out one more approximation, the nearest node to
the line
1-/^ =
,

77-cc-e?/-

on its positive side is found to be (7188, 8307), giving

71887r-83076-l = .000 845.

The required nearest node is therefore (5634, 6511), and the

next three, in order of distance, are

(6411, 7409), (73, 84) and (7188, 8307).

 ( 161 )

ON EQUIPOTENTIAL CURVES AS POSSIBLE

FREE PATHS.
By aS*. Brodetsky, 3f.A., S.Sc, Ph.D., Lecturer in the Uniyersity of Bristol.

1. The motion of a particle in a plane is governed by

two equations
v' = 2V+C (1),

where v is the velocity, p is the radius of curvature of the

path, V is the potential of the field in wliich the motion is
taking place, and dn is an element of normal to the path
measured in the same direction as the radius of curvature.
If an equipoteiitial line is to be a free path, V is the same at
all points of the path, so that the velocity is a constant.
Equation (2) then gives
1 dV
p en
Let 8n represent the normal distance, at any point, from
the equipotential in question to a consecutive one. Then

7^— on = const.
on
Hence p a Bn (3).

This the property that must be satisfied If the curves

Is

F= const, are to be describable as free paths. An obvious

possible case is when the equipotentials are concentric circles,
provided the constant V in (1) is properly adjusted.

2. I am not aware that the general solution of (3) has

been obtained. To do so in the simplest manner it is
convenient to use tangential polar equations. Let p be the
perpendicular from the origin on the tangent at any point of
an equipotential, and -ip be the inclination of the tangent to
the X axis. Then the condition can be written

p + Tp cc 8n (4).

If the equipotentials are given- by the family

VOL. XLV. M
 162 Dr\ Brodets/oj, On equipotential curves

\ beliif^ a parameter varying from equipotential to equl-

potential, ihea
hn — hp.

In going a very short distance along a normal from one

equipotential to a consecutive one, ;// remains constant to the
first order of small quantities. Hence

and the condition (4) becomes

^+B? = ^W| f^)'

L being a function of \ only, and \ being invariable in

finding the radius of curvature.

and the equation is p +-7^

dip
= ^
cfj'
(6),

and we can suppose fi to be the parameter defining the various

equipotentials. The most general solution is

p = ^e^'+'''>^{A/^ + B^e-''^) (7),

summed for any number of values of h, which can assume

any value without restriction. The equation (7) gives us the
most general form fx)r the tangential polar equation of a
family of equipotential curves which are describable as free
patiis.
The equation (7) gives for special values of h concentric
circles, families of equiangular spirals, cycloids, epi- and
hypocycloids, etc.
To plot a curve given by (7) one would first plot as if p
and xp were ordinary polar coordinates, and then construct
the first negative pedal.

3. The problem can also be solved by means of pedal

coordinates. Let the pedal equation of a family of equi-
potentials describable as free patiis be

r' = /{\p) (8),

where A, is a parameter defining the individual members of

the family. Then

^ ^^'
dp 'dp
 as possible free paths. 163

the differentiation being partial because X Is constant for any

patli. Let ?•', 2^' refer to a consecutive curve A, + t\. Then
r"=/(\ + SX,, p).
When h\ is very small we can put

Bn = p — p = Bp',

and r'' — r" =p'^ —p' = 2p Bp.

We get 2p Ip =f [X + S\, ^ + hp) -f {\ p)

Thus {'P-%)'P = %'^-

But p oc S«, t'.e. oc 8/?.

XT = d^
iience p -,,,

where Z is a function of \ i.e. is constant for any path.

Substituting in (9) we get for f the partial differential
equation

+ .W§(=o ,0).
^^f-.,)

where h is an arbitrary constant, and the solution is

f=h' -k^\^,+ \{v±^[f+k^)]dp (11),

where k' is another arbitrary constant.

Thus we get the paths

r' — j\p ± ^J [p' Jr F) dp = a constant varying from path to path

and the radius of curvature at any point is

\[V±sl{p'^k')\ (13).

This is the complete integral. To obtain the general

integral, we put
k' = c^[]c%
164 Dr. Brodetshj^ On e.quijJOtential curves

^ is an arbitrary functional form.

^vllel•e If we elimlnale k*
between the two equations

...(14),

dk' ]L{X)-^ \k)

we shall get the general solution for r in terms of X and p.
There is no singular solution.

4. In (14) make

-^, = const.;

then p/h is a function of \, and we obtain

r' = A + M[\)f.,... [15),

A being a constant, and M a function of \. J/(X) depends

upon L (X) in (10), so that it can assume any arbitrary form.
M (X.) = 1 and J. = give concentric circles. Q and M[\) A=
constant give equiangular spirals. If does not vanish weA
get epi- and hypocycloids.
The value of p in the case of a solution given by the
equations (14) is found as follows. In virtue of the equations
(14), we have
^- =0^'
die'

Now P
=

where the brackets denote that we must first substitute for /c*

from tiie second equation in (14). Hence

P~^dp '^^Gk' dp 'dp ;i6).

The result (16) is identical with (13) obtained for the complete
integral. But we must remember that in (16), k' is not a
constant, but is a function of ^; and \ defined by the second
equation in (14). Thus if

d<f)
_ const.
die'
 as possible free paths. 165

we g&ipjh as a function of X, so that

P = ^\^)-P (17),

v/liere iV(X,) Is a function of A,, and is tlierefore constant for

any given path. We thus again get concentric circles, equi-
angular spirals, cycloids, and epi- and hypocycloids.

5. In the two-dimensional motion we have not considered

the forces outside the plane of the path. If the motion is not
constrained to be in one plane and there are forces out of the
plane, we proceed as follows:
Consider the forces acting upon the particle at any position
in its path. Their resultant is along the normal to the equi-
potential through the position occupied by the particle, 'jlius
the motion of the particle Is equivalent to that of a particle
on a surface under no forces. The path must therefore be a
geodesic on the equipotentlal surface. For the normal force
we have

p dn
as In Art. 1. Thus, as In the two-dimensional problem, we
get
p oc Sn (18).

p depends upon the Inclination of the geodesic to the lines of

curvature of the equipotentlal surface. Let p,, p^ be the
principal radii of curvature at any point on the surface, and
let be the Inclination of the geodesic path to the line of
(j)

curvature corresponding to />,. Then

1 cos'^ sin'^

PR, P, -

and our condition (18) becomes

^ + ^«^6« 19.
Pi P,

If a line of curvature is also a geodesic, we can put ^

zero. h>uch a line of curvature is a plane curve. The
problem reduces to the two-dimensional one already in-
vestigated. It is in this way that free plane paths along
equipotentlal curves arise.

6. First suppose that the equipotentlal surfaces are

cylinders. One of the principal ladii of curvature at any
point is Infinite, say p,. Then (19) reduces to
Pj sec''^ a Bn (20).

m2
166 Dr. Brodetslvj, On e quipotential curves

If now the cyliiulilcal equipotentials are such that their

section hy a plane pel peiidicuhir to the generators sutisties
the condition for free paths, we have

But a geodesic on a cylinder Is given by

^ = const.
PTcnce the condition for three-diniensioinil free paths is also
satisfied. We
get the result that if a faniilj' of cylindrical
equipotential surfaces is such that the })lane curves obtained
by a perpendicular section are describable as free paths, then
any loxodronie on any of the cylinders is also freely
describable, the velocity being chosen appropriately.

7. We now take the be surfaces of

equipotentials to
revolution. The meridian are geodesies, whilst the
ciu'ves
parallels of latitude are not geodesies except at points where
the tangent plane is parallel to the axis of symmetry. By
Clairaut's theorem, the geodesies are given by
r%'\\\<^ — k (21),

where r is the distance of any point from the axis, ^ is the

inclination of the geodt-sic to the meridian curve, and k is

a constant defining a particular geodesic. In the equation

(19) we may use for p, the radius of curvature p of the
meridian curve, and for p^ we may put rls'iiiip, \p being the
inclination of the normal to the axis uf symmetry. Thus our
condition becomes

+ —
sin*0sin;i
r
a
1
-.-
on
,

-^ r ^ Y- (22).
pr on

If we canfind a solution of (22) corresponding to any

value of then the geodesic >-sin0 = A' will be a possible
k,
free path. It is of course obvious tiiat for given k there are
an infinite number of equal geodesies on the surface, obtained
by imagining one of them to rotate through any angle about
the axis of symmetry.
For ^ = the problem reduces to tlie two-dimensional one
already considered, the meridians being the corresponding
geodesies.
 as jjossible free paf//s. 1 67

8. Suppose that we can ^et two sets of geodesies on llie

same surface, botli bein^ possiltle i'vee pallis, tlie cori-espondiiig
constants being k^ and k^. We get tlie two conditions

1
 ( 168 )

CRITERIA FOR EXACT DERIVATIVES.

By T. W. Chaundy, Christ Church, Oxford.

Prof. Elliott lias recently* exhibited a set of criteria

of exact derivatives, wliicli differ from the classical system of
criteria investigated by Euler, Bertrand, and others. The
present paper aims to show how these criteria of Prof. Elliott
ina)' be connected vvith the older criteria, and how certain
other sets of criteria may be established and similarly con-
nected.
Reference is made to Prof. Elliott's paper, named above,
under the letter E2 and to an earlier paper on the subject by
the same authort under the letter Ei.
It should be added that I have not contemplated the
presence of more than one dependent variable _y, although
the results, 1 believe, admit, in general, of extension to the
case of many dependent variables.

§ 1. A convenient notation is the following:

Define

0"^=^ pD-^ V- — — ^r-i Dr. ... to uifimty,

the numerical coefficients being those of (l +a;j~^.

Jn particular

" = 77 pD TT- + '-^^. — ' D — ... to mfinity,

and (9/ = ^— .

Such operators obey the two fundamental identities

'''•
and o;i)=o;:; |

In this notation the classical criterion that be an y"" F

derivative is its annihilation by all of the set 0,°, 0^^ ..., OP*.

In addition, I write for yO^~\ and 9, 3^ for — ,

^—
^y oy,,

* Mesaeiif/er of Mathematics, vol. xlv. (1915). f Luc. cii., vol. iliii. (1913).
 Ml'. Chaiuuhj, Criteria for exact derivatives. 169

§ 2. Introduce the set of operators

o), = ?/a, + 2^,a,+ 3^,83+... I

&c. &c. /

the numerical coefficients in w^^ being those in the expansion

of (1 —
x)"'"'*''^ The operator w, is that called co by Prof.
Elliott in E2 : co^ is of course that due to Euler for homo-
geneous functions.
These operators are, in point of fact, the operators

a a a , , d^'z

a^'a^'a^'-'
^i'"'e - ^ lo^i/, -. ^ a^.
•

Thev are commutable and obey the identities

w^D — Do}^= (w^_, .(2).

In addition we have the results

0, = ft»^-2Z)a,, + 3Z>'co3-...
(3).
O3 = a>, - %Dw^ + GD'oj^ -. .

&c. &c. /

(These latter identities represent, of coarse, merely the trans-

formation of the operators 0]^ from variables y^ 3/,, y,, ..., '

to variables z, 2:,, 2;,, ...).

Now the annihilator of r^^ derivatives given by Prof.
Elliott in his recent paper [E2) is the operator

(r, w] = [DoD — ri] [D(0—[r-\- 1) i] ... {Day — wi)^

where iv is the greatest weight of the function In ?/,, y^, y^, ....
From the identities (3) we have the set

0= co^-Dco^ + D^i

30^-^2DO, + n'0, = 3(o,-noy^ + D'{

&c. . &c.

Hence (2, 10) 0, = (2, w) (w, - Bco^),

since (2, iv) 1)' = 0,

170 Mr. Chaumhj^ Criteria for exact derivatives.

and since the operators on the rij^Iit are of zpro weight. But
on a function homogeneous of degree i, w^ = i.

Thus (2, to) 0, =-(2, w) {Day- = " (^ H

SO (3, iv) (2(9. + i>0,) =-(3, w) [Du>-21) =- (2, w),

&c. &c.
And SO on: finally

{10,10} {[ic-1) 0^+ [to -2 j D0.^-{-...\ =- {w - 1, w)

wO^+ {to -1)1)0,+... =wi-D(o

= - (Z(7, W).
This gives

{-Y{\,w) = [wO, + {w-l)DO^_+...] >

\{w-l)0,+ {xo-2)DO,^...]...0^
[4),
{-Y-\2^io)=[wO^ + [w-\)DO,-V...]...[20^>cDO,)
&c. &c.
expressing the operators (?•, ic) in terms of the operators 0^,
and showing that a function ainiihilated by all ot (9,, 0.^, ..-,
0^ is annihilated by all of (1, iv), (2, lo), ... (r, %o).

§8. We miy farther deduce from the equations (3) the

identities
0,= i- D (a>, - Dcv,-\-D'(c- ...)

0^ + DO=l-I)'(a},-2D(o^+3D'oy^-...) [ (5)

&c. &c.
The function is supposed homogeneous of degree i.
From these identities we see that anniliilation bv the one
operator P^= 0^ + DO^^- D'0^+...D-' 0,.\^ (if the function
be homogeneous of degree other than zero) sufficient to prove
it an
/'' derivative D'<p, and that /^ can be expressed as

The fact that annihilation by P. necessitates annihilation by

P , P P can be exhibited by means of the identities

i-P = P,P,...P
l--^P=P,...P^ :6).

&c. &c.
 Mr. Chaundy, Criteria for exact derivatives. 171

§4. Now we have expressed the aniiiliilators (1, xo)^

(2, i6] ... (r, w) in terms of the annihihitors 0,, 0,, ... 0,,
and shown that the latter necessitate the former. Conversely,
althouf^h does not seem possible to express 0^ in terms of
it

(1, 1(7), w) ... (?•, ?<;), we can show that annihilation by

(2,
(r, ?y) necessitates annihilation by 0^, ..., .

For this we employ the identity of El (§§5, 6), namely,

that
1 =^„ll, ?.t') + ^,Z>a)(2, i:;)+J^i)V(3, w) ^ (7),

where A^^ A^., A^ ... are numerical quantities: precisely

^ =(-l)-T«'-i
— ^
-, .
'^
r\
^ ^ [w-r)\
It may be first mentioned that the set of identities

0^(0 — (1)0^= r i 0^.

J

holds, whence o>0^,= 0^, ,

[Dco — ri) ;

in addition we see that

(9., o.co, oy, ..., oy

form a set of annihilators equivalent to 0^, 0.^, ..., 0^.
Operating on both sides of the identity (7) with 0^ we
have, since O^D = 0,
0=A„0,{l,io).
Operating with 0.^ we have, since 0^D= 0^ and O^D^=0^
0=A^0^{l,iv) + A^0^co[2, iv)

= {A^OJ,Bco-l)+A,OMi^,^o)
=={A^<oO^ + A^O,co){2,w).
Similarly 0,- [A^ 0^ + A^ooO^co + A^Oy) (3, iv),

and so forth.
It is clear then that annihilation by (r, w) necessitates
annihilation by 0^, 0^, ..., 0^.

§5. I pass now to the case in which the functions dealt

with are isobaric in l/^^ y^, ..., y^. Since, when x occurs
explicitly,
d_
^ = l;
dx
+ 3/iS+i/A+.-.,
I.e. is not isobaric, a function and its derivative will not, witli
rare exceptions, be isobaric, and we therefore stipulate, for
172 Mr. Chaundy, Criteria for exact deiHdatims. .

isobaric functions, tliat x be not present explicitly, and there-

fore accurately

In this case we can introduce a new set of annihilators E^,

defined as follows :

1 + ^^ D-^ (y, o: + y.fi:^ + 3/3 or +•••)•

To prove them to be annihilators we proceed thus

Thus ED = DE^^.
r r—
In particular

so that Ep==0 and E^D'' = D'-' E^D = 0.

Thus E^ is an annihilator of r"" derivatives.

§ 6. To prove the converse we observe in the first place

that a function E annihilated by E^ satisfies tiie equation

and thus is certainly an (r— 1)"* derivative. It is therefore

annihilated by all of J5',._,, E^ ^, ..., E^. may exhibit We
this fact, that annihilation by E^ necessitates annihilation by
all the E^s of lower suffix, by means of identities of the type

E E =E
r
.
r+t r

It is tobe noted that we have also proved that, for a function

annihilated by E^, (>• — !) integrations can be performed by
direct differential operation, and this without knowledge that
the function is either isobaric or homogeneous.
Now, employing the identities (1) of § 1, we have
^i!hO: + y.^O:' + y^O:^+...)
 il/r, ChauacJy, Criteria for exact deriva,tives. 173

Hence E^-Vl=E^_^ + l- D'-'y^ 0';\

i.e. E^_^-E^ = D-'yfi';'

and in particular DE^ = — y^0°
Thus the ^'s are connected with the O's, and if E^F=0,
since we know that E^._^F must also be zero, it follows that

If X is not to occur explicitly, this must lead in all but a few

exceptional cases to 0^' F=b, which proves ^an r'*" derivative.

We see then that functions annihilated by E^ are r'^

derivatives.
The properties of tlie particular operator E^ iiave been
previously described by Prof. Elliott {El, part I).

There Is finally a svstem of annihilators analogous

§ 7.
to thesystem discussed by Prof. Elliott in E2, and mentioned
above under the symbol (r, ?<;).
We introduce these as follows:
Define the set of operators (analogous to the set wj

V, = y.d,^Sy,d,+ &y,d^ + .

.{8).

&c. &c. /

Writing r] for t/j, we have rjD — Drj = t]^', but rj^ operating on
a function isobaric of weight w multiplies that function by w.
By the symbol [O, w] mean the operator

where the r'^ factor from tlie beginning Is Bt] — (^r — 1) {w — ^r)
and there are iv factors In all.
Mean by [l, tv'] tlie operator obtained from the foregoing
by removing the first factor, i.e. it starts with Dr]— [io- 1):
mean by [2, lo] the operator obtained by removing the first

two factors of [0, w], and so forth.

Then we shall prove that [0, iv] annihilates all Integral
algebraic functions isobaric of weight w] [l, to] annihilates
all integral algebraic first derivatives of weight w] and
generally [?•, iv\ annihilates all Integral algebraic /*" deriva-
tives of weiirht w.
174 ^F^•. Chaunchj^ Criteria for exact derivatives.

To prove this observe that [O, xo\ may be written

10 [\o— 1)]
jdUd- [vD- [210-3]} {r)D-{lv-l)]V'
2 j

But if F is of weight w, tjF is of weight (?« — l) : the factors

r}D — [io — \)^ T]D—[27v—3), &c., are of zero weight. Thus
in the above operator we may write rjD = Drj + [to— l).
This reduces it to

"''-'y"'-^'
j{j,- }...lJ,-C.>-2)|J,.,.

In other words

since vF'^ is of weight lo— 1,

[0,iv-l]r]F^=B[0,io-2]'n''K-
Proceeding in this way we see that

[0,tv]F=D'-'[0,l]7)-^F^,.

But, the weight of rf"~'^ F^ being unity, it can involve only

y and ?/,, and
is thus annihilated by [O, l], which is Dq.

Again [l, to'] D

may be written

Now if F(^=D<f) is of weight lo, ^ is of weight w—V

so that

[1, ro-]D^ = D[Dn] \Dn-{io-2)]...^Drj J''-^\^'"-"^ ^

]^

= D[0,w-\](p = 0,
by the preceding result.
In like manner we may prove that

and proceed similarly to show that [>•, lo] annihilates r""

derivatives.

§8. To prove the converse, that functions annihilated by

[r, to] are 7-"' derivatives, we establish the identity

\=A^[\,io]^A^Dr^[2,xo]^A^Dr^[Dn-{w-\)][3,w] + ...{<^l
 Mr. Chauiuhj, Criteria for exact derivatices. 175

where ji^, A^^ A^, ... are the numerical quantities which

secure the partial-traction identity

A -4, A^
X x—^w—l) x—{2io — ^)

f w{io-\)}
x\x- {lO-l)]...^^ ^
1
.

Writing the identity (9) in tiie t'orni

we see that a function F

annihihvted by [l, lo] is a first

derivative and that its integral is

\A^r^[2, W-] ^ A^D^i'l?,, w-]+...\F.

Since [2, iv] is a factor of [l, w\ annihihition by [2, to] of

a function F
shows that i^ is a second derivative Z>'^, and
allows us to write down ^ by direct differential operation only.
So generally for [?*, loj.

§9. It remains to connect this set of annihilators with the

foregoing systems. To do this we need the operators 17^
defined above and the following identities that may be
obtained, expressing the operators E^ in terms of these

E= - 1 + Z>7;, - ID'h, + ^D\ - -

E= -I + Z>'77,-3Z)X+- ^•(lO)•

E= -\ -H D\-..
&c. &c.

From these we obtain the set

E = {v-i)-D[rj^- Dv,+ D\-...]^

E^+E = (v,-2)-n'{v,-2Drj,+ 3D-'v,-.-A
E^ + E,+ E = {v-^)-D'\v-^Dv,+ QD\--]
&c. &c.

Since a function annihilated by E^ is annihilated by all^ of

E^, ^,, ..., E^_^, we have here an additional proof of the fact
that a function annihilated by E^ (if it is isobaric of weight
17G Mr. Chaundy, Criteria for exact derivatives.

other than r) is an r"' derivative 2)''^ moreover : we see that

we have an expression for (lo — r) ^, namely

„ rir+l) _,
'r Ir-H '
o f
'r+i

§ 10. Another set of identities that can be deduced from

the set (10) is

sE^ + 2E^-^E^ = {3v,-&)-nn + n\...)

&c. &c.
Since [r, ro] D''= 0,
Tve have [2, to] E^ = [2, to] [{lo — l)- Dr)\ = - [l, to\

so [3, io](2^, + i^;) = -[2, t4

and finally

[tf-1, tv] [{lo -2) E^ + {to - ^) E^+...] =^-[w -2, w]

\{xo-l)E^ + {w-2)E^+...]=-[to-\,to].
Hence
[Uto] = {-r-^[{tv-l)E^+...]\{to-2)E^^...]...\2E^ + E:^E,

[2,t.]^(-rM(to-l)^.+...!((t.-2)i^.+...|...{2i^, + ^,}

&c. &c.
Thus the operators [r, w] are expressed in terms of the
operators E^^ and it is by E^
clear that anniiiilation
necessitates armihilationby [r, to]. To pi'ove the converse we
employ the identity (9) and proceed exactly as in the case of
the annihilators 0^ and o)^.

§11. It may be remarked that it follows from the fore-

going results, in conjunction with previously known facts,
that a function (separable into isobaric and homogeneous
parts), not involving x explicitly and known to be an ?•"'
derivative, can always have its r integrations performed by
direct differential operation, except in the case when, with one
differentiation left to be performed, the function is of unit
weight and zero degree — -that is, of course, the case covering
the possibility of the original function being logarithmic.
 ( 1- )

AN ARITHMETICAL PROOF OF A CLASS

RELATION FORMULA.
By L. J. 3Iordell, Birkbeck College, London.

F
Let [m) be the numbei" of uneven classes of negative
determinant — m, with the convention that the class (1, 0, 1)
and its derived classes are each reckoned as ^, and that
F[0) = 0. It is well known that
F{in) - 2F{m - \') + 2F {^m - 2')-... =-S(-l)^("^'V...(^),
where the left-hand is continued so long as the argument
side
of the function F is not negative; and the right-hand sum-
mation refers to all the divisors d of ih, which are <\J[vi) and
of the same parity as their conjugate divisors a, but when
d = \/(7n), the coefficient d in the sum is replaced by ^d.
Kronecker* proved this formula and sinnlar ones by
considering in the theory of elliptic functions the modules
which admit of complex multiplication. Hermite* shewed
that formulae of this kind could be proved by expanding in
different ways functions represented by products and cpiotients
of theta functions, although when a formula is given it is no
easy matter to see a priori what is the function to be ex-
panded. This method was not unknown to Kionecker.*
Liouville* showed that the general formulae introduced by
him in the Theory of Numbers could be applied to give an
arithmetical proof of some fornudte of this kind. Ki'oneckert
also gave an arithmetical proof depending upon the general
theory of bilinear forms with four variables.
By considering the subject from rather a different point of
view, I was enabled to find directly various formulae of this
kind, some of which are given in my "Note on Class Re-
lation Foi mulse.:]: But some of niy analytical methods suggest
a very easy arithmetical transformation, and as an illustration,
I prove the above formula.
Let m be any given positive integer (all the letters used
denote Integers), and consider the representations of m by the
two forms
* An account of these methods will be found in H. J. S. Smith, Report on
Theory of Numbers, § 6, Collected Works, vol. i., pp. 022-350.
t Collected Works, vol. ii., p. 427. Ueber Bilinenre Formen mil vier variaheln.
X Messenger of Mathtmatics, 1915, vol. xlv., pp. 7(i-80. Mr. G.
Humbert writes
to me that the formula [A) in this paper has been given by him in his paper,
" Nombre de classes dea formes quadratiques/' in Liou villa, 1 1)07; and that it
is due to K. Petr, Acad, des Sciences de Boheme, 1900-11)01. Both of these authors
have found this formula and various others, some involving the representation of
numbers by simple indefinite forms, by means of Hermite's classical method.
VOL. XLV. N
178 Mr. ^fordell, An arithyietical })roof

s* + ?i' +H (2i+ 1) -r'' =-m (1),

d[d+2h)=m (2),

in wlilcli s takes all values, positive, negative, and zero; n

all positive values, zero excluded; r all positive, negative,
and zero values from — (" —
included; and t all
Ij to », l)otii
positive values, zero included, but S d and S are positive,
may also take the value zero. Let /(x) be any even function
(either an analytic function or an arithmetic function) of x, so
th at /(x) =/(-«)). Then
^[-lYf[r + s)=-2^{-\ydf[d) (Z?),

where the summation on the left extends to all solutions of

equation (1), and the summation on the right to all solutions
of equation (2j ; but when S = 0, the coefficient 2 in the sum
is replaced by unit}'.

For putting r + s = ±h, and supposing h a given positive

integer, the coefficient of/ (7^) on the left-hand side is S(—
l)""

extended to all solutions of

F±2/.T + n'+«(2^+l) = m (3),

where t, n and r are limited as in equation (1). But this

coefficient is equal to 22 (— 1)"'", extended to all solutions of

P + n- -{- n^ -]- 2ka = m (4),

where n is as before, | takes all positive and negative odd

values from — (2/;— 1) to 2k— 1, both included, <t all positive
values, zero included, but when o- = 0, 2 (- 1)"^" is replaced

The proof of this depends upon the theorem'* that it n and

k are given positive integers, 2(— l)*" extended to all so-
lutions of
nl2t+l)±2kr = N (5),

inwhich ?• and t are limited as above, is equal to 2S (- 1)"*^',

extended to all solutions of

n^-\-2ka =N (6),

in which ^, a are limited and with the above con-

as above,
vention when cr = 0. Putting ^ = 2?; + 1 and iV— ?« = 2P,
where we niay suppose P is an integer, otherwise both equa-
tions have no solution, and the theorem is certainly true, this
is the same as 2 (— 1 / extended to all solutions of
nt±kr = P (7),

-(n-l) oo
* It was suggested by evaluating 1. E 7"(-'*')i-*^
 of a class relation formula. 179

IS equal to 2S (—1)"^'' extended to all solutions of

7}r] + ka = P. (8),

where 7; = 0, ±1, ..., ± (Z; - 1), - /.-, and ct, t, r are limited
as above.
Putting -r for r in tlie equation with the negative sign in^
(7), this is the same as 2(-l)'' extended to all solutions of
nt + kr = F where r takes the values —n to « —1 and then
again the values n — 1 to —n plus (—1)'' for the solution r = n
[if r = n does not give a positive integer value for <, (—1)*^
must be replaced by zero, and similarly in other cases] minus
(-Ij*" for the solution r = -n equals 22 (- 1)"" extended to
all solutions of ^jt; + /ca= where rj=0, ±1, ..., ± (/c — 1), — /;
P
minus (-1)"^" for the solution o- = 0, where now the con-
vention for cr = is removed. But (—1)'' for r = n minus
(-l)"" for r = -n is equal to — (-l)"'" for o-=0. For we
may consider P/n to be an Integer, as otherwise none of these
solutions exist. k> Pin > — k, there is a solution a- = 0, but
If
the case r n does not arise while the case r = — n does and
=
the equality is clear. If Pjn lies outside these limits, the
cases r =
n and r =—
n both arise and (- l)" cancels (—1) ",
while the solution a = does not arise, so that again the
equality is evident.
Putting now r — ti for r and i] —n for »/, we have to show
2 (- l)"" for all solutions of

nt^ lcr=Q (9),

r = 0, 1, 2, ..,, 2n - 1 equals 2 (- l)" for the solutions of

7ir]^k<T=Q (10),

1^ = 0, 1, 2, ..., 2A,-1.

But we can establish a unique correspondence between the

solutions of equations (9) and (10). Thus if (10) admits of a
solution [rj, o), we may suppose T)<k, for otherwise »; i', —
a + n is such a solution. Hence we can arrange its solutions
as follows [t], a] with <a<n, and in pairs such as [t), a)
and [rj + k, (T — n) with cr>n. <n we can take
If a r= a
and t = r,. If o->?j, we write r = a + e)i, = — ek, and t r) there
are two consecutive values of e for which we can make
0<r<2n and these make ^>0. ISince for the pairs of
solution of (10) for which (if a> l)

{0<r]<k, an<(r<{a + -i) nj-or [k <v <-2k, [a-l] n <<t <an]

we find

{0<r<n, ak<t< (a + 1) /cj or [n<r<2n^ {a-l) k<t<alc]y

180 Dr. Wilton, On the zeros of Eiemami's ^-function.

the correspondence is obviously unique. But

(_ 1)<^ + (_ 1 )-"= (_ 1)-- + (- 1
)-(^^^)"

which proves the statement for equations (9) and (10); so

that we can replace equation (3) by equation (4).
Hence S (—1)'' extended to all solutions of equation (3) is
equal to 2S [— If^" extended to all solutions of

for which n takes all positive and nej^ative values, zero ex-

cluded I takes the values 1, 3, ..., (2Z;-l), (7

;
0, 1, 2, ... =
Avitli the convention for cr = 0.

Noticing now that we can group the solutions in pairs,

such as ?j, ^, a and ^ - n, ^, o", if % is not equal to ?«, then
since ^ is odd the sum 22 (- l)'"^" is zero for this pair of
solutions, and we need only consider those solutions for which
n _ sr But then k [k -f 2a) = in, and the sum reduces to
2 (— which being summed for |=1, 3,
l)^"^, ..., [2k - I)

gives — 2^(—
Ij"^. This proves the result {B).
Taking now /(«)=(- lj% we have 2 (— 1)', extended
to all solutions of equation equal to —2I,{- l/^'^el
(1) is

extended to all solutions of equation (2). But when s is

given it can be shown that the number of solutions of (1) is
2F {in —s'). This 1 have done in my forthcoming paper,
" On Class Relation Formula." It can also be proved very
simply by means of the modular division of the plane, a
method due to Humbert [l. c.) Hence
S (- 1 )• F{m -s') = -^{- 1)*"'W,
or F{m)-2F{m - l') + 2F{m-2:')...^-^ ( - l^t^'^W.

NOTE ON THE ZEROS OF RIEMANN'S

^FUNCTION.
By J. R. Wilton, M.A., D.Sc.

Thefollowing slight extension of Mr. Hardy's result that

^ has
(s) an infinite number of roots on the line <t = ^ may
not be without interest. It is here shown that both the real

and the imaginary parts of T (|s) tt"'' ^ (s) have an infinite

number of roots on any line a = a^, such that 0<o-g<l.^
'J'he method followed, except in the actual determination of
the value of the definite integral which leads to the result, is

the same as that adopted by Mr. Hardy.*

* Comptes Rendiis, April, 1914, pp. 1012-4.

 Dr. Wilton, On the zeros of Riemamis ^-function. 181

Kieinann's integral for ^ (s) is

'
s[s-l) J, „=1 /*

In this put

and fji = e' ; we obtain*

= i— 2 COS 2; A,, e'^ ^ e a A.

1+^" J, «=1

= cos z\ .f {X) dX (1),

J

«=i
provided that — !<?/<! (2),

which equivalent to
is < cr < 1.
Further, from Jacobi's relation

1 + 22 e-^»'> = /i* (1 + 2 2 e-^»V),

»i=l w=l
we obtain, on putting /j, = e*^^ the relation y"(\) =/(— '^)5 so
that of tlie two functions
6'(A,) = cosi);/?i./(Vi, ;j^(A.) = sinhj/A-./(X) (3),

6 is even and ^ is odd, and on account of (2) both vanish

together witii all tlieir differential coefficients at infinity.
Also d^'"-'\Oj = and ;^'"'^0] =0.
From (1) and (3) we have, by successive integration by
parts,

2x'"^ (x, y) = a;'" cosxX 6 (X) dX,

.

= (-)"[ cosxX.6^''"\X)dX,

0=f smxX.6<'"^(X)dX;

* In Riemann's notation

£ W = HI + 4t=) Fi2t) = (" cos ^\t

.( j5J,)
-1
{^"J^^"'"'
'*"} ^'^

by integration by parts. And as in (1) the subject of integration is an even

function of X.
N2
182 Dr. Wilton, On the zeros of lUeynann s ^-function.

a, v
Hence J_^ /

2a;"'".^ (x, tj) cos (/3 - i(x) X= (-)" f cos [x -0 + ia) X.e^'"\\) dX

= (-)" f COS {x-/3)X. a"") (X. - ia) dX,

J -co

by an evident contour integration, provided that

<a <-. .(4).

8 8

Similarly, under the same restriction as regards a,

2x'"xP (a;, 7/) sin (/3-ia) .-c^ -)"'• j"

cos {x-/3)X .
x^'"^
(X-ia.) dX.

And we have immediately, by Fourier's theorem,

'

- f x"'<p(x,7j)cos{[5-ia)xdx=:(-ye^'"^([5-ia)
..(5).

- I x"\p {x, y) sin (/3 - ta) x dx = (-)'"' x^'"'\^ - ta)

Mr. Hardy's equation (3), p. 1013, is obtained by putting

y = (),i3 = 0.
It is easy to verify that, on account of (2), 6 (X) steadily
decreases as X increases from to cc And it readily follows .

that (-)"^("')(0) is positive, while ^f""(/3) vanishes for n

values of IS between and oo Further the radius of con- .

vergence of the power series for 6 (X) is clearly tt/S; hence

on account of (4) we may expand (— )"0''"^(fa) in powers qf a
and every term will be positive, and therefore

x'" (p (x, y) cosh (XX dx

J n

Is essentially positive so long as the inequality (4) is satisfied.

In the particular case when /3 and yj = 0, equations (5) =
become

I ^ (S^i y) ^'^^^ ^^ ^^ —f{^^) cosya

J

= 2 cosa cos^a - e'" cos_j/a [l + 2 E e-^«'(cos-ia+»sin4a)j^

 Prof. Burnside, Determinants of repeated arrays. 183

—2 r"
yp (x, y)
.

sinli ax dx = —f(ia) sin ya.

= — 2cosasIn?/a 4 e'"sin?/a(l +2 S e-^«'(co3 4a+i8in4a)j.

Since

and

arc both of constant sign we see, on making a->7r/8, and

following Mr. Hardy's argument precisely, that tor any value
oi' y in the strip (2) of the 2;-plane both

(j>(x,y) = and ;/. (.r, 3/) =

have an infinite number of real roots when regarded as
equations to determine x.

The UnirerBity.
Slieffield.

DETERMINANTS OF CYCLLCALLY REPEATED

ARRAYS.
By Prof. W. Burnside.

In a recent paper* Sir Thomas Muir has shown that when

the number, », of arrays is equal to the number of lines (or
columns) in each array, the determinant can be expressed as
the product of n determinants, in whose elements the oiiginal
elements enter linearly. The residt is, in fact, true without
limitation; and may be proved by an obvious extension of the
method which exhibits a circulant as the product of its linear
factors.
Let D denote the circulant of the n ?n-line arrays

a;„ a;^, ..., o;„,

<, a;, ..., a;^, r=l, 2, ..., n.

Messenger of Mathematics, vol, xIt., p. 142.

184 Frof, Buniside, Determinants of repeated arrays.

Take lo an assigned primitive n^^ root of unity, and put

SO that nal-^io^'-'^^'-'^A'...

Tlie elements of tlie [(p — 1) m + ^]"' row of D are

a'',, a'',, .... a^ , a^^', .... a''^', c/.^", .... (f'\

where tlie a.'s are to be replaced by the A.'s by the preceding

formula.
The terms containing the upper suffix s that occur are

- wj<'-'K'-^> X
n
(^' ^'q2' ^' lo'A', w'A'gm^ tf;M'„ i(;"M'gni')
V ^l"
....
? gm^, 9P iv'A'52" , ....
'
,
q\' ...,'

The terms that contain the upper suffix s occurring in the

[(p'— 1) m 4-^]"' row differ from the above only by the out-
Hence it follows that
side factor. D can be expressed as the
sum of a number of determinants of nm rows and columns
each of which is a numerical multiple of the determinant
wiiose [fx - 1) w + ?/]"' row is

A\,
y\<
A', 1/2'
...,' A'yrn^ vfA\,
,
yV
....
7
vfA'ym> , w'''A\,
yV ...,' xtT'^A'
ym ;
'

30 that D itself is a numerical multiple of this determinant.

E-eplace the [(n - 1) w -f ^]''' column of this determinant by

t"* column + to''' (m + lY^ column + lo'*'' [2m + /)"" colunm

+...-\-io''[[n — 1) m + ^P column

for each i from 1 to ?7i thereby affecting the determinant

;

only by a numerical factor.

The elements of the last m columns will then all be zeros,
except those that belong to the rows from the [(a; — l) m + l]'**
to the xm^^\ and these will be

«^" «4" .... nA' ,

nA"",.
21'
nA'-2' , ....' nAl2ml ,

jiJ'',,
ml/
nA'„,
mZi
....
1
i^A""
mm .
 Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N= (a.-^ ^P /). 185

Hence, apart from numerical factors, D is divisible by

A' A' A'
A' A"

for each x.
No two of these determinants can have common factors
for arbitrary values of the rt.'s, since when each of the n

«i-line arrays is itself a circulant the nm linear factors of the

determinants are known to be all distinct. Hence
A"
^11'
A""
^12? •••) a:

Al, Al, ..., A

i) = N.n
x=l

where N is numericah It is easy to show by comparing

coefficients that N= ± 1 according to the order in which the
rows of D are written.

FACTORISATION OF N=(x'rf).
By Lt.-Col. Allan Cunningham, R.E., Fellow of King's College, London.

[The Author is indebted to Mr. H. J. Woodall for help in reading the proof sheets.]

1. Introduction. The numbers, whose factorisation is

considered in this Paper, are of form

X=zxv-y'', N' = x''+y' (1).

It will be supposed throughout that

a; and y>] ; and x prime to^* (la).

These numbers rise so rapidly as x, y increase that complete

factorisation (into prime factors) is possible only for a very
small range of x, y ; in fact-=—

2":p2o-, 4":f13*, 8»?:9», 16»:p3'«, 5":?:1P, lO'rf:?'", &c.

are beyond the powers of the present large Factor-Tables.

186 Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N={x'" ^ y").

2. Algebraic Factors. When x, y liave certain forms,

then N
or N^ is algebraically resolvable into two or more
factors. 'J'liese cases are
i. Difference of Squares. ii. Binomial Factors. iii. Aurifeuillians.

3. Difference of Squarea. N is algebraically resolvable

at sight into a continued product of (a + 1) factors, when one
of a;, y is of form (2Aj^, where e = 2".
Ex. A- = 2» gives ]S^^\y -y*={'ly -y'')\\(2y Jry*) (2a),

x^l*' gives N=l&y -y^' = ('iy -y*)\(2y +y^)\\{2"-y ^yi) (26),

These are the only cases worth recording: as, when either
h>\, or a>2, the numbers iV ai-e too high* to admit of
complete factorisation. A number of examples of these two
cases completely factorised are given in the Table at the end
of this Paper.
The first case iV"=(4'' ~ ?/*) has the peculiarity that its two
algebraic co-factors (2"-^), (2^+v/') are themselves of the
form iV, N^ of (1). This is the only case possessing this
property.

4. Binomial Factors. Each of N., N^ contains an obvious

algebraic binomial factor when one of x, y is of form (»//)"
with n odd and > 1.

jEx. Take ;c=2", j=3», [n = 3, A = 1J; then

N or i\r' = (2«)«'q:272" = (29")' + (32")3,

which contain the obvious factor (2^"+3^") (3).

This the only form worth record: as when either A> 1, or

is

n> 3, the numbers N, N^ are too highf to admit of complete

factorisation. Examples of these forms with x = '2, 4, 16,
=
y 21 will be found in the Table at the end.

5. Aurifeuillians. These may be of three different

orders (?i), which must be separately considered.
i. H = 2. ii, 7j =w (odd). iii, n = 2u) (twice an odd number). ..(4).

6. Bin- Aurifeuillians. These ai'e numbers of form

N' = 4X«+r« (5).

which are algebraically resolvable into two co-factors (say

L, M), viz.
N' = L.M=(Y*-2XY+2X'')(Y^ + 2XY+2X-) (5a),

* The smallest of these is N- (36' - 6'«).

t The smallest of these is (S^'rp 27*).
 Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N^ [x^ T y'). 187

The conditions foi- cc, y that N^ — x^ + y'' may be expressible

in tlie above form (5j are
x = 4A*, ^ = 2i) + l (an of^fiJ number) (6).

whereby

= 4(2"/(!')H(yM*; [X = 2''/(y, r=/ ] (6a).

Ex. a; = 4, >'=2r,+ (odd), A=l.

l

N'=4!'+y=4.2<"+y
= /..i)/=(j--2''+'j/ + 22''+»).(j/' + 2'''-'j' + 2^"+') (66).

This is the only Bin-Aurifeuillian form of iV^ worth detailing:

as when /^>l, the numbers N^ are too high* for complete
factorisation. A number of examples (with a; = 4, y = 3 to 27)
completely factorised are given in the Table at the end.

Qa. Bin-AiiriJ'eniUians as factors of N. When

x = 2*h\ ?/ = 2j7 + 1 (odd)

then JV"=A-2'-j'*=(2*As)!'-yl6/i»

= (2yh"'J-y*''^)\{2yli-y + y*''^)\\{2''yh''y + y^'*) (7).

Here the largest factor (say Z) is

Z=22J'A<J'+j.8a' = 2«"+2A<J'+_>'8a' = 4X*+ r< (7a).

which is a Bin-Aurifeuillian (see 5), and therefore resolvable

as in (5a).
Ex. A-=16, >' = 2)) + l (odd), /j = l.
then Z = 2*i'+y = 4.2*'' + (_>--)
= i.M = (/-2''^'/ + 2'^"^>)(y + 2''+y + 2'''+') (76).

This is the only case of N possessing a Bin-Aurifeuillian as

an algebraic factor, which is worth detailing here: as when
h> 1, tiie numbers .Z" are too bighf for complete factorisation.

A number of examples (with a;=16, .y = 3 to 27) completely

factorised are given in the Table at the end.

7. Aurifeuillians of odd order [n). These are numbers

of form
N =(X"-F")-^(A'-r), with w=4i + l (8a),

N' = (X''+r'')-f-(X+F), with « = 4t + 3 (86),

along with the condition nXY = n (9).

* The smallest of these is iV' = (645+B") given bj li = 2.

t The smallest of these is Z = 2" + 3'*".
188 Lt.-Col. Cunningham^ Factorisation of N= {x^ ^ if).
Eacli of these is alj^ebraically expressible as a difference of
squares, and therefore resolvable into two co-factors (say
X, M). The simplest forms of X, satisfying the condition F
(9) are
X = H\ Y=nK' (9rt].

By taking a;, y of forms

x={2h+\f, odd; y = n»k"-», [;i odd] (96).

the numbers N, N^ = x^'^y^

can be expressed in the forms
X"^Y" along with the condition and nXY=n, will then
be divisible by [X^Y). The co-factors will be the Auri-
feuillians N, N\
It not worth while developing this further, as the
is

smallest numbers of this kind are too high for complete

factorisation. The smallest example of each kind is shown
below.
1°. i\" = 25" + 27^^=5" + 3'S which contains (5'8 + 3"),
and the co-factor N' is seen to be a Trin-Auiifeuillian

^''=Sf^=(5"-3.3'-.o«+3")(5'« + 3.3'2.59 + 3==).

O'^ ii" +
2°. i\r= 93125 -31 259= S^^'^-S^s^ which contains (S'-^o-S^),

and the co-factor N is seen to be a Quint- Aiir ifextillian,

Q62I0 _ C4(
N=-^,—
3 —
-^=(3-"° + 3.3'«».5» + 5'•)=-(5^36»)^(3'«• + 5»i^
*

8. Aurifeuillians of even order [n = '2(a). These are

numbers of form
W
= {X'^''' + Y"^"') -{x- ^y"-), with n' odd (10),

and with the condition 1n'XY= D ^11).

These are algebraically expressible as a difference of

squares, and are therefore resolvable into two co-factors (say
L, M). The simplest forms of X, Y satisfying the condition
(11) are
X=H\ Y=2ii'K'' (11a).

By taking x, y of forms
X^ylh+Xf odd; y = (2«')-»'.>&*'" [ix' odd^ (116),

the numbers W=x}'-\-y'' can form be expressed in the

(Z'"'+r'"') along with the condition InXY^-u, and will
then be divisible by {X'^-\-Y'^). The co-factor will be the
Aurifeuillian N\
It is not worth while developing this further as the
smallest numbers of this kind are too high for complete
factorisation.
 Lt.-Col. Cunningham^ Factorisation of N={x^ ^ if). 189

The smallest is

iV' = 25""« + 46656« = 5«-"'« + G«'«,

which contains (5-'"*+ 6--") and the co-factor N"_is seen to be a Sext-
Aurtfeuillinn.
56.-T76 , (56 25
N' = „ ,, „ „ = (5""^° + 3.5""'.6'^ + 6---')^ - 6.6".o"'«(o""'' + 6")'.

9. fse of Numerical Canons. 'Y\\q factorisation of large

nuuibers N. N^> 10', wherein the elements x, y are powers
of 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, has been rendered possible by the help of
certain Numerical Canons (Binary, Ternary, &c.) which have
been compiled* by tlie author.
These give the Residues, both -f- and — of the powers (n),
of the above bases (2, 3, &c.) up to the limits named below,
Residues of 2"; 3", 5'', 7", 10», 11",

Limit of n 100 ; 30,

after division by every prime (p) and prime-power p*":^ 10000.

10. Perfect Squares and Poioers. No perfect squares or

powers have as yet been found among these numbers N, N^:
80 that it would seem probable that none exist.

11. Dimorphism. No case known of any number being

is

expressible in two ways in the same form or N: and only N

one case is as yet known of a number being expressible in
both forms N, N\ viz.
17 = 3«-43 = 32 + 25.
however, the value ?/ = 1 be
If, admitted — hitherto ex-
cluded, see (la) every number Nov — N^ would be expressible
in two ways in the same form, and every number whatever
(say Z) would be expressible in both forms, for

iV=(7V+l)'-l^'+l and i\^' = (iV'-l)' + l-^~^

z=(z+l)'-l^+^=(z-l)'+l^~^

12. Factorisation Tables. Here follow two Tables giving

the factorisation of the numbers iV, iV' in separate Tables.
1°. Arrangement of Facton. Each number N, N' is shown resolved
first into its Algebraic Prime Factors (A.P.F.) and Aurifeuillian Factor*
(L, M) these are arranged in order of magnitude, the smallest on the left,
:

the highest on the right, and are separated by special symbols.

Each A.P.F., and each L, M
is sliown resolved as far as possible into
its numerical prime and prime-power factors {p and ju") these are arranged :

in order of magnitude of the primes, .the lowest on the left, the highest on
the right.

* At present only in MS. Tliose for bases '2, 10 were compiled by Mr. H. J.
Woodall and the author jointly (not iiidepeudently). The rest are due to the
author.
190 Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N= (^^ T 'if).

The powers of the small primes ^H are printed in a condensed form,

thus :

4, 8, 16, 32, &c.; 9, 27, 81, 729, &c, ; 5, 25, 125, &e. ; 49, &c. ; 121, &c.

2°. Special muUiplication-symbols (. |

|| ; :). These are used to separate
rarious kinds of factors in such a way as to indicate the nature of the
factors.

Use of dot (.). This is used between arithmetical factors in the same
A.P.F., L, or M
(but not between the A.P.F. or L, themselves). M
A dot on the rijjjht of an arithmetical factor, followed by a blank,
indicates the existence of an other arithmetical factor of unknown con-
5<titution.

Use of bars (| and ||). These are used between the A.P.F. of (X = — F^),
{X*-Y% &c.; thus
X2- r2==(X- Y) (X+ II
Y) ; X*- F* = (X- Y) \
{X+Y)\\ (X-+ 1--=)

the double bar (||) being placed just before the highest A.P.F.

of semi-colon
U'se (;). This is used between the A.P.F. of (X"4. 1'")

where n is odd, thus

x«+r"=(x+r); (x»-'+X"-«r+ &c.).

Asemi-colon on the extreme right indicates the complete factorisation

of the highest A.P.F.
Use of colon (:). This is used between the twin " Aurifeuillian Factors"
{L, M) of an Aurifeuillian. These Aurifeuillians occur as complete A.P.F.,
so that their ends are marked by either bars (|) or semi-colons (;) [see —
above]
3°. Symbols (f J). These symbols are used (in incomplete factorisations)
to show the limit to which the search for factors has been carried, thus
t to 1000, X to 10000 [or a little further].
4°.Use of qtieries {}). A
query (.'') on the right of a large arithmetical
factor (>10') indicates that this factor is beyond the power of the Tables
to resolve.

13. Tahh o/a;*'*^'+ (a;+ 1)*. The case of 3/ — a; 1 seein.s =

of some special interest. Accordingly the short Table below
(extracted from the larger general Tables) gives tlie factori-
sation of
N= .r^+' - {X + 1 )% A' ' = a-^+' + {x-\-\ )'.

X,
 Lt.-Col. Cunningham, Factorisation of N= [x-' ^ y""). 191

TahJe A.

X, y
192 Lt.-Col. Ciuiningham, Factorisation of N= {x^ ^f i/).

Table B.

X, y
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