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Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring,
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES,
REGULATIONS AND SAFETY
HUMIDITY SENSORS:
TYPES, NANOMATERIALS
AND ENVIRONMENTAL
MONITORING
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Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION
TECHNOLOGIES,
REGULATIONS AND SAFETY
Additional books in this series can be found on Nova‘s website
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Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES,
REGULATIONS AND SAFETY
HUMIDITY SENSORS:
TYPES, NANOMATERIALS
AND ENVIRONMENTAL
MONITORING
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
CHRISTOPHER T. OKADA
EDITOR
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
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Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
CONTENTS
Preface vii
Chapter 1 Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity – A Survey on
Measuring Methods and Standards 1
Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes
and Devrim Balköse
Chapter 2 Environmental and Bio-Medical Applications Using
Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) Humidity
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Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
PREFACE
classical states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. The water molecule is non-
linear and therefore polar. In comparison with other liquids water has
anomalous features; about 63 exceptional properties are recorded. This article
starts with reviewing properties of water, typical occurrences and definitions
such as relative and absolute humidity and moisture content.
Water is present everywhere in nature and engineering; it may be helpful
or harmful. The survey concerns both: atmospheric hygrometry and usual
measuring methods of the moisture content of solids and liquids as well as
water sorption. The determination of the atmospheric humidity is among the
more difficult problems in metrology. In contrast, humidity determination of
materials is simple; however the definition of the dry state is difficult. Because
water is bound at and in solids and liquids in many different ways it turns out
that the humidity content of materials is difficult to define and to measure
accurately. We provide a survey on the measuring methods, describe the most
important ones and discuss advantages and accuracy.
In the search for extraterrestrial water special remote measuring methods
have been developed analysing the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
viii Preface
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Preface ix
relative humidity range of operation and response time are summarised. The
operational temperature range is also studied.
The potential use of the humidity sensors as user-verifiable security
holograms is described as well as applications in packaging and environmental
sensing.
Chapter 4 - Electrospinning exhibits the unique ability to produce diverse
forms of fibrous assemblies with remarkable specific surface area and high
porosity, making electrospun nanomaterials highly attractive to ultra-sensitive
sensors and other nanotechnological applications. In this chapter, electrospun
fibrous chitosan (CS) membranes modified with polyelectrolytes (polyacrylic
acid (PAA) and polyethyleneimine (PEI)) were used as sensing materials
coated on quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) for humidity detection. A series
of nanofibrous membranes containing polyelectrolytes are fabricated on QCM
and characterized regarding their morphology, sensitivity and hysteresis.
Sensing experiments are carried out by measuring the resonance frequency
shifts of QCM due to the additional mass loading. The results indicated that
the response of the sensors increased by three to four orders of magnitude with
increasing the relative humidity (RH) from 8 to 95% at room temperature,
exhibiting high sensitivity and that, in the range of 20-95% RH, the Log (f )
showed a good linearity. Additionally, the prepared sensors exhibited
remarkably enhanced sensitivity with increasing the coating loads of
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Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
x Preface
(RH > 50%), a frequency downshift of 8.5 kHz per 1% RH change was
obtained, which was due to the mass loading effect of the water layers formed
on the ZnO surface. It was demonstrated that the two-stage response of the
FBAR can be interpreted using the power law theory for semiconductor gas
sensors and the mass loading effect of the resonator. UV light was applied to
monitor its effects on the humidity sensing performance of the FBAR. UV can
enhance the sensitivity at low RH (frequency downshift increased to 3.4 kHz
per 1% RH change), while degrading the sensitivity at high RH (frequency
downshift decreased to 5.7 kHz per 1% RH change). The mechanism of the
influence of the UV illumination was interpreted.
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Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
In: Humidity Sensors ISBN 978-1-61209-246-1
Editor: Christopher T. Okada © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
ABSTRACT
Under environmental conditions water exists in all three classical
states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. The water molecule is non-linear
1 [email protected]
2 [email protected].
3 [email protected]
4 [email protected]
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
2 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
1. INTRODUCTION
Water is present everywhere in nature; this could be advantageous or
disadvantageous. Handling of a variety of materials includes often the use of
water, as solvent or dispersant medium, adsorptive, reacting agent, cleaning
agent and lubricant. For handling, storage and quality assurance of foods,
pharmaceuticals, textiles, plastics, paper, wood and building materials the
water content must be known. Many processes, such as corrosion protection,
refrigeration, air conditioning in museums, greenhouses, saunas, laboratories
and climate chambers as well as humidors for manufacturing of pure materials,
require the control of the air humidity. An extreme control of humidity is
required for insulating gases, such as those in transformers and power plants,
as well as protecting and other pure bulk gases. Natural gas transport requires
control of humidity down to a measuring range of ppm in presence of high
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 3
2. WATER STRUCTURES
Under global environmental conditions water exists in all three classical
states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. The water molecule is non-linear (Figure
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Water in Liquids
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
4 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
3). In addition, water can form mixtures and solutions in liquids. Due to its
high polarity, dissociation and ionization of substances can occur.
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 5
Interpacked water filling larger pores and spaces between grains has the
same structure as free bulk water. Likewise, capillary water fills capillaries
(macropores) and nanopores (mesopores). Due to water uptake, the structure
of some materials can store large amounts of water and/or can undergo
swelling. A solid surface exposed to the atmosphere is more or less covered
with physisorbed water molecules attracted by van der Waals forces (London
dispersion forces). These are induced, fluctuating dipoles. Whilst their
temporary mean value is zero, the binding energy per atom is of the order of
0.5 eV. Down to temperatures of -50 °C, liquid water layers have been
observed in fissures of permafrost structures. About two layers of physisorbed
water molecules at a solid surface or at the surface of ice behave in a quasi-
liquid state down to a temperature of 33 K. Such quasi-liquid layers behave
like free water; however, the surface influences the structures within about
eight layers. Thus, bound water has properties different from those of free
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
6 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
Water bound physically at the solid Adsorption (physisorption) at the outer surface and
surface at pore walls and micropore filling
- physisorbed water layers Adsorption (physisorption) and condensation in
-capillary water in mesopores mesopores (capillary condensation)
Water bound chemically at the surface Adsorption and chemisorption at the outer surface
- chemisorbed water and at pore walls
Water bound in the solid bulk material Adsorption and diffusion → absorption
- absorbed water
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 7
Historical
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
8 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
When he got there in the early morning and wrung out the wool, he could
press out the dew from the wool, a bowl full of water. After that Gideon said
to God: Your anger should not flare out against me, if I speak again: Only
once more I will try it with the wool: Only the wool shall be kept dry, and
dew shall be upon all the ground. And God did so in the following night: The
wool remained dry and the dew was on all the ground."
"If anyone hangs on one side of a big balance with dry wool and loads of
stone on the other side until equilibrium is established, at a place and in air of
moderate temperature he could observe that with increasing humidity the
weight of the wool increases and with increasing dryness of the air it
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 9
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
10 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
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Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 11
About 20 years later the Italian architect and painter Leo Battista Alberti
(1404-1472) described a similar device,
"We know, that a sponge becomes wet from atmospheric humidity and
by this fact we make a balance with which we weigh the weight of the air and
the dryness of the winds." [14].
"To recognize the quality and density of the air and to forecast rain."
and
Definitions
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Air humidity is the amount of water vapour in the air disregarding the
possible presence of liquid or solid aggregates like raindrops, fog, snow or
hailstones. The parameter "air humidity―, which is a function of temperature,
is governed only by the availability of water and the thermal energy available
for evaporation. Air humidity can be expressed in several ways [18]:
mw
AH air g kg 1 (1a)
mair
or
mw
AH air g m -3 (1b)
Vair
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
12 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
mw
RH air 100 % (2a)
m w,max
p
RH air 100 % (2b)
p0
mw
SH air (3)
m air m w
The dew point is associated with the relative humidity. This is the
temperature at which water vapour saturates from gas into liquid or
solid usually forming rain, snow, frost, or dew. At this temperature the
relative humidity is 100 %. From the dew point temperature, the
relative humidity can be derived by means of tables.
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 13
Hygrometry
The earliest hygrometers made in the 15th century were balances loaded on
one side with textile [17, 20]. Today the gravimetric method is applied as a
primary standard for humidity measurements. The NIST gravimetric
hygrometer has an uncertainty of 0.1 % mass fraction. Furthermore, a suitable
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
14 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 15
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Figure 7. Hair hygrometer of Horace Bénédict de Saussure (1783). Figure 7a: Large
hygrometer. The hair is stretched between a and b. Figure7b: Hand hygrometer. The
hair is stretched between y and z.
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
16 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
A silicon oxide sensor can be an optical device that changes its refractive
index when water is absorbed into the sensitive layer. A wavelength shift can
also be detected on the output, which can be precisely correlated to the
moisture concentration.
Optical methods include the observation of colour transition of chemical
compounds when reacting with water molecules. They are widely used to
control the activity of drying agents and as breakthrough indicators [29]. Test
methods of qualitative water indication include redden of blue cobalt(II)
chloride [26, 30]. Usually, blue cobalt(II) chloride is dispersed in silica gel.
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Sensors, which consist of such salts, are dispersed on different substrates, such
as cellulose, cellulose acetate, polyvinyl pyrollidon, wool, calcium sulphate,
silica gel, zeolites and alumina. Wool impregnated with cobalt chloride is blue
in dry state and converts to yellow by moisture adsorption [31]. Humidity
indicating gels, which are light blue in dry state and dark blue in moist state,
are obtained by dispersing copper sulphate in silica gel. Yellow lead iodide is
obtained from a mixture of potassium iodide and lead nitrate by moisture
adsorption. Polymer dye systems changing colour with air humidity can also
be used as humidity sensors. A high sensitive optical humidity probe has been
developed by use of violet Nafion crystal violet films. At a wavelength of 650
nm, a reversible change in the absorbance of the films with relative humidity is
linear in the range of zero to 1 % of moisture [32]. For rough control of air
humidity in closed rooms, cheap colour indicators on plates are offered.
The colour indicator tube (Dräger Tube or Stain Tube) is used for a quick
and rough measurement of moisture in natural gas pipelines. Each tube
contains a chemical that changes its colour when the gas passes through. For
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 17
use, the tube is inserted into a gas pump, used once and discarded. The error
can be as high as 25 percent.
In absorption spectroscopy, light passes through a gaseous sample and the
amount of light absorbed at a specific wavelength is measured. A tunable laser
provides a source of narrow, variable wavelength light that can be used to
analyze the small spectral features. According to the Lambert-Beer law, the
amount of light absorbed by the gas is proportional to the amount of gas
present in the light‘s path; therefore, this technique is a direct measurement of
moisture.
Lyman-alpha hygrometer [33] is a hygrometer based on the absorption of
radiation by water vapour at the Lyman-alpha line, which is an emission line
of atomic hydrogen at 121.567 nm. Lyman-alpha radiation can be generated
by a glow discharge in hydrogen, and a nitric oxide ion chamber normally
accomplishes detection. Two magnesium fluoride windows both at the
radiation source and at the detector bound the absorption path. Lyman-alpha
hygrometers are used on aircraft and on meteorological towers for high-
frequency humidity measurements. Inconveniences of the method, like drift of
the source intensity or contamination of the windows, are overcome by special
calibration techniques or by baselining the high-frequency output to the
humidity values provided by a slower, but stable, hygrometer.
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Psychrometry
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
18 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
where p0 stands for the saturation pressure at the temperature of the wet bulb
Twet and the psychrometric constant Cpsy = 0,67 hPa K-1 stands for a height up
to 500 m and Twet > 0 °C. The relative humidity can be derived by means of
graphical tables.
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Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 19
Figure 11. Lambrecht dew point hygrometer (1881). 1 thermometer, 2 metal mirror, 3
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
gap, 4 reference mirror, 5 container filled with ether, 6 air supply, 7 air pump.
Today the mirror is cooled using a Peltier cooler. The temperature of the
mirror is controlled by electronic feedback to maintain a dynamic equilibrium
between evaporation and condensation on the mirror, thus, to measure the dew
point temperature closely. A beam of light, typically from a solid-state LED, is
aimed at the mirror surface and a photodetector monitors the reflected light. A
platinum resistance thermometer (PRT), which is properly embedded in the
mirror, monitors the mirror temperature at the established dew point. Knowing
the atmospheric temperature and the dew-point temperature, the relative
humidity can be determined by means of a table. Among the various
hygrometric techniques, the dew point method is considered as the most
accurate (relative accuracy is about 1 % above 5% RH). Only the gravimetric
train, which is used as a primary standard, exceeds it.
In order to increase the accuracy of this type of hygrometer, surface
acoustic wave (SAW) devices are very useful because of their dual ability to
detect the dew deposition and to measure the temperature with great accuracy
[38]. Rayleigh wave properties were investigated in order to study the
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
20 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 21
4. HUMIDITY OF LIQUIDS
In liquids, traces of water often deteriorate electrically insulating
properties or cause corrosion. Humidity can be determined by means of some
types of hygrometers described above. For example, an electrical resistance
hygrometer with aluminium an aluminium oxide moisture sensor can express
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the absolute humidity of gases and liquids in dew point temperature, parts per
million by volume (PPMv) or parts per million by mass (PPMw). Any gas
hygrometer can be used in head space gas analysis or after thermal
evaporation. Likewise, some moisture measuring methods designed for solid
materials can be applied, in particular thermogravimetry.
"The reason why lime makes a solid structure on being combined with
water and sand seems to be this: Those rocks, like all other bodies, are
composed of the four elements. Those which contain a larger proportion of
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
22 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
air, are soft; of water, are tough from the moisture; earth, hard; and of fire,
more brittle. Therefore, if limestone, without being burned, is merely
pounded up small and then mixed with sand and so put into the work, the
mass does not solidify nor can it hold together. But if the stone is first thrown
into the kiln, it loses its former property of solidity by exposure to the great
heat of the fire, and so with its strength burned out and set free, and only a
residuum of heat being left lying in it, if the stone is then immersed in water,
the moisture, before the water can feel the influence of the fire, makes its
ways into the open pores; then the stone begins to get hot, and finally, after it
cools off, the heat is rejected from the body of the lime.
Consequently, limestone when taken out of the kiln cannot be as heavy
as when it was thrown in, but on being weighed, though its bulk remains the
same as before, it is found to have lost about a third of its weight owing to the
boiling out of the water. Therefore, its pores being thus opened and its texture
rendered loose, it mixes readily with sand, and hence the two materials
cohere as they dry, unite with the rubble, and make a solid structure."
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 23
Figure 12. Désiccateurs Talabot 1833. Conditioning apparatus at Lyon for the
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Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
24 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
Figure 14. Gravimetric instruments for the investigation of the metabolism of plants.
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 25
Figure 15. Sartorius Sorptomat of Sandstede and Robens. Apparatus for the automatic
measurement of adsorption isotherms. On the left a Gast vacuum microbalance sticks.
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Figure 16. Drying or moisture balance Sartorius, with halogen infrared heater.
The common term humidity also comprises liquid contents other than
water, solvents e.g. [58]. In the following, we restrict ourselves to the content
of water (moisture) generally expressed as the amount of water in relation to
unit mass or unit volume of the sample.
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
26 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
Drying Methods
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 27
Vacuum Drying
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
28 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
Solvent Exchange
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 29
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
30 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
Figure 17. Infrared drying of candies at ---- 90°C, --- 95°C, 100°C, --- 110°C,
and water content measured using the Karl Fischer method ────, © Isengard.
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 31
Figure 19. Quasi-isothermal water desorption from activated carbon (Merck) according
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
to Staszczuk. Mass loss (Q-TGA) and its time derivative (Q-DTG) are plotted. ©
Stasczuck.
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
32 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
the equation of state. Adsorption measurements are started from a dry sample
state in vacuum or dry atmosphere as well as from a defined humidity.
Desorption is started from a defined humidity, from saturation pressure if
possible.
Sorption isotherms may be measured simply by placing the samples in a
desiccator at constant temperature. Different humidities are adjusted by means
of salt solutions [63]. One sample is exposed to a defined single humidity by
the integral sorption method whereas the humidity around one sample is
stepwise varied by the interval method. Intermediate evacuation or movement
of the gas atmosphere can speed up measurements.
An apparatus of gravimetric water sorption consists of a microbalance and
a thermostat. Water vapour pressure is adjusted and varied by means of a
carrier gas flow loaded with water vapour (Figure 20a). Alternatively, using a
vacuum balance, either portions of water vapour are added or the pressure is
adjusted by means of a thermostated water reservoir (Figure 20b).
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Figure 20a. Water vapour pressure is Figure 20b. Alternatively, using a vacuum
adjusted and varied by means of a balance, either portions of water vapour are
carrier gas flow loaded with water added or pressure is adjusted by means of a
vapour. thermostated water reservoir.
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 33
10 thermostat, 11 bellows.
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
34 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
p
n a na (5)
p0 T
ma pn
na V a (6)
m s M a R Tn
where ma is the mass adsorbed, ms the sample mass, Ma is the mole mass of the
adsorbate water, pn is the standard pressure, R is the universal gas constant, Tn
is the standard temperature, Va is the specific adsorbed gas volume.
With hydrophilic surfaces, isotherms of types I, II, IV and VI according to
IUPAC classification (Figure 22) [6, 65] are observed. The hysteresis may be
voluminous and may cover the whole region of relative pressure [32, 66]. On
hydrophobic materials, adsorption starts only at elevated pressures; that means
there is hardly adsorption at the surface but condensation in pores and
isotherms correspond to type II and V. However, often water sorption
isotherms cannot be assigned to any type of the IUPAC classification as
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p
p0 1 C 1 p (7)
p nm C nm C p0
na 1
p0
The specific surface area as is calculated using
as n m a m N A (8)
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 35
Figure 23. Water vapour isotherm at 298 K on a hardened cement paste (Dyckerhoff
white).O adsorption, ◊ desorption.
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
36 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
Figure 24a. Water vapour isotherms type Figure 24b. Transformation of water
III on hydrophobic materials vapour isotherms in Figure 24a into ESW
(polyurethane and silica/polyurethane isotherms.
nanocomposite ▲).
the surface free energy and the isobaric isothermal work of sorption. The
measured isotherms are transformed into ESW isotherms by plotting the
product of the adsorbed amount and the change in chemical potential versus
the adsorbed amount. The ESW isotherms show at least one minimum that
yields a sorption energy, which corresponds approximately to the loss of
degrees of freedom of the sorptive. Thus, the binding strength of the
adsorption layer can be estimated. From the mass adsorbed in the first
minimum a specific surface area similar to the BET surface area can be
obtained.
Figure 24a shows the water vapour isotherms on polyurethane and
silica/polyurethane nanocomposite [73-74]. These are type III isotherms that
are characteristic for hydrophobic materials. According to the classical models
of BET and BJH, further evaluation of the isotherms is not possible. The
transformation into ESW isotherms shows Figure 24b. The minimum of the
ESW isotherms corresponds to a loss of degrees of freedom, which describe a
medium strong physisorption of the water molecules on the surface. However,
the deeper and sharper ESW minimum of the nanocomposite shows that the
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Water Vapour Sorption and Humidity 37
nanocomposite better adsorbs the water because of the silica additive slightly
reduces the hydrophobic characteristics. Further evaluation of ESW isotherm
yields a specific surface area of about 6 m² g-1.
Furthermore from types II and IV isotherms, the pore size distribution can
be determined according to the method of Barrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH)
[75] e.g. and various parameters of pore systems can be derived.
Figure 25 shows the water vapour isotherm and the nitrogen isotherm on
activated carbon [67]. The whole isotherms as well as the calculated specific
surface areas and the pore size distributions are different. However using the
adsorbed volume as ordinate, the nitrogen and water sorption curves meet each
other at the saturation point in accordance to Gurwitsch‘s rule [76]. This
demonstrates that parameters obtained by using inert gases can only be applied
with restrictions to predict adsorption of water. If a material should be used in
a humid environment water sorption measurement are unavoidable.
Measuring the adsorbed water mass in a material can give the relative
humidity of the air with which the material is in equilibrium. For example, the
adsorption isotherm of water vapour on wool in Figure 26 can be used for air
humidity measurement at 15 oC and 25 oC [30].
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Figure 25. Nitrogen adsorption Δ and desorption isotherm at 77 K and water vapour
adsorption O and desorption ◊ isotherm at 298 K on activated carbon according to
Juhola. Note: Using the adsorbed volume as ordinate the nitrogen and water sorption
curves meet each other at the saturation point in accordance to Gurwitsch‘s rule.
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
38 Erich Robens, Katrin Rübner, Peter Klobes et al.
Figure 26. Adsorption isotherm of water vapour on wool at 298 K O and at 288 K Δ.
Calorimetrical Measurements
Using microcalorimeters, the heat capacity of moist and dry samples can
be compared and the conversion heat during drying or water adsorption can be
observed. Such measurements allow the determination of adsorption isotherms
Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Spot analysis for the detection of water include the reddening of blue
cobalt(II) chloride or production of yellow lead iodide from a mixture of
potassium iodide and lead nitrate (see Chap. "Hygrometry").
The most important method to determine the complete water content is
Karl Fischer titration [78-82]. Water is titrated using Karl Fischer‘s reagent,
Humidity Sensors: Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental Monitoring : Types, Nanomaterials and Environmental
Another random document with
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hadden overvloed daar zij vee ruilden met de volkeren links van de
Sutoren en van de Sutoren zelf schatting hieven, vier sikkels van
elken vrije gedurende den geheelen oogstmaand zoodat zij zelfs de
pronkbeesten met haver voederden in plaats van gras, dat overigens
rijkelijk groeide in ’t geheele land der Frisen en ver daarover heen op
de eilanden. In het bosch der Widigensen waren ze ’s nachts
overvallen door den hoofdman Aspriaan met zijn zeventig gezellen.
Hem was de reis van prins Istovar niet aangezegd omdat hij van alle
eer vervallen was verklaard, sedert hij ’t gastrecht geschonden had.
Aspriaan had den hoofdman Jelle, die vee zou brengen naar
Renegouw bij zich genoodigd en wetende dat Jelle een groot drinker
was, had hij hem vele horens Widigenser meê te drinken
aangeboden, dat met wilden honing en galappels gebrouwen wordt.
Toen Jelle beschonken was, had Aspriaan hem zijn vee afgekocht,
zeventig koppels uitgezochte beesten voor twee pak wonderkruiden,
die op de borst gedragen waarborgen tegen het zwarte water, de
ziekte die alle drinkers krijgen als ze oud worden. Toen nu Jelle den
volgenden ochtend weer nuchter was en zijn mannen verzamelde en
zijn vee zocht om verder te drijven, zeide Aspriaan, dat het vee
reeds weg was gebracht naar zijn weiden en Jelle’s eigen mannen
erkenden, dat hij ’t vee verkocht had voor twee pak wonderkruiden.
Jelle, ziende welk een ramp door de dronkenschap ontstaan was,
zond zijn mannen terug met zijn kortzwaard, gaf hun bevel, dit
zwaard aan zijn zoon te geven, wanneer hij zweren wilde, nooit een
droppel meê te zullen drinken en aan koning Tjilbard mede te
deelen, wat zij gezien hadden. Nèt nam Jelle een steen op en sloeg
dezen met de vuist met zoo zwaren slag tegen den eigen slaap, dat
hij dood neerviel als geveld door een godsoordeel. [22]
„Aan den boom achter den tent, prins!” antwoordde Melle en hij trok
den prins mede uit het gewoel, hem met zijn breed lichaam dekkend
en aldoor zijn zwaard opgestoken om slagen te weren en roepend:
„Hier staat Melle de Fries!” En achter de tent gekomen bleek Zeven
al losgesneden en geroofd. Melle legde zijn oor op den grond en nu,
in de verte hoorde hij de klingeltjes in de manen zacht tinken en de
twee schreden door ’t duister naar dien kant, met de zwaarden
vooruit om niet tegen de boomen te loopen en toen na een poos, als
zij nu helderder de schelletjes hoorden, blies Melle op zijn horen het
signaal en Zeven antwoordde met een angstig gehinnik alsof hij wel
wilde maar niet kon komen.
En opeens werd het licht van rossen fakkel-schijn en zij zagen Zeven
staan, die ze doeken om den neus hadden gebonden, zoodat hij niet
hinniken kon en Aspriaan zelf was de roover en veel roovers om hem
heen hielden nu fakkels en zwaarden hoog.
„Istovar der Friezen prins staat hier met Thoering. Man tegen man!”
gebood de prins.
Zij raapten de fakkels op, vonden er een die nog smeulde, bliezen
deze aan tot ze opvlamde en nu zagen ze, dat drie [25]mannen dood
lagen, ook Aspriaan en de anderen waren gevloden. Zeven lag
spartelend bij den boom, in gevaar van te stikken, tot zij hem
haastig de doeken afrukten en het edele dier hun herkende en mak
medeliep.
Nabij de zee, naar de richting van het land der Kaninefaten lagen
twee groote eilanden, Veloog en Bedekoog. Ze waren bijna even
groot maar Veloog was zandig en dor en Bedekoog vettig en groen.
Veloog was rondom door zandbanken omgeven en stak hoog boven
de zee uit. Bedekoog was laag aan de zee gelegen, zoodat de
bewoners op terpen en in paalwoningen huisden en op de bergloo,
die het eiland naar de landzijde afsloot, den tempel, den koningshof
en de groote veestal hadden opgericht. Want als de zeegeest
woedde, stroomde soms het water over ’t geheele eiland en dan was
’t alleen veilig op de terpen en in de huizen en op de bergloo, waar
dan al ’t vee van ’t geheele eiland werd heengedreven. De bewoners
van Veloog waren arme lieden en de Velagers dienden den
Bedekauwers als veeknechten, als roeiknechten en als grasmaaiers
en hunne vrouwen en dochters als dienstmaagden, spinsters en
lichtekooien. Velagers en Bedekauwers waren afstammelingen van
dezelfde sipschaft en het was de wil van Nehalennia geweest, dat de
twee stammen zoo van elkaar verschilden.
Die van de zee en die van het land hadden dat niet gewild, maar
toen had koning Goës een groot zeil rondom het eeuwige vuur
gehangen en ’s nachts waren wel zeven schepen gestrand op de
kust van de Velagers, die de bemanningen hadden uitgemoord en
beroofd en toen hadden hun sprooksprekers grollen gemaakt op ’t
heilige vuur, dat geen licht gaf en één grol werd tot ver in ’t land
bekend.
Toen hadden die van de zee toegestemd, maar die van ’t land, die
den weg al wel wisten en ’s nachts niet voeren besloten een
krijgsmacht op de been te brengen en zij zonden zendboden naar de
Katten, en de Broekteren en de Frisen en de Kaninefaten. Die
hadden allen hun legers gestuurd, want zij wisten wel dat de buit
groot zou zijn behalve de Frisen, die alleen strijden als ze worden
aangevallen maar niet op buit-gevecht uitgaan.
Maar koning Goës waakte en zon, want hij was zeer verbeten en
belust op schatten. [34]
[Inhoud]
HOOFDSTUK V.
Met zijn moeder zocht Sogol reeds als kind geneeskrachtige kruiden
in bosch en veld en spelend leerde hij haar heelkunst en zag hoe zij
de kruiden droogde, ziedde, mengde, tot poeder stampte en hoe zij
de werking beproefde door ze aan konijnen, eekhoorns en honden in
te geven en te onderzoeken of ze braakten of buikloop kregen of
bevingen of krampen of stierven. Toen hij ouder werd, trok hij met
haar mede, als zij bij koningen en hertogen werd geroepen om te
heelen en hij had zoo al jong, toegang gehad tot kringen, waar
andere kinderen uit het volk nooit kwamen en hij had toestanden
leeren kennen, die ieder voor ongeloofelijk zou hebben gehouden.
Hij was met zijn moeder geroepen naar de priesteressenhaag van
Nehalennia op Walcheren, waar de reivoerster, die ’t heilige offer de
keel mag doorsnijden, lag met gezwollen buik en pijnlijke heupen.
Zij hadden beiden gedacht, moeder en zoon, dat de priesteres aan
de jicht leed en haar gewreven met bilzenkruid opgelost in een
[35]mengsel van ongeaschte boter en was. Maar hoe groot was hun
verwondering geweest, toen de priesteres begon te krijten als eene,
die in de weeën ligt en een kind ter wereld bracht. De priesteres had
hun een gouden vaas willen geven en een rood-lederen paardetoom
als ze getuigen wilden, dat het kind door de genade van Nehalennia
was geboren, zonder dat er gemeenschap was geweest met een
man, maar Spûr was opgestaan en had haar jongen met zich
medevoerende, de geschenken geweigerd. Dan voor de haag, had
ze luide geroepen: „Liderlicke Hure, fluch si dir!”
Want hij, de vader, hoewel ook ontsproten uit den stand der
hoorigen, was door vroomheid en moed verheven tot hertog en nu,
na den strijd tegen die van ’t Groene Eiland, waarvan hij drie
skiggen buit had medegebracht, zou hij naar de koningswaardigheid
staan en zeker zouden de priesters op het Ding hem afvallen, als zij
wisten, dat hij een zoon had, als Sogol, die de heilige hagen had
ontwijd en nooit als zijn opvolger geduld zou worden.
Hij zat dan stil bij het rookende offer en hij voelde zich weder als
kind en de oude raadsels sprak hij weer uit, zooals moeder dat
gedaan had en hij gaf zichzelf het antwoord.
Hinder de Haus,
Pfloegt Vetter Kraus,
On Pfloeg, On Peerd,
Is it nit de Moë weert.… 2
Dat was: de mol.
En dan weer:
[39]
En dan weer:
Als hij dan niet kon slapen, had hij moeke om nog een raadsel
gevraagd en nog een, en nog een heel zwaar, dat niet te raden was.
Sogol, die nu bij ’t daglicht den rechten weg dadelijk vond, liep naar
de Ravenstroth terug, maar in zijn hut gekomen, hoorde hij nog
altijd in gedachten het tergende wijsje.
Zij hielden hem dus voor een wilden man en spraken bezwerings-
spreuken. Hij kende die wijsjes, had ze als kleine jongen wel
meegezongen met de kinderen van het dorp, als ze wisten waar een
kwaden geest zat, die ze allen te samen gingen tergen om hem het
verblijf onhoudbaar te maken. Waren wellicht die andere kwade
geesten ook menschen, gewone menschen, zooals hij, geweest? Een
twijfel kwam in zijn gemoed sluipen. Als eens alle geesten menschen
waren? En de nikkers, en de asen en de recken en de elfen? Wat hij
van de priesters, de priesteressen en hun verhalen denken moest,
wist hij. Hij lag lang na te denken. Vreemd, zoolang leefde hij nu al
hier, wel zesmaal was ’t al winter geweest en hoewel hij op alle uren
van den dag en den nacht in de Ravenstroth had gewaakt, nog nooit
had hij een nix of een elf gezien en Nickelman, die bij elke nieuwe
maan heette uit de Gröhl op te stijgen, had hij ook nooit ontwaard
hoewel hij toch vaak bij nieuwe maan zijn fuik had uitgezet.
Hij liet de vork los, die de aal weder in ’t water trok. Maar hij deed
geen moeite om de buit terug te halen. Een diepe gedachte hield
hem bezig. „Er is geen Nickelman!” dacht hij, zoomin als er elfen en
nixen en asen zijn; zoomin als de priesteressen kinderen krijgen van
de geesten, zoomin als er tooverkollen of wilde menschen zijn. Alles
is zichtbaar en wat niet te zien is, bestaat ook niet. En zoo greep de
gedachte hem aan, dat hij dien nacht in de stroth bleef rondloopen,
luide roepend: „Alles is zichtbaar! Alles is zichtbaar!” opzettelijk daar
loopend waar hij de geluiden hoorde, waarvoor hij vroeger angst
had gehad en dan luid schallend roepend: „Alles is zichtbaar!” Op
eens hoorde hij een stem, die hem antwoordde … maar luider,
dieper … „Alles is zichtbaar!”… en toen nogmaals een stem, zwakker
en teerder maar toch duidelijk verstaanbaar: „Alles is zichtbaar!”
Wie riep dat? Moedig drong hij door de dikke struiken en riep
opnieuw. Weer hoorde hij twee stemmen, die antwoordden. Hij
dreigde ze. Ze dreigden terug. Hij riep ze op. Ze riepen hem weder
op. En steeds met zijn zelfde woorden. Voorwaarts drong hij en
sloeg met een tak tegen een boom … een holle slag dreunde en kort
daarop zonder dat hij nu sloeg, hoorde hij eveneens den dreun van
een slag en een zachteren slag daarna. Hij kon niet ontdekken, wie
daar sloeg en wie hem antwoordde en nu [43]weer angstig, liep hij
naar zijn hut en legde zich op zijn leger van vellen en bleef den
heelen nacht peinzen. Dus was alles dan toch niet zichtbaar? Er
waren dan toch geesten, die leefden, spraken, riepen, bedreigden en
toch zich onzichtbaar konden maken? Toen het dag was geworden,
haalde hij zijn vork uit de gröhl. Die dreef boven en nog altijd
krinkelde de aal zich vergeefs om zich los te wringen. Hij sloeg den
kop van het dier plat met een steen en droeg het naar de hut om
later te braden. Nu, met zijn wapen, in ’t heldere daglicht, ging hij
weer naar de plaats, waar dien nacht de geest had geroepen. Hij
riep opnieuw: „Alles is zichtbaar!” Het antwoord schalde terug en het
tweede opnieuw. Hij sprong in ’t kreupelhout, prikte met zijn vork
naar alle zijden, maar ditmaal stak hij niet in een dier, doch slechts
in ’t ijle of in bladeren of hagedissen.
Eén enkele gedachten hield hem bezig. „De geest was ten laatste
ook schor geworden, dus was hij ook vermoeid van ’t roepen … Maar
als hij vermoeid raakte, was hij een mensch en geen geest … Morgen
zou hij weer gaan zoeken en overmorgen weer, tot hij hem
gevonden had en te weer kon staan: „Alles is zichtbaar!”” [44]
Ook stroomden van alle zijden de mannen toe, die naar de hand van
Harimona dongen en naar de huwelijksvoorwaarden kwamen
vernemen. Er waren veel jongelieden van hooge geboorte, maar ook
reeds mannen van middelbaren leeftijd en zelfs grijsaards, die kinds
verlekkerd op de groote schatten van de priesteres, meenden met
meer kans van slagen dan melkmuilen, den strijd met den draak,
den hond en de geit te kunnen aanbinden. Er waren méér dan
honderd aanbidders, velen in statie-gewaden, begeleid door groot
gevolg van krijgers en ruiters en wagens volgeladen met
geschenken. Anderen, heel arm en heel eenvoudig, met geen
anderen uitzet, dan hun wapen, hun gespierd lichaam en hun
jeugdigen moed. Ook wel slanke, kleine lieden van den stam der
Sueven, die vaardig waren in ’t spreken op den Ding of beroemd
wegens hun sproketalent of wegens hun fraaie stem en ’t blazen op
den jachthoren of het tokkelen op den Keltischen lier. 3 Er waren
minnaars, die knap waren in het kerven van runen in plankjes van
lindehout en minnaars, die den Oceaan bevoeren en wachtend op de
feestdagen, verhalen deden aan de lieden, die met hun mêde
dronken van de verre landen, die zij gezien hadden en de monsters,
die leefden in de verre zeeën, daar waar het dieplood schuinhangt,
omdat de wereld er eindigt en de baaierd er aanvangt. Eerwaardige
grijsaards kwamen om een uitspraak te hooren in vragen van meent-
recht en grens-geschil.
Harimona had zich nog niet vertoond aan het volk doch Maresag, de
hooge priester, deed elken dag, hoog op een wagen gezeten, die
door hoorigen getrokken werd, een rondgang door de streek en gaf
bevelen en verwelkomde bekenden en deelde zegeningen of
vermaningen uit, troostte zieken en verminkten, die zich dicht nabij
de wagen drongen, smeekend om spoedig toegelaten te worden.