UNIT II

PN JUNCTION DIODES
SYMBOLS
 CHARACTERISTICS
• A PN Junction Diode is one of the
simplest semiconductor devices around,
and which has the characteristic of
passing current in only one direction only.

• However, unlike a resistor, a diode does

not behave linearly with respect to the
applied voltage as the diode has an
exponential current-voltage ( I-V )
relationship
CONTD
• The plane dividing the two halves is called
the junction
• A p–n junction is a boundary or interface
between two types of semiconductor
material, p-type and n-type, inside a single
crystal of semiconductor.
• The "p" (positive) side contains an excess
of holes, while the "n" (negative) side
contains an excess of electrons.
• The p-n junction is created by doping, for
example by ion implantation, diffusion of
dopants.
CONTD
• After joining p-type and n-type semiconductors,
electrons from the n region near the p–n
interface tend to diffuse into the p region leaving
behind positively charged ions in the n region
and being recombined with holes, forming
negatively charged ions in the p region.

• Likewise, holes from the p-type region near the

p–n interface begin to diffuse into the n-type
region, leaving behind negatively charged ions in
the p region and recombining with electrons,
forming positive ions in the n region.
CONTD

• The regions near the p–n interface lose their

neutrality and most of their mobile carriers,
forming the space charge region or depletion
layer
SPACE CHARGE REGION
 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL
DIFFERENCE

• AS A CONSEQUENCE OF THE INDUCED

ELECTRIC FIELD ACROSS THE
DEPLETION REGION AN ELECTROSTATIC
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE IS
ESTABLISHED BETWEEN THE P AND N
REGIONS
• (Potential barrier, Junction barrier,
Diffusion potential, Contact potential)
CONTD
• Contact potential varies with doping and
temperature

• FOR, GERMANIUM = 0.3

• FOR, SILICON = 0.72

 DEPLETION WIDTH

The depletion region is around 0.5

micro meter thick.

There are no mobile carriers in this very

narrow depletion layer.
 BIASING
• Biasing, in general, refers to the application
of DC voltage across the terminals of device
to establish certain operating condition for
the device.
• Speaking of diode biasing in simple language,
it simply means that external voltage is
applied across the two terminals of the
diode. Diode biasing can be done in two
different ways
• Forward biasing
• Reverse biasing
FORWARD BIASING
CONTD

• When the positive terminal of the battery is

connected to the p-type material and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected
to the n-type material, such a connection is
called forward bias.
CONTD
• The p region is connected to the positive
terminal and n region is connected to the
negative terminal of the DC voltage source.
• A resistor is also connected in series with
the diode to make sure the current in the
circuit does not rise above the maximum
limit and damage the diode.
• When the diode is forward biased, the
electric field in the depletion region and
the external electric field due the DC
voltage source are in opposite direction.
CONTD
• This reduces the effective/net electric field in
the depletion region.

• Since the net electric field is now reduced due

to forward bias, electrons and holes now
crosses the junction and constitutes a current.
The direction of current is from p-region to
n-region.
CONTD
• The application of a forward biasing voltage
on the junction diode results in the depletion
layer becoming very thin and narrow which
represents a low impedance path through the
junction thereby allowing high currents to
flow.
• The point at which this sudden increase in
current takes place is represented on the
static I-V characteristics curve above as the
“knee” point.
REVERSE BIASING
CONTD
• When the diode is reverse biased, the electric
field due to the battery and the electric field of
the depletion region are in the same direction.
• This makes the electric field even stronger than
that before reverse bias was applied.
• The electrons from the n-type material (majority
carriers) now faces a stronger electric field and it
becomes even more difficult for them to move
towards the p-type material.
CONTD
• The holes from the p-type material (majority
carriers) now faces a stronger electric field
and it becomes even more difficult to move
from p-type to n-type material. Hence we
conclude that there is no flow of current due
to majority carriers when the diode is reverse
biased.
 Tunnel Diodes
• Tunnel diode is the p-n junction device that
exhibits negative resistance. That means when
the voltage is increased the current through it
decreases.
 RECTIFIERS

❖ Half-wave Rectifiers
In a half-wave rectifier, the output waveform
occurs after each alternate half-cycle of the input
sinusoidal signal.
The half-wave rectifier will generate an output
waveform vo. Between the time interval t = 0 to
T/2, the polarity of the applied voltage vi is such
that it makes the diode forward-biased.
As a result the diode is turned on, i.e., the forward
voltage is more than the cut-in voltage of the
diode.
 Conduction region (0 to T/2)

Non-conducting region (T/2 to T )

Half-wave rectified signal
❖ Full-wave Rectifier
The full-wave rectifier can be classified into two
distinct types.
• (i) Centre-tapped transformer full-wave
rectifier:- It comprises of two half-wave circuits,
connected in such a manner that conduction
takes place through one diode during one half of
the power cycle and through the other diode
during the second half of the cycle.
Full-wave rectifier
Waveform for full-wave rectifier
• (ii) Bridge type full-wave rectifier:- The most
important disadvantage of the centre-tapped
rectifier is that it brings in the use of a heavy
transformer with three terminals at its output,
i.e., a centre-tapped transformer. The centre
tapping may not be perfect in most cases. This
problem can be solved by designing another
circuit with four diodes and a simple
transformer. This is called a bridge rectifier
Bridge rectifier
• Advantages of a bridge rectifier
• (i) In the bridge circuit a transformer without a centre
tap is used.
• (ii) The bridge circuit requires a smaller transformer as
compared to a full-wave rectifier giving the identical
rectified dc output voltage.
• (iii) For the same dc output voltage, the PIV rating of a
diode in a bridge rectifier is half of that for a full -wave
circuit.
• (iv) The bridge circuit is more appropriate for
high-voltage applications, thus, making the circuit
compact.
• Disadvantages of a bridge rectifier
• (i) Two or more diodes are required in case of a
bridge rectifier, as a full-wave rectifier uses two
diodes whereas a bridge rectifier uses four diodes.
• (ii) The amount of power dissipated in a bridge
circuit is higher as compared to a full-wave
rectifier. Hence, the bridge rectifier is not efficient
as far as low voltages are concerned.
A full-wave capacitor-filtered rectifier
 CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS

❖ Clipper
A clipper is a type of diode network that has the ability to
“clip off” a portion of the input signal without distorting
the remaining part of the alternating waveform.
The half-wave rectifier is an example of the simplest form
of diode clipper—one resistor and a diode.
Depending on the orientation of the diode, the positive or
negative region of the input signal is “clipped” off.
There are two general categories of clippers: series and
parallel.
Series clipper:- A series clipper and its response for two
types of alternating waveforms are provided.
❑ Key points
1. The first step is to find out in which interval of the input signal
the diode is in forward-bias.
2. The direction of the diode suggests that the signal vi must be
positive to turn it on. The dc supply further requires the voltage vi
to be greater than v volts to turn the diode on.The negative
region of the input signal turns the diode into the OFF state.
Therefore, in the negative region the diode is an open circuit.

Series clipper with a dc supply

• The clipper circuit can be designed by utilizing
both the linear and nonlinear elements such
as resistors, diodes or transistors. As these
circuits are used only for clipping input
waveform as per the requirement and for
transmitting the waveform, they do not
contain any energy storing element like a
capacitor.
 Series Clippers

• Series clippers are again classified into series

negative clippers and series positive clippers
which are as follows:
• a. Series Negative Clipper
• b. Series Positive Clipper
 Shunt Clippers

• Shunt clippers are classified into two types:

shunt negative clippers and shunt positive
clippers.
• a. Shunt Negative Clipper
• b. Shunt Positive Clipper
 Series Negative Clipper
During the positive half cycle the diode (considered as ideal diode) appears in
the forward biased and conducts such that the entire positive half half cycle of
input appears across the resistor connected in parallel as output waveform.
During the negative half cycle the diode is in reverse biased. No output
appears across the resistor. Thus, it clips the negative half cycle of the input
waveform, and therefore, it is called as a series negative clipper.
Series Negative Clipper With Positive
Vr
Series negative clipper with positive reference voltage is similar to the series
negative clipper, but in this a positive reference voltage is added in series with
the resistor. During the positive half cycle, the diode start conducting only after
its anode voltage value exceeds the cathode voltage value. Since cathode
voltage becomes equal to the reference voltage, the output that appears across
the resistor will be as shown in the above figure.
Series Negative Clipper With Negative
Vr
The series negative clipper with a negative reference voltage is similar to the
series negative clipper with positive reference voltage, but instead of positive
Vr here a negative Vr is connected in series with the resistor, which makes the
cathode voltage of the diode as negative voltage. Thus during the positive half
cycle, the entire input appears as output across the resistor, and during the
negative half cycle, the input appears as output until the input value will be less
than the negative reference voltage, as shown in the figure.
 Series Positive Clipper
The series positive clipper circuit is connected as shown in the figure. During
the positive half cycle, diode becomes reverse biased, and no output is
generated across the resistor, and during the negative half cycle, the diode
conducts and the entire input appears as output across the resistor.
Series Positive Clipper with Negative
Vr
It is similar to the series positive clipper in addition to a negative reference
voltage in series with a resistor; and here, during the positive half cycle, the
output appears across the resistor as a negative reference voltage. During
the negative half cycle, the output is generated after reaching a value
greater than the negative reference voltage, as shown in the above figure.
Series Positive Clipper with Positive Vr
Instead of negative reference voltage a positive reference voltage is
connected to obtain series positive clipper with a positive reference
voltage. During the positive half cycle, the reference voltage appears as an
output across the resistor, and during the negative half cycle, the entire
input appears as output across the resistor.
 Shunt Clippers

• Shunt clippers are classified into two types:

shunt negative clippers and shunt positive
clippers.
• a. Shunt Negative Clipper
• b. Shunt Positive Clipper
 Shunt Negative Clipper
Shunt negative clipper is connected as shown in the above figure. During
the positive half cycle, the entire input is the output, and during the
negative half cycle, the diode conducts causing no output to be
generated from the input.
Shunt Negative Clipper with Positive
Vr
A series positive reference voltage is added to the diode as shown in
the figure. During the positive half cycle, the input is generated as
output, and during the negative half cycle, a positive reference
voltage will be the output voltage as shown above.
Shunt Negative Clipper with Negative
Vr
Instead of positive reference voltage, a negative reference voltage is
connected in series with the diode to form a shunt negative clipper
with a negative reference voltage. During the positive half cycle, the
entire input appears as output, and during the negative half cycle, a
reference voltage appears as output as shown in the above figure.
 Shunt Positive Clipper
During the positive half cycle the diode is in conduction mode and no
output is generated; and during the negative half cycle; entire input
appears as output as the diode is in reverse bias as shown
Shunt Positive Clipper with Negative
Vr
During the positive half cycle, the negative reference voltage connected
in series with the diode appears as output; and during the negative half
cycle, the diode conducts until the input voltage value becomes greater
than the negative reference voltage and output will be generated as
shown
Shunt Positive Clipper with Positive Vr
During the positive half cycle the diode conducts causing the positive
reference voltage appear as output voltage; and, during the negative
half cycle, the entire input is generated as the output as the diode is in
reverse biased.
 Positive-Negative Clipper with
Reference Voltage Vr
The circuit is connected as shown in the figure with a reference voltage
Vr, diodes D1 & D2. During the positive half cycle, the diode the diode
D1 conducts causing the reference voltage connected in series with D1
to appear across the output.
During the negative cycle, the diode D2 conducts causing the negative
reference voltage connected across the D2 appear as output, as shown
 Working of Clamper Circuit

• The positive or negative peak of a signal can be positioned

at the desired level by using the clamping circuits. As we can
shift the levels of peaks of the signal by using a clamper,
hence, it is also called as level shifter.
• The clamper circuit consists of a capacitor and diode
connected in parallel across the load. The clamper circuit
depends on the change in the time constant of the
capacitor. The capacitor must be chosen such that, during
the conduction of the diode, the capacitor must be
sufficient to charge quickly and during the nonconducting
period of diode, the capacitor should not discharge
drastically. The clampers are classified as positive and
negative clampers based on the clamping method.
 Negative Clamper
During the positive half cycle, the input diode is in forward bias- and as
the diode conducts-capacitor gets charged (up to peak value of input
supply). During the negative half cycle, reverse does not conduct and the
output voltage become equal to the sum of the input voltage and the
voltage stored across the capacitor.
Negative Clamper with Positive Vr
It is similar to the negative clamper, but the output waveform is shifted
towards the positive direction by a positive reference voltage. As the
positive reference voltage is connected in series with the diode, during
the positive half cycle, even though the diode conducts, the output
voltage becomes equal to the reference voltage; hence, the output is
clamped towards the positive direction as shown
Negative Clamper with Negative Vr
By inverting the reference voltage directions, the negative reference
voltage is connected in series with the diode as shown in the above
figure. During the positive half cycle, the diode starts conduction
before zero, as the cathode has a negative reference voltage, which is
less than that of zero and the anode voltage, and thus, the waveform is
clamped towards the negative direction by the reference voltage value.
 Positive Clamper
It is almost similar to the negative clamper circuit, but the diode is
connected in the opposite direction. During the positive half cycle,
the voltage across the output terminals becomes equal to the sum
of the input voltage and capacitor voltage (considering the capacitor
as initially fully charged). During the negative half cycle of the input,
the diode starts conducting and charges the capacitor rapidly to its
peak input value. Thus the waveforms are clamped towards the
positive direction as shown
Positive Clamper with Positive Vr
A positive reference voltage is added in series with the diode of the
positive clamper as shown in the circuit. During the positive half
cycle of the input, the diode conducts as initially the supply voltage
is less than the anode positive reference voltage. If once the
cathode voltage is greater than anode voltage then the diode stops
conduction. During the negative half cycle, the diode conducts and
charges the capacitor. The output is generated as shown
Positive Clamper with Negative Vr
The direction of the reference voltage is reversed, which is connected
in series with the diode making it as a negative reference voltage.
During the positive half cycle the diode will be non conducting, such
that the output is equal to capacitor voltage and input voltage.
During the negative half cycle, the diode starts conduction only after
the cathode voltage value becomes less than the anode voltage.
Thus, the output waveforms are generated as shown
Applications of Clippers and Clampers

• They are frequently used for the separation of synchronizing

signals from the composite picture signals.
• The excessive noise spikes above a certain level can be limited or
clipped in FM transmitters by using the series clippers.
• For the generation of new waveforms or shaping the existing
waveform, clippers are used.
• The typical application of diode clipper is for the protection of
transistor from transients, as a freewheeling diode connected in
parallel across the inductive load.
• Frequently used half wave rectifier in power supply kits is a typical
example of a clipper. It clips either positive or negative half wave
of the input.
• Clippers can be used as voltage limiters and amplitude selectors.
 Clampers-applications

• The complex transmitter and receiver circuitry of television

clamper is used as a base line stabilizer to define sections of the
luminance signals to preset levels.
• Clampers are also called as direct current restorers as they clamp
the wave forms to a fixed DC potential.
• These are frequently used in test equipment, sonar and radar
systems.
• For the protection of the amplifiers from large errant signals
clampers are used.
• Clampers can be used for removing the distortions
• For improving the overdrive recovery time clampers are used.
• Clampers can be used as voltage doublers or voltage multipliers.
 Voltage Regulator
• Batteries are often shown on a schematic diagram as
the source of DC voltage but usually the actual DC
voltage source is a power supply.
• There are many types of power supply. Most are
designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity
to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits
and other devices.
• A more reliable method of obtaining DC power is to
transform, rectify, filter and regulate an AC line
voltage.
• A power supply can by broken down into a series of
blocks, each of which performs a particular function.
Power supply: a group of circuits that convert the standard ac voltage (120 V,
60 Hz) provided by the wall outlet to constant dc voltage
Transformer : a device that step up or step down the ac voltage provided by
the wall outlet to a desired amplitude through the action of a magnetic field
• Rectifier: a diode circuits that converts the ac
input voltage to a pulsating dc voltage
• The pulsating dc voltage is only suitable to be
used as a battery charger, but not good
enough to be used as a dc power supply in a
radio, stereo system, computer and so on.
• There are two basic types of rectifier circuits:
– Half-wave rectifier
– Full-wave rectifier - Center-tapped & Bridge full-wave rectifier
• In summary, a full-wave rectified signal has less ripple than a
half-wave rectified signal and is thus better to apply to a filter.
• Filter: a circuit used to reduce the fluctuation
in the rectified output voltage or ripple. This
provides a steadier dc voltage.
• Regulator: a circuit used to produces a
constant dc output voltage by reducing the
ripple to negligible amount. One part of power
supply.
Regulator - Zener diode regulator
• For low current power supplies - a simple
voltage regulator can be made with a resistor
and a zener diode connected in reverse.
• Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown
voltage Vz and maximum power Pz (typically
400mW or 1.3W)
• Two basic categories of voltage regulation are:
❑ line regulation
❑ load regulation

• The purpose of line regulation is to maintain a nearly

constant output voltage when the input voltage varies.
• The purpose of load regulation is to maintain a nearly
constant output voltage when the load varies
 Line regulation: A change in input (line) voltage does not
significantly affect the output voltage of a regulator (within
certain limits)
 Types of Regulator
• Fundamental classes of voltage regulators are
linear regulators and switching regulators.
• Two basic types of linear regulator are the
series regulator and the shunt regulator .
• The series regulator is connected in series
with the load and the shunt regulator is
connected in parallel with the load.
 Series Regulator Circuit
• Control element in series with load between
input and output.
• Output sample circuit senses a change in
output voltage.
• Error detector compares sample voltage with
reference voltage → causes control element
to compensate in order to maintain a constant
output voltage.
Op-Amp Series Regulator
Control Element

Error Detector Sample Circuit

• The resistor R1 and R2 sense a change in the
output voltage and provide a feedback voltage.
• The error detector compares the feedback voltage
with a Zener diode reference voltage.
• The resulting difference voltage causes the
transistor Q1 controls the conduction to
compensate the variation of the output voltage.
• The output voltage will be maintained at a
constant value of:
 Shunt Regulator Circuit
• The unregulated input voltage provides current to the
load.
• Some of the current is pulled away by the control
element.
• If the load voltage tries to change due to a change in
the load resistance, the sampling circuit provides a
feedback signal to a comparator.
• The resulting difference voltage then provides a
control signal to vary the amount of the current
shunted away from the load to maintain the regulated
output voltage across the load.
 Voltage Doubler

• Voltage Doubler is a voltage multiplier circuit

which has a voltage multiplication factor of two.
The circuit consists of only two diodes, two
capacitors and an oscillating AC input voltage
• This simple diode-capacitor pump circuit gives a
DC output voltage equal to the peak-to-peak value
of the sinusoidal input. In other words, double the
peak voltage value because the diodes and the
capacitors work together to effectively double the
voltage.
DC Voltage Doubler Circuit
• The circuit shows a half wave voltage doubler.
During the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal
input waveform, diode D1 is forward biased and
conducts charging up the pump capacitor, C1 to
the peak value of the input voltage, (Vp).
• Because there is no return path for capacitor C1 to
discharge into, it remains fully charged acting as a
storage device in series with the voltage supply. At
the same time, diode D2 conducts via D1 charging
up capacitor, C2.
• During the positive half cycle, diode D1 is
reverse biased blocking the discharging of C1
while diode D2 is forward biased charging up
capacitor C2. But because there is a voltage
across capacitor C1 already equal to the peak
input voltage, capacitor C2 charges to twice
the peak voltage value of the input signal.