GEOGRAPHY

COORDINAL POINT: In order to find the coordinal point, we shall first of all find the
North. If we stand with over face to the North to our right will be east, to our left will be
west and behind South.

HOW TO FIND NORTH: The North of a place can we find in the following ways.

WITH THE HELP OF POOL STAR: The pool star always point to the north so that with its
help we can find the north. In order to find the pool star first find the great bear in the sky
at the nights. The bear is a conservation of seven stars. The upper two are called pointer.
Join the pointer and produced the line. This line will pass through a bright star at some
distance. This bright star is pool star. The pool star doesn’t indicate the true north it is one
degree away from the true north. Since the pool star is visible in the Northern hemisphere,
this method can be use in this hemisphere.

MARINER COMPASS: By mean of mariner compass, the mariner compass is watch live
batter box fitted with a magnetic needle. End of this needle array point to north.
Ordinarily the compass is not at all an accurate instrument. In the subcontinent of
Pakistan and India at present. It points to the true north. The pool star is a very useful to
navigator who can find out the coordinal point even on dark night. In the mariner
compass, 32 direction points are indicated.

SHAPE OF THE EARTH: The earth appears to be flat but in reality, it is more or less
spherical, more or less round like a ball. It is little flattened at the pools and bulges out a
little at the quarter.

PROOF OF ITS ROTUNDITY: The following are some of the important pint as a proof of
the rotundity of the earth.
1. If we are standing at sea level shore (cost) and watch a ship coming toward us, we
shall first of all sea the mast of the ship only. As the ship comes near and near we shall
gradually see the lower parts. If the earth was flat, we could see the whole ship at once.

2. Sun rises at the east then the west. The sun rises early at places at the east then in
the west. If the earth were flat the sun would rises at the same time and same places.

3. Circumnavigation with turning a corner. Several sailors have sailed round the
earth. They started from a certain part and in the same direction and eventually reached
the same part. This can happen only if the earth is round.

4. Circular shape of horizon always and everywhere. If we stand at high place and
look at the horizon. We find that it is always and everywhere circular and we are in the
center of the circular. This can happen only if the earth is spherical

BEDFORD LEVAL EXPERIMENT: In a canal near Bedford (England), there upright pools
were once fixed in a straight line at a distance of three miles from each other. The length
of the poles above water line is 13ft 4”. When the top of the third poles was seen from the
top of the first pole through a telescope. The top of the middle pole seemed to rise higher.
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This is possible when the surface of the water higher in the middle. Water is also the part
of the earth. It proves that the earth is raised higher in the middle that it is round. The
experiment is known as Bedford level experiment. The experiment was first performed by
doctor A R Vallance in 1870 AD.

SIZE OF THE EARTH:

1. Earths Circumference about 40000 km.
2. Earths diameter about 12800 km.
3. Earths area about 50432000 square km.

ASTRONOMY:

THE SOLAR SYSTEM: The system of spherical heavenly bodies with the sun as its
center is called solar system or the sun system. The system includes besides the sun, the
nine major planets about 40 thousand planetoids or small planet and numerous moons.

THE SUN: The sun is fixed star like other stars. It is 148400,000 km from the earth,
whereas nearest other stars is 40,000,000,000,000 km away from the earth which is 270
times than the distance of the sun from the earth. The sun is the center of its own solar
system and quite separate from other solar systems. The being the center of its solar
system the sun gives light and heat to the planets, satellites and other bodies. The sun
which is compared to a ball of gases and water has a surface temperature of 1100” F0 and
its internal heat may measured in million of degrees. The diameter of the sun is 1064640
Km whereas the diameter of the earth is only 12699 Km.

THE PLANNETS: The planets are the heavenly bodies which revolve round the sun in
their orbits. Some of their planets even rotate round their axes. Mercury is the planets
nearest to the sun. The other planets in order of their distance from the sun are Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Strum, Urines, Neptune and Pluto. It should be noted that there
distance have not been shown by any scale. We take 148400,000 km, distance of the
sun from the earth as an Astronomical unit. Mercury is the smallest planet. Venus and
earth are bigger planets but the former is smaller than the latter. Jupiter is eleven times
bigger than the earth. All the planets, comets and planetoids revolve round the sun but
satellite or moons revolve round their respective planets.

THE SATELLITES: Earth has a single satellite which we call the moon. The other
planets have more than one moon. Jupiter has many moons revolving round it. All the
moons are different in shapes and sizes. Some are larger than our moon and the other
are smaller. If we have a look at Saturn with a telescope, it will be appeared a very
interesting body. With not only its nine satellites revolving round it.

THE MOON: The moon is a sphere like the earth and is about a little more than a quarter
of the earth. The distance of the moon from the earth is 542400 km. The moon appears
to us in different shapes in month which we called phases of the moon. The first phase of
the moon is the crescent which appears on the first night of a lunar month. It increases in
size till we see it as full moon on the fourteenth night. The size decreases till at lest it
appears for a few nights. The moon gets light from the sun and revolves round the earth.

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PHASES OF THE MOON: The different phases of the moon due to its revolution round
the earth. A lunar month is about 27 and half days we can see easily the surface of the
moon with a telescope. It has its vast plains, hills, and caves. The longest chain of the
mountain is not more than 720 km. There is no water on the moon. It also has no
atmosphere like that of the earth.

ASTRIODS: There are small planets like bodies which revolve round the sun between the
mares and Jupiter. Their diameter approximately 8 to 800 km.

METEORS: These are solid bodies that become heated and visible as shooting stars as
they pass through the atmosphere.

COMETS: These are bodies with luminous heads haring quite long tails and following
orbits round the sun. Their orbit are much longer, than other planets and therefore. We
can see the comets at very longer internal.

STARS: The stars are fixed heavenly bodies. Their number is estimated at 30000000
000000. They are divided in to a numbers of constellations for purpose of study. The
nearest star is 40,000,000,000,000 km away from earth. Some of their stars have their
own solar system.

MOTION OF THE EARTH:

EARTH AXIS: The axis of the earth is in fact an imagery line round which the earth turns.
The northern externality of the axis is called the north place. While the southern
externality is called the South Pole.

MOTION OF THE EARTH: There are two motion of the earth.

Rotation daily motion
Revolution annually motion

ROTATION: The earth rotates round its axis from west to east once in 24 hrs this motion
is called the daily motion.

EFFECTS OF ROTATION:

1. Days or nights caused,

2. The sun, the moon and other heavenly bodies appears to revolve round the east
from east to west.
3. Wind and current change there direction.
4. Different places have different local time.
REVOLUTION: The earth revolves round the sun once in approximately 365 days. This
motion of the earth is called revolution or annual motion.

EFFECTS OF THE REVOLUTION: Days and nights are caused by the rotation of the
earth. The sun is stationary and earth rotates around the sun in its axis from west to east.
Thus one half of the earth always faces the sun and one half is always away from the sun.
Moreover every part of the earth comes in front of sun in turn vise and then goes into
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darkness. The part of the earth facing the sun has day and the part in the dark has night.
Changes of the season are caused.

OBLIQUITY OF THE EARTHS AXIS: The earth axis can be in the three possible
positions with respect to plane of its orbit.
Vertical
Horizontal
Oblique

PHENOMENA DUE TO THE OBLIQUITY OF THE EARTH: Days and nights are of
unequal length. The altitude of the midday sun varies at different periods of the years.
The seasons of two hemispheres are opposite.

EFFECTS OF THE OBLIQUITY OF THE EARTH: Days and nights would be of equal
length through out the years. There would be no change in the season the same season
would continue through out the year.

PHENOMENA OF SEASON: We experienced summer, winter spring and autumn during

a year. These changes are due to following caused:
1. Revolution of the earth around the sun.
2. Inclination of the earth’s axis at 66 and half to the plan of its orbit.
3. Pointing of earth’s axis always in the same direction the earth rotates in its axis in
same direction.
4. The earth’s axis is included to the plan of its orbit and always pointed in the same
direction with the result those six months in the year the North Pole is inclined to
ward the sun and for the next six months.

The South Pole is inclined towards the sun. This brings about the phenomena to of
season.

POSITION: There are four position of the earth are to be explain. The earth in this
position about 21 June now it is clear that the north pole in inclined toward the sun and
the South Pole is inclined away from it. The sunrays are perpendicular at the tropic of
cancer 23 and half north, and comparatively slanting in the southern hemisphere. The
major portion of northern hemisphere faces the sun and only miner portion is away from it.
Hence, in the northern hemisphere the days are longer than nights. Just opposite in the
case in the southern hemisphere when nights are longer and the days shorter.

Note: the position of the earth on the 21 of June is called the summer solstice this is
longest day of the year.

WHERE ARE DAYS AND NIGHTS IS EQUAL: Days and nights are equal through out
the years at the equator. That is both days and nights is of twelve hours duration.

REASON: The reason of this through out the course of the earth’s revolution round the
sun. One-half of the equators are always in the light and the other half is in the dark.
That is the circle of illumination always cuts the equator in the two equal parts. Hence the
days and nights are always equal at every point of equator.
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SIX MONTHS DAYS AND NIGHTS AT POLES: Due to obliquity of the earth is axis for
six months. That is from March 21 September 23 the North Pole is in inclined towards
the sun and always in the light. During this is inclined away from the sun and is though
out in the dark. Hence, it is day for six months at North Pole and nights at the South
Pole. But September 23 to March 21 the case is just the opposite. The North Pole is
inclined away form the sun and is in the dark while the South Pole being inclined
towards the sun is in the light. For this reason, the North Pole has six months nights
and the South Pole six-month days.

THE ATMOSPHERE:

COMPOSITION OF AIR: The two main component of air are oxygen and nitrogen which
are found in the ratio of 21:78 and part of other gases. In addition to these two air also
contains carbon dioxide, water vapor dust particle and a few other gases.

PRESSURE OF AIR: Air has weight and exerts pressure on the surface of the earth. It
has been calculated that at sea level. The pressure of air is generally 14.7 psi or 1 bar.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE: The pressure of air is measure by an instrument

called the barometer. It generally consists of a glass tube about 825 mm long. One end
is open and one end is close.

PRESENTATION OF PRESSURE ON MAPS: Pressure is represented on maps by

joining all places having the same pressure by mean of line. Theses lines are called
Isobar.

ISOBAR: Isobar is lines which join places having same average pressure at the same
time.

ISOTHERMS: These are lines which join places having the same average temperature for
a specified period. These lines do not represent the actual average temperature of a
place at sea level.

WIND: An Air move horizontally from one direction to another direction is called wind.
Winds are caused by the unequal pressure at different places of the earth. Just as water
maintains its level, same as air maintain pressure equivalence. To equalize this pressure
winds always below from region of high pressure to region of low pressure. For example
near the equator the air is always hot and its pressure is low. Therefore, the air from high-
pressure area north and south of the equator blows toward the equator.

KIND OF WINDS:

CONSTANT: These winds always below in the same direction. The trade wind and
antitrade wind.

PERIODICAL WIND: These winds below in one direction at a particular time or during a
particular season. Moon soon and the land wind and breeze
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VARIABLE WINDS: There are irregular winds at the cyclone and anti cyclone.

TRADE WIND: Trade winds are constant winds which below toward the equator.
Generally there winds blow from 30 n and 30 s toward the equator. In the northern
hemisphere their direction is north earth and in the southern hemisphere southeast.

FERREL’S LAW: A scientist pr. Ferrell discovered a law about fluids which know after
him feral law it is fluids winds currents turn to their right in the northern hemisphere and
turn to their left in southern hemispheres.

CHANGES:

CHANGE THE DIRECTION: In the northern hemisphere, every moving fluid turn to right
and in southern hemisphere to its left for the following season. The earth is not stationary
but rotates from west to east. The speed of this rotation is not uniform. It is greatest at
the equator being about 1648 km per hour. But goes on decreasing to wards the poles
where it is 0 km per hours. But goes on decreasing to words the poles where it is 0 km per
hours.

WIND VAN: The wind van is an instrument by which the direction of a wind can be
known. It is also called weather cock.

SEA BREEZE: Sea breeze is winds which blow from the sea to land by day. In the day
time the rays of the sun heat the pressure is reduced. The air on the sea is heavy and has
higher pressure. To equalize this pressure winds blow from the sea to the land, during the
day. These winds are called sea breeze.

MOON SOON Moon soon is periodical winds blow from sea to land for six months in
summer ands from land to sea for six month in winter.

CYCLONES Some times, it happens that a region has low pressure an account of the
heat. While the surrounding region has high pressure so the winds will blow from high
pressure region but due to rotation of the earth these winds blow in shape of circle. A
system of winds in which the winds blow spirally to wards a central region of low pressure
is called a cyclone.

ANTI CYCLONE Some time it is happen that a certain region has high pressure on
account of cold while surrounding region having low pressure due to heat. In this case
wind blow out wards and owing to the rotation of the earth. They assume a circular form.
This system of winds where the winds blow spirally out ward from central regions of high
pressure is called and anti cyclone.

THE HYDROSPHERE We see vast expenses of water on the surface of the earth. We
call such expanses water seas and ocean’s More than 71persent of the earth’s surface is
covered by water. The continents cover only 29% of the total area of the earth. This
expenses of water is called hydrosphere

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CONTINENTS Asia, Africa, Europe, North America, South America, .Australia, Antarctica
are covered by man All the continents accept Antarctica are covered by man. The
Antarctica still covered by snow.

OCEAN Large body of the water is called ocean. The pacific ocean, The Atlantic Ocean,
Indian Ocean, the Arctic ocean, the Antarctic ocean are chief ocean of the world. The
Pacific Ocean covers an area of 140800,000 square km. Which is the equal of area of
total land in the world? The Atlantic Ocean is the half of the above in size. The Indian
ocean covers in area of 2384000 square km. the artic ocean covers an area of 13824000
square km. The Antarctic ocean in circular the South Pole. The Atlantic Ocean pacific
ocean Indian Ocean are linked with up with it. The Antarctic frozen through the year and
little in important by the commercial point of view. The Atlantic which separates the
Europe from the new world ids most important from the commercial point of view.

LAKES A close body of water surrounded by land on all sides is called a lake. Some lake
is inland sea. Such as the Caspian Sea Where area is about half of the area of Pakistan.
The great lake situated on the frontiers of USA.

ISLAND: There are thousand of small and big island in the world. Greenland is about
twice in the size of Pakistan. The British island, Indonesia, Japan, news eland, and West
Indies are the most important groups of island in the world.

CONTINENTAL SHELF: Continental shelf is the part of country which is submerged

under the sea and where the water is not more than 1800 meter in depth.

ADVANTAGE OF CONTINENTAL SHELF:

1. The most important fisheries of the would are found in these shallow parts.
2. The tides are very high which are useful to trade.

WAVES: Waves are undulation of the surface of the sea and are caused by winds. The
practical of water in waves move up and down but do not move forward and backward.

CURRENT: The movement of water is call current when water moving horizontally.

TIDES: People living on the sea coast known that for six hours the sea water advanced
toward the coast and for the next 6 hrs it’s gradually recedes. Thus in 24 hrs the sea
water rises and fall twice. This flow and ebb of sea water twice in about 24 hrs in called
tide.

CAUSES OF TIDE: Tides are caused by the attraction of moon on the surface of water
and center of the earth. The moon attracts the seawater to its self-causing lied. The sun
much attracts but it is so far away from the earth. Its attraction is not actionable to pull the
sea water to its self. In the bay of funday (east coast of North America), tides some time
attain of height of 70 feet the highest tides in the world.

SPRING TIDES: Spring tides are tides where the rise and fall of water is above the
normal This accrue at new moon and full moon. In there today’s the sun the moon and the
earth are inline and have a combine pull.
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NEEP TIDES: These tides are where rise and face of water is below the normal state.
This occurs at the first and the third quarter of the moon In there days the sun and the
moon makes right angle with the earth with respect of each other.

ADVANTAGE OF TIDES

 Tides keep the sea water in motion thus the water never freezes.
 Tides wash away the gash of city lying near the coast.
 Tides especially help full to trade. The wash away all the mud which rivers brings near
there mouths.
 In high tide many things such as shell, conch are washed ashore.
BORE: The bore is a high wall of water which occasionally rushes up stream
from the mouth of a river. This generally takes place in the narrow funnel shaped mouth
of rivers. Some time a bore attains a height of 15mtr or even 18 meter. Bores are very
frequent in (Hugli city)

EQUATOR: The equator is an imaginary line round the glob having equal distance from
the two poles. It is 0’ latitude. Latitude measure from here.

MERIDIANS: Meridians are imaginary lines joint two poles and out the equation at
light angle.

LATITUDE: Latitude is the distance of a place north or south prom the equator along a
meridian. This distance uncaused in degree.
Sixty minutes make a degree and sixty se4conds makes minutes.

LONGITUDE: Longitude the distance of a place east or west of the prime meridian
along a parallel of latitude
This distance is measured in degree.

ADVANTAGE OF LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE It we know the lat and long of a place
we can locate its accurate positions. With the help of latitude we can find out the ever age
temperature of place. With the help of latitude we can find out the distance in mile of a
place from the equator. One degree of latitude is about one mile. We can find the local
time of a place with the help of latitude.

ANTI TRADE WIND These are constant winds which blow from 35o N to 60 N and
from 35 S to 60 S. In the northern hemisphere, their direction is southwest and in the
Southern hemisphere their direction. These winds are also called WESTRLIES. Because
in both hemispheres, it blows from west.

HOW TO FIND THE TIME It the longitude of two places are know and the local time
of one place is also known the local time of the other place can be find out in the following
way.

Find out the difference in degree between the longitudes of the place.
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
Multiply the differences by 4 the product will be show the difference between their local
time in minutes reduce it to hours.

If the place whose local time is required is to the east of the place whose local time is
known add this figure to the time already known and it lies to the west than subtract it.

Write AM or PM according as the time calculated is before or afternoon.

The longitude of Greenwich is 0 and midday means 12 o clocks.

LOCAL TIME: The local time of place is the time which is calculated according to the
moon. When the sun at any place is highest in the sky (midday). It should be considered
12 o clocks there. And the watches should be set the local time of that place.

STANDER TIME: Standard time is a uniform time adopted by all places over a certain
area with out regard to their local time.

THE DATE LINE: In traveling round the world, there occurs an error of one day. To avoid
this error a date line has been adopted, which is so called because ships crossing this line
change their date. The date line is an imaginary line roughly corresponding 0’ to 180’
meridian. Ship crossing this line from west to east repeats a day. That is if they cross it
on Monday December 10 in the other day ship crossing this line from east drop a day.
That is after Monday December 10 comes Wednesday December 12.

COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH

CRUST OF THE EARTH: According the opinion of some scientist that earliest age this
earth was glob of fluid, mater, and hot gases revolving round the sun. With the time, it
radiated its heat in to space and its outer position become coaled and solidified. This
hard solid portion of the earth is called its crust. It is now covered with soil. Scientists
have different views about the thickness of curst but the general view is that it is about
840 meter thick.

INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

No body has seen the interior of the earth is certain the interior of the earth is extremely
hot and heavy.

PROOFS OF INTERIOR OF EARTH IS HOT

At several places hot springs gush out from interior of the earth.
Volcanoes emit hot lava.
As we go deep down below from surface the temperature staidly rise.

THE NOTE
The oilier most position of the earth consisting of cloy, land vegetable. In vegetation can
grow is called the sell. The cruse is every where covered with soil has different depth t
different places.

ROCKS
All material on the crust of the earth, earth is composed are called rocks such as sand,
stone, clay, lava and hills.

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KINDS OF ROCK

IGNEOUS ROCKS Igneous rocks are those rocks which come out the cooking of the
molten mater which comes out from the interior of the earth. In some cases, lava cooled
and makes a solid object above the surface of the earth and some time it cooled at some
depth below the surface of the earth.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS OR AQUES ROCK OR STRATIFIED ROCKS: Sedimentary

rocks are those rocks which formed by the deposition of sediment brought by water and
wind. When the rivers flow, they bring mud and sand with self. This mud and sand form
these rocks above the surface of the rock above the surface of the water.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS: Clay and marbles are called metamorphic rocks. Which is in
reality limestone are called the metamorphic rocks.

CLASSIFICATION OF CHANGING AGENTS:

INTERNAL AGENTS: These are forces which works in the interior of the earth bring
changes on its surface. Such as contraction of the earth, volcanic action and earth quick,

EXTERNAL AGENTS: These are forces which work above the surface of the earth and
bring changes there such as water, air, winds, temperature.

CONTRACTION OF THE EARTH: The most important internal agent of changes is the
contraction of the earth. We know that the earth was hot and gradually cooling. As it
cools it contracts and occupies less space. This cause folds on the crust of the earth so
that some portion becomes valley and seas.

VOLCANIC ACTION: An other important internal agent of change is volcanic action. The
interior of the earth is so hot and sum of different materials. When this materials melt
there, due to heavy heat. Some time molten mater (lava) comes out from surface of the
earth where the crust is weak. This lava spread over the surface and forms a plateau.
This mass of lava grows big mountain. The deacon plateau is formed in this way.

EARTH QUACKS: Earthquake is also important agent of changes of the surface of the
earth. These earth quacks causes cracks and fissure on the surface. Some parts are
raised up while other are link down. Many towns are destroyed and changes take place.

VOLCANOES: Volcanoes are mountains which have formed by the accumulation of lava.
The hot matter that is lava in the interior of the earth is pressed down by the pressure of
the crust. When ever it find a weak spot in the crust, It comes out through a cracks or a
hole and accumulates round it. Gradually it cools and solidified. Lava builds up a conical
mountain. These mountains are called volcanoes.

EARTHQUAKE: The sudden violent shaking of a part of the earth is called an

earthquake. An earth quack is generally accompanied by rumbling of sound and tremors.

EFFECT OF EARTHQUAKES:
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 Many towns are destroyed and there is considerable loss of life and prosperity.
 Some places are submerged under the sea.
 Big cracks and fissured are formed on the surface of the earth which interrupt
communication.
 Sometimes rivers disappear or change their course.
 Precious metals and minerals come up the surface of the use of man.
 New lands for habitation appear above the surface of the sea.
 Some time new springs are formed.

SPRINGS: A spring is a place where water issues out from the ground of itself.

SNOW LINE: Snow line is the limit, above which snow never melts. The height of
snow line genially varies with latitude. At the equator it lies 5400 m above sea level. All
the poles it is at sea level.

GLACIERS: Glaciers are extremely slow moving river of ice.

ICE BERGS: Ice Bergs are huge blocks of ice that about the sea.

CANYON: A deep and narrow river valley with step banks is called a canyon. When
river flows in a rocky region with scanty rainfall. It gradually cuts away its bad while the
banks are remains intact. Thus a deep khud is formed. Such a deep khud with step
banks is called canyon.

DELTA: A delta is a triangular piece of land formed by the deposition of fertile

mud near the mouth of river.

GEYSERS: Geysers are hot springs which shoot up columns of boiling water at interval.
Geysers are hot spring of boiling water which shoot up from the ground at interval.

WATER VAPOUR IN THE ATMOSPHERE

EVAPORATION & CONDENSTION: Whenever water comes in contact with air in the sea
or a lake. It is being converted into water vapor is called evaporation. When this moist air
cools from any cause. It contains so much water vapor. Some of the vapor then
assumes a visible form.

NOTE: This conversation of water vapor in to visible form is called

condensation. Condensation takes places in many forms such as fog, Cloud hail, snow,
and dew.

FOG: When hot moist air comes in contact with cold air or cold water. It is cooled and
some of the water vapor condenses on the floating partial of dust in the atmosphere. This
is call fog.

MIST: Mist and fog are identical and are formed in the same. The only difference being
that in the mist the water particles are bigger. Mist is often found on mountain.
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CLOUDS: Clouds and fog are identical and are formed alike the only difference being
that clouds are formed in the ripper regions of the atmosphere. Dust particles are
necessary for the formation of clouds too.

DEW: At night every thing radiates heat which it has absorbed by day. Grass, flowers and
leaves radiates heat more quickly than may other things and thus become very cold.
When moist touches them, it also cooled and cannot hold the some vapor. It condoned
and deposited on these in form water vapor or drops. This is called dew.

RAIN GAUGE: The rainfall of a place is measure by means of an apparatus

called rain gauge.

WHY MOUNTAIN ARE COOLER THAN PLAINS: There are two important
reason that mountain are cooler than plains.
1. The air of the mountain is rare than the air of plains and contain a smaller number
of dust particles. The capacity of the air to absorb and retain heat depends on its density
and the number of dust particles. In the air of the mountains less heat than the air of the
plains. Due to rarity the mountain radiates heat very quickly at night. Which it has
absorbed by day. Thus night in the mountain are much cooler than the plains.

DIFFERENT BETWEEN OCEANIC CONTINENTAL CLIMATE: the climate of places

near the sea is called oceanic maritime. The different between the summer heat and
winter cold is very small. So that such places are nether very hot nor very cold in winter
and summer. The claimant of places far away from the sea is called continental extreme.
Hence the rang of temperature is very great. So that such places are extremely hot in
summer and extremely cold in winter. The different is due to fact that the water heats and
cools more slowly that land. Thus it equalizes the climate of the night boring areas.
Influence of the sea does not reach very fare inland.

CLIMATE OF EQUATORIAL REGION: This region lies between 5N and 5S on both

side of the equator. Conga basin, the Amazon basin and East Indies. The characteristic
of this region is that the rays of the sun fall nearly perpendicularly through out the whole
year and the temperature is high. The axes having this climate rain accrue daily almost.
Thus the region is hot moist through out the year. There is no cold season. The average
annual temperature is 80F and the average rainfall is two mile miter.

TROPICAL REGION: The region lies on both sides of the equator between 5N to 30N
and 5S to 30S in the northern hemisphere this region includes. Central America,
Venezuela, Sudan and Deccan. In the southern hemisphere, it includes.

1. South brazil
2. Zambezi basin
3. central Australia
Thus region has very short season of rainfall.

HOT DESERTS: The region lies on the both side of the equator between 20’ and
30’ and in the west of land masses (continents).
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FOREST IN PAKSITAN

THE BALOCHISTAN HILL FORESTS: In the Quetta and Kallat division we come
across day hill forest. Some Chilgnoze pine and pencil jumpers’ ménage to grow in this
area due to poor rainfall.

THE RIVERAIN OR BELA FORESTS: These are found along the river banks,
especially the lower Indus, Shishum, Kekar, Frash, Jand and babul, are important trees.

THE TIDAL FOREST: The extend from Karachi to Kuchh. There are coast land forest
grow grasses and a mangrove (type of vegetation). Which provides fuel wood as well
fodder for Karachi?

THE RAKH: All over the arid plain of Pakistan. We come across dry scrub forest. In
salted places for away from the town. The tree includes. Jand, Frash, Karel, These are
used for fuel.

FOREST IN INDIA

EVERGREEN FORESTS: Evergreen trees whose wood is very hard are found on the
slopes of the western chats. In Assam and in the water of Eastern part of the Himalaya
up to 5000 feet above sea level. The rainfall in these area is over 80’ inches in the years.

MOON SOON FOREST: These forest are found in area where rainfall in the year
ranges between 40 and 80 inch. The trees in these area shed there leaves in the dry
season and they are leafless for a part of year. These are very useful trees and gives
valuable timber. Teaks come from western chats and the western part of plateau. Sall
grows in the northeast of the plateau and along the lower slopes of the Himalayas. These
are reserved forest.

SUB FOREST: These forest are found in areas where the annually rainfall is
less than 1000mm. These forests seldom grow. A few trees that grow armed with thorns
to prevent evaporations of moisture. Some trees in these parts are only bushes that grow
apart. One of the more useful trees in these areas is the Acacia. Whose bark use for
tanning.

MOUNTAIN FOREST: If we go up of High Mountain we shall found evergreen,

coniferous forest or broad leaved forest. These forest supply Bharat valuable timber
deodar, kail, chil. The forest line is about 90 miles In Himalaya and 150 miles in the
southern Bharat.

ALPINE VEGETATION: Above the forest line maintain grasses, rohdendvons, bushes
and scrubs grew at great highest. There is perpetual snow.

DIFFERENT BETWEEN THE WEATHER CLIMATE: Weather means the condition of

the atmosphere of a place due to temperature, pressure, humidly for a particular time,
such as a day, a week. Climate is the average condition of weather under observation for
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a considerable period. The only different in the length of the period of observation.
Weather may change condition such as cloudy, rainy, dry, wet, and clear. But climate is
permanent and constant.

MEAN OF IRRIGATION IN PAKISTAN: Pakistan is an agricultural country. The

people of Pakistan depend upon the development and extension of irrigation system. Our
northern hilly area and foot hill have sufficient rays but 67% of the total area under the
crops is dependent upon irrigation. The most important of irrigation is canals. They feed
70% of area which need irrigation and from remaining 30% the 16% area gets supply of
water from the tube wells, aqueducts, and pound.

CANALS:

1. The upper Bari Doab and lower Bari Doab flow from Madhupur (India) and Boloki
head works respectively.
2. Upper Chenab and lower Chenab have been cut of from the Chanab at Marala and
Khanki respectively.
3. Upper Jehlam and lower Jehlam have been taken of from the Jehlam at Merla and
Mong Rasool respectively.
4. The Sutluge valley canals have been taken off by constructing dams at Ferozpur
(India). Sulmaniki, islam and Punjand. These are primal canal system. There are two big
dames and seven link canals have been dug under the Indus brain agreements.

THE LINK CANNAL: This is one hundred and twenty nine km long canal. It
constructed across the rave between bam ban wali and bedian to feed the branches of
the upper bari dhob when they come in Pakistan.

BALLOKI SALMANKI LINK: This is an 86 km long between the ravi and sutlug to
supply water in sutleg valley.

THE MARALA RAVI LINK: This canal is 96km long. It flows from marala on the
chanab to the ravi about 40 km up stream from shahdarah. It supply additional water for
the bloki and salmanki links.

WELL IRRIGATION: In the tehak area in the south of D G Khan and in the valley of
the Kabul River, Persian wheels are used to irrigate the fields. Canal cannot be taken to
these area, wells are in use even in canal irrigated area to supplement the canal supplies.
People now dug more sand more tube wells especially in area sub soil is found at great
depth.

KAREZ IRRIGATION: This irrigation is carried out by means of under ground channel
of water in balouchistan area. These are known as karez. Well are dug in the area
around the foot hill. They are interconnected through under ground pipes. This don to
avoid loss of water by corporation by there pipes water shifted from on places to other
places.

HOW CHANGES TAKES

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EXTERNAL AGENTS OF CHANGES

Temperature Temperature also plays a great part of bringing about change on

the surface of the earth. By days rocks are heated by the heat of sun and expands at
night they cool and contract. This construction and expansion break up the rock,. In dry
region especially in deserts. This action is very powerful, an account of the extremes of
temperature.

AIR AND WIND

The oxygen in atmosphere oxidizes the rocks which crumble and ear off.
Particle of sand in a storm act like sand paper. They strike against the rocks and wear
than away.
Strong winds away sands from one place to other.

PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Plants too are responsible for disintegrating rocks in the search of water and food their
roots spread in the rocks and break them up. Animals especially burrowing animals such
as earth worm, moles and ants also effecting agent of change. They bring to be surface
many ton f soil.

STAGE OF ‘RIVER

MOUNTAIN STAGE In this stage the slope of land is very steep. The river flows very
fast and breaks up rocks. At some places the river makes contracts and water falls which
can be use for generating of electricity navigation. Several small streams fall in to it and
increase the valium of its water.

PLAIN STAGE: In this stage river is generally slow and useful for navigation as
well as irrigation. Most of mud’s which the rivers bring from mountain stage deposited
here. The river is very useful in this stage many towns grow up on the bank of river.

DELTA STAGE: This is last stage of river. In this stage river is very slow. And it
deposits all the mud which it has brought with it. Level of its bed rises. Now it branches
off into several canals.

ARTESIAN WELL: An artesian well is that out of which water pushes out as in a
fountain.

RIFT VALLEY: A long and narrow valley formed by sinking of a portion of the earth is
called rift valley.

OCEAN CURRENT: Ocean current are so to say the rivers of cold and or warm water
flowing in an ocean. Their banks and beds also consist of water.

CONTINENTAL SLOPES: A part of ocean which is very prominent and when the
depth of water is from 180 mtr to 360 mtr. The ocean having depth 4800 mtr called deep
sea plain.
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LAND BREAZ: Land breezes are winds which blow from land to sea at night. At
the night the land cools much more quickly than sea. So the air of land is cold and heavy
and has high pressure. To equalize the pressure winds blow form high pressure region to
the low pressure region. So wind blow from land to sea at night. These winds are called
land breeze.

THE SUEZ CANAL:

 The Suez Canal is the biggest of it kind lays territory of Egypt.

 The canal connects Asia with Africa.
 It designed and constructed by a French engineer Ferdinand de hispid.
 It was opened for traffic in 1869.
 This canal passes through three lakes.
 Its average width is 90m and about 160 km long and its dept 10.8 m.
 Limited speed is in the canal for cargo ships is 6 knts. A cargo ships takes 15 hrs
to clear this canal.
 Deserts are lies on the both side of canal.
 By international agreement the canal is required to remain open to the commerce
for all country during peace and war alien.
 This canal connects the Mediterranean Sea with red sea.
COUNTRY BENEFITING: all most all countries except South America have benefited
from this canal. But the countries of west Europe. Mediterranean countries. East Africa.
Pakistan, bharat, Australia. Japan have befitted, much greater.

TRADE: Through this canal Asiatic countries especially Pakistan, bharat, china export
like wheat, rice, spices, tea, and coffee, and raw material cotton, oil seeds skins, teak,
wool, rubber. While Iran exports minerals, oil. Australia exports fresh meat, wheat, wool,
butter, wine, timber. European counties export cloth, glass wane, medicine, and
machinery to Asiatic counties.

PANAMA CANAL:

This canal lays in panama a state of Central America. It belongs to USA.

It constructed in 1914. this canal is 50 miles long 500 feet wide and 40 feet deep.
The ship takes 10 to 12 hrs to clear this canal.
This canal connects Pacific Ocean with Atlantic Ocean.
Both side of panama connected by railway line.

BENEFITING COUNTRIES: This canal primary benefited the USA while other counties
are south America, Japan, Austerities, new eland. Europe is not benefited in this canal
due to its trade with Aais, Australia, Africa.

TRADE: Through this canal western Europe and eastern USA export their
manufactured articles like cotton, woolen cloth, machinery, medicine and hard ward.

IMPORTANCE:
16
  This canal has brought eastern and western coast of north America nearer to each
other.
 This canal has reduced distance between several counties such a.
 Distance between New York and sanfransisco is about 9000 miles shorter due to
this canal.
 It has reduced about 4000 miles between Western Europe and sanfransisco.
 Distance between New York and Japan is about 4000 miles reduced.

SOIL EROSION: The area under cultivation in Pakistan is already very discouraging and
in addition. About 30,000, acres of has been victim of the problem of soil erosion, soil
erosion harms not only the land but corps as well forests are also gripped by this problem
because the roots of trees and plants become empty and loose due to soil erosion. They
either are fallen or drained by water. Due to attention has not yet been given to solve this
problem in Pakistan. Soil erosion in Pakistan, take place either through water or wind.
Moreover, there also the problem of land sliding. There is an acute shortage of domestic
fuel. The forests are cut in discremently, consequently. The oil that used to be bended by
the roots of trees and plant, become loose. The growth of trees is adversely affected due
to exertive grassing actively. The cultivators do not organize their farms properly. The
problem of soil erosion has reached on peak in the deserts and semi deserts area
because both water and wind erosion take place simultaneously.

FOREST IN PAKISTAN:

ALPINE FOREST: These forests are found on the northern mountains area. Such
as dear chitral, sawat, abbatabad, malakand. These are fairly high from surface of sea.
These are found at the height of 3000 feet while the evergreen forests are found at the
height of 5000 feet in balouchistan. Alpine forest included, Cherri, aloes, pine, keel cut.
While in the forest of balouchistan the trees included chighaza and chnari.

CENTRAL FOREST: These forests are found at mardan, kohat, jehlum, gujrat, and
attock districts. In which beer and Tory and trees are found excessively.

THE REVRIAN OF BELA FOREST: The forests that are grow either on the bank of
rivers. Or around there is called bela forest, when the rivers are flooded, a lair of fertile
soil is spread around the rivers where the forest are grown self. These forests are found
in the district of Gujarat, muzaffergarh, Lahore, shekupura. The trees of theses forest are
shishum, babule, beri, pronding wood for domestic dull and building.

RAKH FOREST: These forests comprise of through bushes and called rakh forest.
Rakh forest is found in the valley of sind. The wood of these forest are used as domestic
fuel or it is used in the herbal medicine. Such forests are planted at change manga, chichi
watni, pir wall and kessuwall.

GRASS FIELD: The average rainfall in Pakistan is less than 10 inches. This low
rainfall is the main cause for the grow and development of forest here.

ADVANTAGE OF FORESTS
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  Forest keep the crops safe from the intention of weather and our food and cash
crops remain safe.
 Forest provide building and decoration wood.
 Animal leaving in forest are the souse of meat and skin.
 Forest provide raw material such as match and sports goods.
 Different kind of fruit is achieved from the forest.
 The forest extracting co2 and provide o2 are which living being depends.
 The forests are very helpful to protect the land from erosion.
 The forest provide chemical to soil, keep the land fertile.
 Raw internal are achieved for making modern cloth.
 Herbal elements are also achieved.

MEANS OF IRRIGATION: Pakistan according to climate is a country where the

annual rainfall is less than 20 inches, agriculture is occupation of the majority of
population. Agriculture is the backbone of economy of Pakistan. A part from mountain
region the average rainfall is less than 5 inches. 38% of total area of Pakistan could be
cultivated but due to this reason, only 24% is currently being cultivated. If irrigation water
provided to far situated area the total under cultivation could be extended.

LIFT IRRIGATION: irrigation from well is the most ancient method of irrigation. The
area where the canal system is not found or rainfall is low. Well are used for irrigation of
crops.

POUNDS: The area where the land depressed and have bowl like surface. Rainwater is
stored up called pound. This store water could be used for irrigation purpose.

Karez: Irrigation through karez is the ancient method of irrigation in Pakistan which is
confined to the province of boalochistn only. Karez is the form of very narrow canal, from
the foundation of mountain where water reserves are found, karez through under ground
channel two to ten miles and than exposed.

CANALS: This artificial system of irrigation is extremely useful and the best irrigation
system. Best canal system is found in Pakistan in Asia. Maximum area of Punjab is
irrigated by the canal. Following three rivers are generated from rave:

1. Upper bari doab canal enter in Pakistan from the district gurdaspur in India.
But India stops it. Further was canalized by river chanab.
2. Lower bari doab canal has been canalized from baloki head works and irrigate
the area of okara, sahiwal and multan.
3. sidhni canal generated from sidhni barrage and irrigate land of district vehari
and multan.

UPPER JEHLUM CANAL: This canal starting from upper jehlum Head works joins
river chanab and provides excess water to lower chanab canal. This canal irrigates land
of district jehlum, Gujarat.

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LOWER JEHLUM CANAL: Lower jehlum anal generates from Rasool head works and
irrigate the land in district sargadha and Gujarat.

SUTLAJ VALLEY: The sutlaj valley canal has been taken by constructing dame at
Ferozepur, Sulmanki and pajnand.

MINERAL: The term minerals applied to all the things that are exerted from the ground
by digging. Theses things may be solid like coal, gold and iron and also be liquid like gas
and oil minerals are the natural gift of country. Which play key role in making the country
strong. It depends upon capabilities and abilities of the people of country.

DESERTS: A part from mountainous and plain area. There are some deserts areas also.
Although many desert area due to industrious former irrigation system, have been laid into
fertile areas. Some areas are there in the form of Low Mountain of san and deserts. The
deserts are free fro vegetation. Nothing is grow in these plain except thorny bushes.

THE DESERTS: This desert is comprised of the district of mainwali, bhakkar,

layya and mazaffargarh.

THARPARKER DESERT: This desert is composed by the deserts area of

therparker and mirpur khas.

NARA DESERT: The area that are located on the border of Khyber are included in the
desert of nara.

CHOLISTAN DESERT: The desert of cholistan comprised on one part of the Indian
desert area located in the south of Bahawalpur.

POWER RESOURCES:

Turbela project: Blocking of the water of Indus turbela dam has been constructed on it
at turbela as the biggest power production. This is the biggest earthen dam of Asia. It
has been constructed in the province of NWFP 32 mile far from attock. The length of this
dam 9000 feet. Width 485 feet while 500 feet longs lake is there on the back of the dam.
Work was started on this project in 1958 and it was completed in 1982. turbela dam is
multi purpose project which produce not only electricity but also provide irrigation water.
Fourteen electric generator which producing electricity 2000000 kw. Working on the dam.

MANGLA DAM: Mangla dam was constructed on the river Jehlum near Mangla. This
dam is capable to produce 3000.000 kw electricity. Which is used in the plain of river
Indus. The basic of purpose of construction of this dam is to store the water of jehlum.
There are five tunnels on the left bank of the dam and every tunnel is 1600 feet long and
diameter is 30 feet. The electricity produced by Mangla dam has been constructed to the
grid system of Pakistan. This project is providing 8000 mw electricity.

INDUSTRIES: The main industries of the Pakistan as under:

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COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY: Cotton textile no doubt is the biggest and the main
industry in occuping the strategic paksitan. In the industrial sector of the country. This
industices produces ¼ of the total industrial out put of the country. Forth 40%of the total
export earning is achieved through the export of textile. Immediate after independence of
Pakistan cloth was being importer have from other countries. The government of
Pakistan formed a committee to make this industry in 1978 with the corporation of
coordination of messers Warner industrial international. The main cotton textile center in
Pakistan jehlum, sargadha, mauzarrgarh, rehamyarkhan, d g khan, okara, Karachi,
Hyderabad, Peshawar, larkana, gumbat, haripur, naushara, qutta, charsaddah, lasbela.

ART SILK INDUSTRY: Art silk industry is one of the important industry in Pakistan.
Which is developing rapidly? There are two kind of silk Natural and real silk and second
is artificial or aryon. The natural silk is achieved from the silk warms. It is too much
expensive. This reason that Orion is mostly used. In the beginning, art silk production
was very low therefore silken cloth used to be imported. Pakistan is exporting the art silk
and silk yarn. The details of ant silk enter is given as under. Karachi is the beggest silk
cloth center, other silk center are, Hyderabad, habayyee, rove, sukhar, Faislabad, gujrat,
Lahore, multan, RWP, mingora, swat, saidu shrif, all of above the silk center in the
Pakistan.

JUTE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY: Jut in addition to goods packing internal, is

also a dependable and cheep internal, sand bags, strings are made of jut cotton, yarn,
cotton products, carpets, wheat, rice and other materials are packed in these bags.
These traditional packing bags are gradually being replaced by nylon, paper and cloth
bags. For instance, wheat flour and sugar is being in the cloth bags while cement is
packed in paper bags. Following are the jut production center in Pakistan. Jut mil are
producing at noorwala, jaranwala, mazaffargarh, shekupura, Multan, faislabad,
joaharabad, nausherah, Karachi and hub chocki.

SUGAR INDUSTRY: sugar industry is one of the important agro-based industries in

Pakistan. The raw material for this industry is sugar cane 2/3 of the total sugar produced
in the world is made of sugar cane and the remaining is made of beet. Although a large
amount of sugar can be produced in Pakistan. There ware two sugar mills in Pakistan
when it came in to being. But now state of mills of sugar in country as below. Takhatbai,
charsadds, bannu, peshwar, navsharah, jourhaabad, etc.

CEMENT INDUSTRY: Only two cement factories were working at the time of inception
of Pakistan in 1947 with a total annual production capacity of 480,000 tones. Both these
units were owned by dalmia and associate company of Bombay. The first cement factory
was e4stablished by PIDC in dowood khel with the name of Naples leaf cement with a
production capacity of 25,000 tones. The second factory zeal PAK cement was
established at Hyderabad. The production capacity of this factory was low in the
beginning but it was increased gradually and presently 18 million tones in year. The
cement center has been established at wah, Islamabad, dowooe khel, Karachi, rohvi,
sukhar, Hyderabad, thatta, rawalpindi.

CHEMICAL FERTILIZER: Fertilizer is an important factor for boosting the

producing of agriculture sector. Three kind of fertilizer are used in Pakistan. Cow-dung
20
manure green manure and chemical fertilizer. Due to industry and shortage of two kind
most of the chemical fertilizer factories are running under PAK American fertilizer, dowood
khel, lylepur, C.F Faisalabad, Jaranwala, Multan, Bahawalpur, hazar, machi ghot, derki,
shekurpur.

CHEMICAL INDUSTRY: Chemical industry is a comprehensive term in which various

industries could be included like insecticides, pesticides, soap, sanitation, medicines,
varnish, paints, colors, sulphric acid, caustic soda, ash soda. Some important chemical
industries are saushare kherwar, harchi, rawalipnidi, jaranwala, dawood khel.

CROPS

RICE: After remaining former East Pakistan as Bangladesh emerged and very important
food crops. Pakistan maintain fifth position on the global bases in the rice production.
Although rice is the food of one third population of the world but the people in Pakistan
prefer wheat over the rice to eat. Three kind of rice produced in the country. Basmati,
desi, and irri. Rice production in gujranwala, shakupur, sialkote, sahiwal, Lahore, multan,
bhawaalpur, larkana.

BARLEY: Barley is the low grade grain synonymous to the wheat and which is the diet
of extremely poor people. The farmers use mixing it in the flour of grain and maiz. The
main regions of barley production of, gujranwala, aialkot, gujrat, masinwali, attock,
mauzaffargarh, hazara, mardan, Peshawar, and thatta.

MAIZE: Maize is the crop of khans which is not only the food crop for the human but it
is also used as cattle feed. Maize is not used as the important food grain in Pakistan, but
taken as the pant of the food of poor population and that is why its important is not like
than of rice or wheat. The main cultivating areas in Attock, RWP, Jehlum, Gujrat,
Shekrpur, Gujranwala, etc.

MELLETS: A pant from being the food of poor population millets is also b grade food
crop. Both Jawar and Bajra, do not require neither more water not good soil. Millet is
also used as cattle food. There is corps of Khanif.

GRAM: Gram is used as human food and cattle feed. Gram is used as vegetable prior to
its ripening in green form. The leaves of the plant of gram are used as vegetable (Saag).
The gram flour is used for making bread and pikoras. Gram cultivated in the Mianwala,
Mazaffargarh, D G Khan, Khairpur, Gahawalpur, Hyderabad, Thatta.

OIL SEED: Oil seeds refer to the seeds from which oil is extracted. These seeds include
Rap Seeds ground nuts. Mustered seeds tore Soya been, sun flower and cotton seeds.
For the production of oil seeds are Khairpur Multan Bahawalnagar, Sargodha, Peshawar
Rawalpindi, Kohat and Sangarh.

PULES: Pulses are the important source of providing proteins in the human Deit the main
pulses cultivated in Pakistan include from Masroor, Moong, Mash, gram. For the
production of pulses in Sargadha, Mainwali, Bannu, D I Khan, Dir, Sialkot, Kohat, Gujrat,
Jehlum, Attock and Sindh.
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