Mathematics Education in Iran

From Ancient to Modern

Yahya Tabesh
Sharif University of Technology

Shima Salehi
Stanford University

1. Introduction
Land of Persia was a cradle of science in ancient times and moved to the modern Iran through
historical ups and downs. Iran has been a land of prominent, influential figures in science, arts and
literature. It is a country whose impact on the global civilization has permeated centuries. Persian
scientists contributed to the understanding of nature, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy, and
the unparalleled names of Ferdowsi, Rumi, Rhazes, al-Biruni, al-Khwarizmi and Avicenna attest
to the fact that Iran has been perpetually a land of science, knowledge and conscience in which
cleverness grows and talent develops. There are considerable advances through education and
training in various fields of sciences and mathematics in the ancient and medieval eras to the
modern and post-modern periods.

In this survey, we will present advancements of mathematics and math education in Iran from
ancient Persia and the Islamic Golden Age toward modern and post-modern eras, we will have
some conclusions and remarks in the epilogue.

2. Ancient: Rise of the Persian Empire

The Land of Persia is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations, beginning with its formation
in 3200–2800 BC and reaching its pinnacle of its power during the Achaemenid Empire. Founded
by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC, the Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent comprised major
portions of the ancient world.

Persian Empire

1
Governing such a vast empire was, for sure in need of financial and administration systems. In the
1930s, researchers from the Oriental Institute of the Chicago University found more than 30,000
clay tablets in Persepolis (capital of the Achaemenid Empire). Tablets provided information about
the finance and administration systems, and they utilized weights and enumeration models,
arithmetic and accounting systems. Besides arithmetic and numerical systems, geometry also had
been used extensively in architecture to construct buildings and cities such as Persepolis. There is
no evidence about any educational system or educational institute in the empire, but seems there
had been some hands on and in service trainings.

In the ancient period, the only evidence of a structured educational state was in Gondishapur
Academy during the Sasanian dynasty (224-650 AC). The Academy of Gondishapur was one of
the most important learning institutes in the ancient time. It was the intellectual center of
the Sasanian Empire and offered training in medicine, philosophy, theology and science. The
faculty was versed in the Zoroastrian and Persian traditions. No evidence of mathematics or math
education has been remained but there are some references to a “Royal Astronomical Tables”
which indicates that reasonable amounts of math had been developed to provide such astronomical
tables.

3. Medieval: The Golden Age

Muslim conquest of Persia led to the end of Sasanian Empire in 651, but after two centuries of the
Arab rule, semi-independent and independent Iranian kingdoms began to appear, and by the
Samanid era in the 9th and 10th centuries, the efforts of Iranians to regain their independence had
been well solidified.

The blossoming literature, philosophy, medicine, arts and sciences of Iran became major elements
in the formation of a new age for the Iranian civilization, during the period known as the Islamic
Golden Age. The Islamic Golden Age reached its peak by the 10th and 11th centuries, during which
Iran was the main theater of the scientific activities. After the 10th century, the Persian language,
alongside Arabic, was used for the scientific, philosophical, historical, musical, and medical
works, where the important Iranian scientists such as Tusi, Avicenna, and al-Biruni, had major
contributions. Mathematics was also in the center of scientific development in the Golden Age and
many original math works developed accordingly.

The history of mathematics during the Golden Age of Islam, especially during the 9th and 10th
centuries, built on Greek mathematics and Indian mathematics but saw important development,
such as full development of the decimal place-value system to include decimal fractions and the
first systemized study of algebra, as well as advances in geometry and trigonometry.

2
One major contribution came from Mohammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who played a
significant role in the development of algebra, algorithms, and Hindu-Arabic numerals in the 9th
century. Al-Khwarizmi’s contributions to mathematics, geography, astronomy, and cartography
established the basis for innovation in algebra and trigonometry. His systematic approach to
solving linear and quadratic equations led to algebra, a word derived from title of his 830th book
on the subject, “The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing”.

On the Calculation with Hindus Numerals written circa 825, was principally responsible for
spreading the Hindu-Arabic numeral system throughout the Middle east and Europe. It was
translated into Latin as Algoritmi de Numero Indorum. Al-Khwarizmi rendered as (Latin)
Algoritmi, which led to term “algorithm” in computer science.

Al-Khwarizmi provided exhaustive account of solving polynomial equations up to the second

degree and discussed the fundamental methods of “reduction” and “balancing”, referring to the
transposition of terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on
opposite sides of an equation.

A page from al-Khwarizmi’s Algebra

Al-Khwarizmi’s method of solving linear and quadratic equation worked by first reducing the
equation to one of the six standard forms and by dividing out the coefficient of the square. By
using the two operation al-jabr (“restoring” or “completion”) and al-muqabala (“balancing”), he
developed a methodology for solving equations.

Another famous mathematician of the 11th century is Omar Khayyam, who wrote the influential
book Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra (1070), which laid down the principles
of algebra and derived general methods for solving cubic equations and even some higher orders.

In the Treatise, he wrote of the triangular arrays of binomial coefficients also known as Pascal’s
triangle. In 1077, Khayyam wrote Sharh ma Ashkala min Musadarat Kitab Uqlidis (Explanations

3
of the Difficulties in the Postulates of Euclid) published in English as “On the Difficulties of
Euclid’s Definitions”. An important part of the book is concerned with Euclid’s famous parallel
postulate, and Khayyam’s advances and criticisms may have contributed to the eventual
development of non-Euclidean geometry.

As a mathematician, Khayyam has also made fundamental contributions to the philosophy of

mathematics especially in the context of Persian Mathematics and Persian philosophy.

Another significant Persian mathematician and astronomer in the medieval period of the 14th
century was Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid Mas’ud al-Kashi. Al-Kashi developed great contributions
in numerical systems and approximation methods. In his famous book The Treatise on the Chord
and Sine, al-Kashi computed sin 1° to nearly as much accuracy as his value for 𝜋, which was the
most accurate approximation of sin 1° in his time and was not surpassed until 16th century. In
algebra and numerical analysis, he correctly computed 2𝜋 to 9 sexagesimal digits, and he
converted his approximation of 𝜋 to 17 decimal place of accuracy. Al-Kashi also developed and
used both decimal and sexagesimal fractions with great ease in his Key to Arithmetic.

Al-Kashi’s work included astronomy as well. He wrote the Treatise on Astronomical

Observational Instruments, which described a variety of different instruments, and he invented the
Plate of Conjunctions, an analogue computing instrument used to determine the time of day by
using linear interpolation techniques. Al-Kashi also invented a mechanical planetary computer
which he called the Plate of Zones, which could graphically solve a number of planetary problems,
including the prediction of the true positions in longitude of the Sun, Moon, and planets in terms
of elliptical orbits, the latitude of the Sun, Moon, and planets, and the ecliptic orbit of the Sun.

In the Golden Age, for scholars training including mathematicians, there existed scientific
institutes. In 832, the famous House of Wisdom was founded in Baghdad, there the methods of
Gondishapur were emulated and many mathematicians and scientists attracted and joined. Some
scholars produced original research in the House of Wisdom for example, al-Khwarizmi worked
in House of Wisdom for development of his contribution on algebra. In the northern and central
parts of Iran there were also libraries under support of Persian kingdoms where intellectual and
scholar training centers and many important scientists and mathematicians were housed and
supported. There is no evidence of any educational system or institute other than scholarly training
under supervision of scientists and mathematicians.

In the eleventh century Nezamiyeh Institutes were founded as a group of the medieval institutions
of higher education by Khwaja Nezam al-Mulk (the prime minister in the Sejukian era, the title of
Nezamiyeh derived also from his name). Nezamyieh institutes were among the first well organized
institutions of higher learning in Iran. The quality of education was among the higher in the Islamic
world, and they were even renowned in Europe. The royal establishments of the Seljukian empire

4
and elite class supported them financially, politically, and spiritually. The Nezamiyeh institutes
placed more emphasis on religious studies but science, mathematics and astronomy also were
considered.

In 1219, Iran suffered a devastating invasion by the Mongol army of Genghis Khan. The Mongols
violence and depredations killed up to three-fourth of the Iran’s population of the Iranian, as
libraries were burned and a civilization was destroyed. Following the demise of the Mongol
Empire in 1256, Hulagu Khan, grand son of Genghis Khan, established the Ilkhanate in Iran. In
1370, yet another conquer, Timur, followed the example of Hulagu, establishing the Timurid
Empire that lasted for another century and half. The Ilkhans and Timurids soon came to adopt the
customs of the Iranians, choosing surround themselves with a culture that was distinctively the
customs of the Iranian. Nevertheless, the scientific establishments never reached to the pre-
Mongolian in Iran.

4. Modern Era: Post Mongolian

In the 1500s the Safavi Empire reunited Iran, and European industrial products touched the Iranian
market, but for more than three centuries, no approach for any reform in educational systems could
be seen. Theological education dominated the traditional schools, which caused math and science
education to hold little value.

Three centuries later, the Russo-Persian war ended in 1828 by the Turkmenchay treaty. Russia
completed the conquering of all Caucasian territories from Iran, having previously gained Georgia,
Dagestan, and most of contemporary Azerbaijan through the treaty of Gulistan in 1813. After
losing the wars, the government officials understood that military losses were due to a lack of
modern science and technology, so they dispatched a group of students to Europe to be trained in
modern sciences. The next top down approached was performed by Amir Kabir, the reformist
prime minister of the mid 19th century. He established Dar ul-Funun in 1851 as the first modern
higher education institute in Iran. Emphasis was placed on medicine, science and military training,
but a modern approach to math education was also in agenda. The public educational system was
limited to the traditional elementary schools with emphasis on Arabic and Persian literatures and
without much focus on mathematics teaching just arithmetic and a special accounting system
called Siaq. The next bottom up approach was made in 1887 by Mirza Hassan Roshdiyeh who
founded the first modern elementary school in Tabriz in the northwest of Iran. Later in 1897 he
established the first modern elementary school in the capital Tehran, but there was still no
establishment for the inclusive modern educational system.

In 1906, the constitute revolution caused more new approaches to be made toward reforming the
traditional systems. In 1909, the second parliament passed a bill to establish the Ministry of
Maearif (culture and science) and to officially establish educational systems including elementary
and high schools and also higher education. As a result, elementary and high schools founded

5
nationwide. Teaching and learning mathematics were core value of the new system, to train more
needed teachers including math teachers, the Teachers College was established in 1920.

Teachers College (Tehran)

Teachers College trained professional math teachers; the curriculum included psychological and
teaching skills too.

In 1921, the parliament passed another bill to dispatch 100 students annually to Europe for five
years to be trained in modern science and technology which included mathematics and math
education. Some educated mathematicians and math educators became pioneering leaders in math
education reform by developing new curriculums and writing math textbooks at all levels.

In 1934 Tehran University was established as the first modern higher education institute in Iran.
Some smaller independent colleges also joined the new university including the Teachers College.
Tehran University trained many professional mathematicians and also math teachers.

In 1941 Iran was occupied by the Allies troops during World War II, but after the war ended in
1948 new universities in major cities as Mashhad, Tabriz, Isfahan, and Ahvaz established.
Mathematics came to be considered one of the most important majors, and many math teachers
taught nationwide. In the 1960s new universities as Aryamehr (Sharif) University of Technology
and Pahlavi (Shiraz) University were founded. New universities reformed the educational system,
creating new approaches in the math curriculum that impacted the math curriculum in the pre-
university level as well.

The pre-university educational system started with six years of elementary and six years of
secondary schools. In elementary school, arithmetic and basic concepts of geometry were taught,
in the secondary level subjects such as algebra, geometry, pre-calculus and calculus were covered.
In algebra and pre-calculus and calculus, courses were primarily based on numerical and symbolic
calculation, but in geometry logical thinking and deductive reasoning were in agenda. In the 1960s

6
the educational system was reformed to comprise five years of elementary, three years of middle
and four years of high school. The worldwide Modern Math approach in the 1960s also impacted
the math curriculum. Causing subjects such as set theory and logic to appear in textbooks.

The Iranian Mathematical Society was also established in the late 1960s and gathered
mathematicians as well as math teachers in annual conferences to discuss future advancements in
mathematics.

5. 21st Century: Post Modern Era

In this 21st century the youth majority of the Iranian population is eager for progress and looking
for empowerment in the knowledge-based economy. More than 5% of Iran’s population of 80
million are college students, and almost half of them are girls. The number of K12 students reached
20 million students in the early 2000, but it has comedown in 2015 to 12 million students, almost
15% of the population. Mathematical literacy is at the heart of the educational system, both in K12
and college level. Some highlights about the educational system and math education follow.
• The Ministry of Science, Research and Technology is responsible for higher education and
research as well as technological development. The Ministry of Education is responsible
for K12 education.
• There are over 100 public universities and 300 private colleges in Iran. Also, Azad private
university and vocational colleges are established in most of major cities. Four and half
million students lie at the college level. There are almost 100,000 math major students in
undergrad and graduate levels.
• Teachers University and most major universities offering a math teaching degree in the
undergrad level. Math education programs in the MSc and PhD levels is also offering.
• PhD programs in mathematical sciences and math education since late 1980s has
institutionalized research in math and math education. Researches has been supported
widely by the public research institutes. More than 5,000 research papers have been
published in the period of 2008 to 2014 in the fields of mathematical sciences.
• The Institute for Research in Fundamental Sciences (previously the Institute for Studies in
Theoretical Physics and Mathematics, often shortened to IPM) established in the late
1980s and is a major sponsor of research in mathematical sciences nationwide.
• The Iranian Mathematical Society, as a professional association is supporting math and
math education through conferences, workshops and seminars also publications. The
annual Math Conference over the last five decades and biyearly Math Education
Conference are the most important conferences. The Bulletin of the Iranian Mathematical
Society, the most important research journal, Farahang-o-Andisheh Riazi the expository
journal and a monthly newsletter are the most important publications of the society. Iranian
Mathematical Society also organizes a yearly student conference and math competition
among the undergraduate math students, each university can participate with a team of

7
 five students in the competition and top teams are supported to participate in the
International University Students Math Contest.
• The Iranian Statistical Society, also established in 1990. The society is organizing
conferences and publishing journals for scientists and professionals.
• The Iranian Math Teachers Association is a nationwide professional association with most
math teachers as members in the local chapters. Local chapters organizing seminars and
workshops and publishing journals. Association also is co-sponsor of the biyearly math
education conference which is the largest gathering of math teachers in Iran.
• There are more than one million teachers in more than 100,000 schools nationwide, of
which more than 90% are public schools.
• The national curriculum is in the form of 6 years of elementary and 6 years of high school.
Math for all students constitute 3 to 5 hours of each school week up to grade 9. Specific
branches are taught in grades 10 to 12: math-physics, natural sciences, humanities and
vocational training. 10 to 12 hours of math courses are taught per week for math-physics
and 3 to 5 hours for others.
• Number systems, arithmetic and basic geometry are covered in the elementary level, while
algebra, pre-calculus, calculus, combinatorics, probability and geometry are covered in
high school.
• Standard textbooks at the national level are provided and published by the ministry of
education at over 120 million copies per year. The private publishers publish enrichment
books.
• Online and digital learning systems are currently progressing rapidly; maktabkhoneh.org
and kelasedars.org are some of the most popular for math courses.
• The National Organization for Development of Exceptional Talents (NODET) was
established in 1976 to support gifted students in special schools in the middle school and
high school levels nationwide. NODET is supporting math education through advanced
enrichment courses.
• The Iranian Mathematical Olympiad is a math contest for high school students organized
since 1985 by the Young Scholars Club under the support of the Ministry of Education.
Iran’s team participated in the International Math Olympiad for the first time in 1987 in
Cuba and received just one Bronze medal, but math contest at the high school level quickly
became very popular among high school students. Nowadays, with almost 100,000
applicants annually, through three rounds of contests the national team of six students is
selected to participate in the International Math Olympiad. In the last three decades, they
usually end up in top 10 and ranked first in 1998 with five gold medals and one silver
medal. The Math Olympiad as an extra curricular activity has attracted many talented
students to mathematical studies which empowered them beyond the standard curriculum.
• Math journals have also had a deep influence in the popularization of mathematics and
extra curricular math education. The math journal called Yekan started publishing in the
1960s and for two decades it was the most popular journal. Recently Roshde Amoozesh

8
 Riazi, and Nashri Riazi and many other local and nationwide math journals have also
attracted many interested students and math teachers.
• Math House is a unique community center for extra-curricular activities in mathematics
for students. Empowering and attracting youth to mathematical sciences are primary
objectives of Math House. Students are attracted to participate in workshops and seminars
and join project groups to develop basic and new concepts in group projects to present in
Math Fests quarterly. The first math house was established in Isfahan in the central part of
the country in year 2000 in the occasion of the World Mathematical Year-2000. Now,
more than 30 math houses are established in major cities.

• The mathematics movement in Iran is flourishing in the 21st century and Iranian
mathematicians are influencing the world by developing mathematical sciences. These
achievements are reflected in various ways, such as the most prestigious Fields medal
awarded to Maryam Mirzakhani, the first women to ever earn the medal. Maryam did her
middle school and high school studies in Iran and, as a gold medalist in the International
Math Olympiad finished her undergrad in mathematics in the Sharif University of
Technology in Iran. She later received her PhD from Harvard University and served as a
professional mathematician.

6. Epilogue
In the long journey that is Iranian math education, from the ancient period to the post modern era,
there are many lessons that can be learned but to look forward for further advancement of math
education, we can look at some obstacles and how to overcome them.

There are two main obstacles in the Iranian educational system as well as math education. First
the system is centralized and non-flexible. Second, the system is heavily test oriented and focused
on memorization, which can hinder students’ creativity.

We may consider a vision of a knowledge-based society and may consider the following issues to
reform math education and the educational system as a whole:
• Decentralization, flexibility and diversity
• Devolution of decision power and responsibility to the local level
• Commitment to a culture of trust through professionalism

9
 • Equal educational opportunity
• Look for broad knowledge as new skills are needed
• Emphasizing problem solving in math education
• Developing an experimental learning system in math learning
• Pushing a system that courage learners to be active partners and just not passive receivers
• Developing a project based and inquiry based learning system
• Developing a systematic, flexible and individual support system
• Technology should be used as an enabler for interactive and personalized learning

The motto of the educational system in Iran is a best highlighted by Iranian poet Ferdowsi, who
says “knowledge is power”. Let us hope this education gives power for peace and friendship all
over the world.

Knowledge is power

Reference
[1] Cameron, Gorge C., Persepolis Treasury Tablets, The University of Chicago Press 1948.
[2] Fisher, William B. et all., The Cambridge History of Iran, Cambridge University Press
1989.
[3] Taghizadeh, S. Hassan, History of Science in the Golden Age, Tehran University Press
1957.
[4] Nasr, S. Hossein, Science and Civilization in Islam, ABC International Groups Inc. 2007.
[5] Schlegel, Flavia et all., UNESCO SCIENCE REPORT, Toward 2030, UNESCO 2015.
[6] Iran Statistical Report, Iran Stat Organization 2014.

10