Initial Lecture

Evaluation of uncertainty
in measurements

Rafał Tarakowski
[email protected]

Laboratory of Physics I
Faculty of Physics
Warsaw University of Technology

https://docs.pw.edu.pl/3/clfpw/SitePages/Home.aspx
 Regulations of the Central Laboratory of Physics

I. General rules
1. The laboratory aims to experimentally verify the fundamental physical laws, practical
familiarization with the basic techniques of taking measurements and measuring instruments,
analysis of measurement results, and their presentation methods.
2. There are 3 class hours for one laboratory.
3. Each experiment has its position in the laboratory with the necessary equipment.
4. The supervisor's permission and presence are required to turn on the electrical devices and
turn them off after completing the experiment.
5. Leaving the stand during classes is prohibited without the supervisor's permission.
6. The student bears full financial responsibility for damage to the instruments caused by their
fault.

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

II. Order regulations

1. You have to be on time. Students coming late (more than 15 minutes) must consider that they may
not get permission to admit the laboratory.
2. It is prohibited to enter the laboratory rooms in outer clothing and bring large bags, backpacks and
suitcases. Students should leave their outer clothes, large luggage, umbrellas, etc. in the cloakroom.
3. Eating, drinking, and smoking in the laboratory are prohibited.
4. The use of mobile devices is allowed only for purposes related to the experiment.
5. It is prohibited to modify measuring systems.
6. It is not allowed to close electrical circuits before the supervisor checks them.
7. Students may start the exercise only after obtaining the supervisor's permission.
8. After completing the measurements, turn off the power and tidy up the workplace. The measuring
set may be disassembled only after the supervisor approves the results.
9. The computer equipment in the laboratory can be used only for experiments. Any other actions
(e.g., using your storage device and programs other than those indicated) are prohibited.
10. Students who perform exercises with radiation sources must familiarize themselves with the
relevant regulations.
11. In exceptional cases not covered by these regulations, the supervisor in consultation with the head
of the laboratory makes decisions.

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

III Organization of laboratory work
1. Laboratories are performed in teams of two or three (unless the supervisor decides to work
independently). The division into lab teams is made during the first class.
2. Transferring a student to another laboratory group is possible only with the permission of the head of
the laboratory in exceptional and justified cases, considering the laboratory's possibilities.
3. Students whose names are not on the dean's lists should provide information from the dean,
including their approval to participate in laboratory classes and the number of the dean's group to
which they will be assigned.
4. The topics of experiments planned by each team during the semester are decided after the first
classes and will be made open to students with all teachers' consultation dates.
5. The student should prepare a protocol on an A4 sheet of paper before starting the classes
according to the pattern provided. The information table on the report's first page should be filled.
The results of the measurements with the appropriate units should be written down in the form of
tables. The protocol must be readable and the measurement results recorded indelibly.
6. Students should obtain the supervisor's signature on the protocol before leaving the laboratory. The
report without the supervisor's signature is invalid.
7. Instructions for the experiments should be downloaded from the laboratory's website or sources
indicated by the supervisor. The student's team should have at least one copy of the instructions during
the classes.
8. Follow the recommendations from the instructions during measurements. In case of doubts, ask the
supervisor for help.
Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology
9. Students prepare a report (one per team) based on the results in the report. Each team member is
responsible for the report.
10. The supervisor collects the report (with the attached protocol) during the following classes.
Reports without a protocol will not be accepted.
11. Students can clarify doubts during consultations with the supervisor before submitting the report.
12. Submitting the report with delay is possible, but it lowers the final exercise grade (each week of
delay lowers the exercise grade by one). Reports submitted with a delay of more than three weeks
will cause failure to pass the exercise. The report on the last exercise should be submitted within one
week.
13. The supervisor should put the grade on the list before the following classes.
14. The supervisor gives feedback 15 minutes before the end of the classes or during consultations.
The report may be corrected only once. The improved report must be submitted with the previous
version in the following classes.
15. Assessed reports with protocols are kept at the laboratory office until the last day of the
examination session.

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

IV Passing rules
1. A complete set of checked and assessed reports is required to pass the laboratory.
2. The final grade for the experiment consists of a preliminary test grade and a report grade.
3. Students take a preliminary test that includes:
a) general information from the fields of physics to which the experiment relates
b) detailed information on the phenomenon
c) knowledge of the measurement method used in an experiment
A student with an unsatisfactory grade on the preliminary test may conditionally conduct the experiment.
The test may also be held at the end of the class and include the issues discussed during the class.
4. The report should contain:
full title of the experiment
b) a short theoretical part (basic definitions and formulas, the aim of the experiment)
c) diagrams of measuring systems
d) tables with measurements results
e) legible graphs with marked measurement uncertainties
f) calculations of quantities and measurement uncertainties with appropriate units
g) results, which enables their discussion and comparison with theoretical / table values
h) physical interpretation of the results and conclusions based on the analysis of the results and
uncertainties

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

5. The protocol reader should understand what has been done, the results, interpretation and conclusions
from the experiment without excessive effort.
6. Using in the report fragments of text from other people's works, the Internet, books, instructions, etc.,
or diagrams and drawings without providing references will be treated as plagiarism. The supervisor
may verify the report preparation's independence before giving the final grade. Plagiarism results in
failure to pass the entire course. In the case of teamwork, all authors take responsibility.
7. A report without measurement results, uncertainty calculus, or conclusions results in the need for
improvement.
8. To pass the course is required to obtain positive grades from all the exercises performed. One failed
experiment could be retaken in the additional term.
9. The maximum score for the experiment is 10 points — 3 for the test and 7 for the report. To pass
the laboratories, students must get more than half the points.
10. All experiments are obligatory. Absences:
a) unexcused absence from laboratory classes causes failure to pass the experiment
b) one exercise missed due to an excused absence can be performed in the additional term
11. If the laboratory course is not a separate subject (e.g., combined with a lecture or is part of another
subject), the rules of passing are determined by the professor of the subject.

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Safety Regulations in Cental Laboratory of Physics

I. General rules

1. The Central Laboratory of Physics order regulations define the basic formal laws, rules of conduct
and health and safety requirements when using the laboratory's resources.
2. It is prohibited to enter the laboratory rooms in outer clothing and bring large bags, backpacks and
suitcases. Students should leave their outer clothes, large luggage, umbrellas, etc. in the cloakroom.
3. It is prohibited to bring or consume meals and drinks in the laboratory.
4. Students whose condition indicates the consumption of alcohol or other intoxicants will be removed
from the laboratory.

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Safety Regulations in Cental Laboratory of Physics
II. Order regulations
Students participating in the laboratory are exposed to electric shock and the harmful effects of laser,
microwave and ionizing radiation. Students are required to exercise caution.
1. Students should know the location of the main switch and other switches that enable immediate
disconnection of the workplace from the power source.
2. The laboratory should be performed at the position indicated by the supervisor. Using equipment
other than that assigned to the exercise is not allowed.
3. The equipment should be supervised throughout the exercise.
4. The measuring system should be connected in a lucid manner, which facilitates control. Students
must check that the autotransformers, potentiometers and other controls are set to their minimum
positions and that the measuring instruments are set to their maximum ranges before switching on the
power.
5. Computer-controlled measuring systems should be set up following the supervisor's guidelines. It is
not allowed to install software and connect peripheral devices without the supervisor's consent.
6. The supervisor checks the correctness of the measuring systems and, together with the laboratory
group, turns on the power. Students are not allowed to turn on the power independently, regardless of
the voltage of the power source. Each change of the measuring system requires rechecking.

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Safety Regulations in Cental Laboratory of Physics
II. Order regulations
Students participating in the laboratory are exposed to electric shock and the harmful effects of laser,
microwave, and ionizing radiation. Students are required to exercise caution.
1. Students should know the location of the main switch and other switches that enable immediate
disconnection of the workplace from the power source.
2. The laboratory should be performer at the position indicated by the supervisor. Using equipment other than
that assigned to the exercise is not allowed.
3. The equipment should be supervised throughout the exercise.
4. The measuring system should be connected in a lucid manner, which facilitates control. Students must
check that the autotransformers, potentiometers, and other controls are set to their minimum positions and that
the measuring instruments are set to their maximum ranges before switching power.
5. Computer-controlled measuring systems should be set up following the supervisor's guidelines. Installing
software and connecting peripheral devices without the supervisor's consent is not allowed.
6. The supervisor checks the correctness of the measuring systems and, together with the laboratory group,
turns on the power. Students are not allowed to turn on the power independently, regardless of the voltage of
the power source. Each change of the measuring system requires rechecking.
7. After turning on the power and starting the measuring systems, students should be prudent during
independent work, particularly: a) Do not touch live parts of the devices.
b) Do not lead to voltage or current overloads in the meters; special attention should be paid to the start-up of
devices and the occurring electrical and mechanical overloads.
c) Keep away from moving or heat-generating parts.
Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology
8. Using the measuring systems or their components for purposes unrelated to the performer laboratory
is prohibited.
9. In case of any unusual symptoms (increase in current/voltage, temperature, volume, etc.),
immediately turn off the power and inform the supervisor. Any damage to the meter or device should
also be reported.
10. It is prohibited to pull the plug from the socket in any other way than holding the plug with one
hand and the socket with the other.
11. Avoid direct action of the laser beam on the eyeball.
12. It is prohibited to use reflecting objects uncontrolled, which may direct a laser beam into the eyes of
an outsider.
13. Keep the distance from sources of microwave radiation more than 20 cm.
14. Keep away from the area of microwave radiation.
15. Isotope sources should not be picked up directly. Use tweezers or pliers to manipulate the sources.
16. Place the isotopic sources on the laboratory table as far away as possible.
17. Move around the laboratory with care.

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

Entering the Laboratory’s website

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

How to switch to English language?

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

When we have laboratories?

15.10 – initial lecture (today)

22.10 / 29.10– Ohm’s law (ex_1.pdf)
5.11 / 12.11 – experiment 2
19.11 / 26.11 – experiment 3
3.12 – extra sesion

Names of experiments 2 and 3, for each team,

would be given later.

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

15 minutes break
 Introduction

• The aim of the measurement is to determine the measured value. Thus, the
measurement begins with specifying the quantity to be measured, the
method used for measurement (e.g. comparative, differential, etc.) and the
measurement procedure (set of steps described in detail and applied while
measuring with the selected measuring method).
• In general, the result of a measurement is only an approximation or estimate
of the value of the specific quantity subject to measurement, that is, the
measurand. Thus, the result of measurement is complete only when
accompanied by a quantitative statement of its uncertainty.
• International Standard Organization (ISO) prepared „Guide to the Expression
of Uncertainty in Measurement”, which is definitive document describing norms
and procedures in the measurements uncertainty evaluation. Based on the
international ISO standard, Polish norm „Wyrażanie niepewności pomiaru.
Przewodnik” was accepted in the 1999.

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Sources of uncertainty in a measurement

incomplete definition of the measurand;

imperfect realization of the definition of the measurand;
nonrepresentative sampling — the sample measured may not represent the defined
measurand;
inadequate knowledge of the effects of environmental conditions on the measurement
or imperfect measurement of environmental conditions;
personal bias in reading analog instruments;
finite instrument resolution or discrimination threshold;
inexact values of measurement standards and reference materials;
inexact values of constants and other parameters obtained from external sources and
used in the data-reduction algorithm;
approximations and assumptions incorporated in the measurement method and
procedure;
variations in repeated observations of the measurand under apparently identical
conditions.
Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology
 Types of measurements

Direct measurement – measured quantity can be directly

compared with the external standard, or the measurement is
made using a single instrument giving result straightaway
⚫ series of measurements
⚫ gross error

Indirect measurement – measuring one or more physical

quantities to determine quantity dependent on them

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Basic definitions (1)

Measurement uncertainty -
parameter associated with the result of measurement characterizing dispersion
of the values attributed to the measured quantity

Standard uncertainty u(x) –

the uncertainty of measurement expressed as a standard deviation.

Uncertainty can be reported in three different ways:

u, u(x) or u(acceleration), where quantity x can be expressed also in words (in the
example x is acceleration).
Please note, that u is a number, not a function.

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Basic definitions (2)

Type A evaluation of uncertainty – the evaluation of uncertainty by the

statistical analysis of series of observations.
Result of a series of measurements: mean value 1 n
x  x =  xi
⚫ Assumptions: n i =1
• Distribution function is symmetrical – probability for results smaller as well
as bigger than mean value are the same
• The bigger deviation from the mean value the lower probability
⚫ Result: for bigger number of measurements observed distribution of data
points is similar to Gauss function
Example of a Type A evaluation of uncertainty: the standard deviation of a
series of independent observations can be calculated, or least squares
method can be applied to fit the data with a curve and determine its
parameters and their standard uncertainties.

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Gauss distribution

Distribution for continous variable x:

1  (  − x) 2 
 ( x) = exp  − 2 

 2  2 
μ – expected value
σ – standard deviation
+

  ( x)dx = 1
−
+
Gauss distribution for finite Type A standard uncertainty for a series
− ( x)dx = 0.683 number of points: expected of measurements is equal to standard
+3
value is equal to mean value, deviation of a mean value
standard deviation is equal to
−3 ( x)dx = 0.997 standard deviation of a mean
value 1 n
+2
u ( x) =  = s = 2
 ( xi − x ) 2
  ( x)dx = 0.954 n(n − 1) i =1
x

− 2

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Basic definitions (3)

Type B evaluation of uncertainty – the evaluation of uncertainty by means

other than the statistical analysis of a series of observations, thus using a
method other than in type A.
Type B evaluation of standard uncertainty is usually based on scientific
judgment based on experience and general knowledge and is a skill that can be
learned with practice.
Assumption: uniform distribution – probability is constant in the whole interval
determined by measurement and calibration uncertainty
⚫ calibration uncertainty (due to measurement device x)
⚫ investigator uncertainty (due to investigator’s experimental skills xe)

x (x) 2
u ( x) = =
3 3

Combination of uncertainties ( x ) 2
( x ) 2
u ( x) = s x2 + + e
3 3
Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology
 Uniform distribution

Probability density in the interval a (x)

to b is constant and different from
zero and equal to zero outside this
interval
Density probability function for
uniform distribution:

1
 ( x) = − 3  x −    3
2 3 x

 ( x) = 0 outside this range

Type B standard uncertainty is equal to
standard deviation

Expected value: a+b

=
2 a = - x
b = x
Variance: 2 =
(b − a ) 2
u ( x) =  =
x
= 2 (x) 2
12 3 3

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Type B standard uncertainty (1) –
mechanical devices

Rulers, micrometers, calipers calibration

uncertainty x:
Thermometer, barometer
half of the scale interval
Stopper

Analoge devices x
u ( x) =
3

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

Type B standard uncertainty (2) –
analogue devices
Measurement range – maximal value to be
measured for the set range.

Class of the instrument describes the precision of

the measurement device in converting the measured
signal into value presented on a scale. Class
represents uncertainty in the percentage of the
measurement range.

Calibration uncertainty:
class  range x
x = u ( x) =
100 3

Investigator uncertainty:
range xe
xe = u ( x) =
2  number of scale intervals 3

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Type B standard uncertainty (3) –
digital devices
Measurement uncertainty for digital devices:
⚫ x – measured value Δ𝑥
Δ𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑟. 𝑑𝑔𝑡 𝑢(𝑥) =
⚫ dgt – resolusion of device 3
⚫ k, r – device constants e.g. k = 0.5%, r = 1
In this example:
Δ𝑥 = 0.5%. 3.05 + 1.0.01 = 0.02525
0.02525
u(x)= = 0,01457 mA
3

Choosing available functions

Measurement range

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Uncertainty evaluation – direct measurements
summary
Perform measurement (single or series)

Type A uncertainty
1 n
⚫ Measurement result – mean value x  x =  xi
n i =1
⚫ Standard uncertainty – standard deviation n
1
of the mean value u ( x) = s = 2

n(n − 1) i =1
x ( xi − x ) 2

Type B uncertainty
⚫ Calibration uncertainty x x (x) 2
⚫ Investigator uncertainty xe u ( x) = =
3 3

( x ) 2
( x ) 2
Combination of uncertainties u ( x) = s x2 + + e
3 3

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Basic definitions (4)

Combined standard uncertainty uc(x) – standard uncertainty of the value x

calculated based on measurements of other quantities uncertainty propagation
rule
⚫ Measurements of correlated quantities
⚫ Measurements of uncorrelated quantities

In the Physics Laboratory all measurements

are uncorellated

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Uncertainty evaluation – indirect measurement
summary
Measure k quantities xi directly (single or series)
z = f ( x1 , x2 ,...., xk )

Calculate mean value xi and standard uncertainty x1 , x2 ,...., xk

u(xi) for every quantity using Type A or Type B
evaluation method u(x1), u(x2), ... , u(xk)

Calculate final value of studied quantity z z = f ( x1 , x2 ,...., xk )

2
 f ( x j )  2
k
Calculate combined uncertainty uc(z) (uncertainty uc ( z ) =    u (x j )

j =1  x j

propagation law) 
2
 f ( x, y )  2  f ( x, y )  2
2

Example for two quantities uc ( z ) =   u ( x) +   u ( y )

  x    y 

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Basic definitions (5)

Expanded uncertainty U(x) or Uc(x) – the measure of uncertainty that

defines interval about the measurement, that may be expected to encompass a
large fraction of the distribution
⚫ Standard uncertainty u(x) defines the interval about the measured value, where
the true value exists with probability:
• 68% for Type A uncertainty
• 58% for Type B uncertainty
⚫ Expanded uncertainty:
• Allows to compare results from different laboratories
• Allows to compare results with reference database or theoretical value
• Useful for commercial purposes
• Required for industry, health and security regulations

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Basic definitions (6)

Coverage factor k – number used to multiply standard uncertainty to

calculate expanded uncertainty
Typically k varies from 2 to 3.
In the most cases in the Physics Laboratory k = 2 should be used.
⚫ Expanded uncertainty U(x) defines interval about the measured value, where the
true value exists with probability for k = 2:
• 95% for Type A uncertainty
• 100% for Type B uncertainty (100% also for k=1.73!)

U ( x) = k  u ( x)

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

Reporting measurement results

Laboratorium Fizyki, Wydział Fizyki, Politechnika Warszawska

 Reporting measurement results (1)
Uncertainty is presented with accuracy (rounded) to two significant digits
The measurement result (the most probable value) is presented with an
accuracy specified by the uncertainty, which means that the last digit of the
measurement result and the measurement’s uncertainty must be at the same
decimal place.
Rounding of uncertainties and measurement results follows the
mathematical rules of rounding

⚫ Standard uncertainty
t = 21.364 s. u(t) = 0.023 s
t = 21.364(23) s, recommended notation
t = 21.364(0.023) s

⚫ Expanded uncertainty
t = 21.364 s. U(t) = 0.046 s (k = 2) n = 11 not required
t = (21.364±0.046) s, recommended notation

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

Significant digits

0,000437 3 significant digits

0,0437 3 significant digits
4,37 3 significant digits
23,7000 6 significant digits
1,0001 5 significant digits
0,100137 6 significant digits
0,00000002 1 significant digit
73,01 4 significant digits

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

Before After
0,000437 0,00044
0,0437 0,044
4,37 4,4
23,7000 24
1,0001 1,0
0,100137 0,10
0,00000002 0,00000002
73,01 73

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Reporting measurement results (2) –
examples
Measurement Proper Reporting

a = 321.735 m/s; u(a) = 0.24678 m/s a = 321.74 m/s; u(a) = 0.25 m/s
a = 321.74(0.25) m/s
a = 321.74(25) m/s

b = 321785 m; u(b) = 1330 m b = 321800 m; u(b) = 1300 m

b = 321800(1300) m
b = 321.8(1.3)·103 m
b = 321.8(1.3) km

C = 0.0002210045 F; uc(C) = 0.00000056 F C=0.00022100 F; uc(C)=0.00000056 F

C = 221.00(0.56)·10-6 F
C = 221.00(56)·10-6 F
C = 221.00(56) μF

T = 373.4213 K; u(T) = 2.3456 K T = 373.4 K; u(T) = 2.3 K

T = 373.4(2.3) K
U(T) = 4.7 K
T = (373.4 ± 4.7) K

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

Hypothesis verification

Laboratorium Fizyki, Wydział Fizyki, Politechnika Warszawska

 Linear function hypothesis

Graphical

Least squares method

Statistical tests

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Graphical test

The most simple

Plot theoretical model function. It should cross uncertainties

bars for more then 2/3 of experimental data points

If not – hypothesis should be rejected

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 Least squares method (1)

Goal: to verify the theoretical model dependence between

measured quantities is valid
Assumption: every model can be converted into a linear type
function y = a + b x
Method: least squares – to find the line for which the sum of
squared deviations of experimental points from this line is the
smallest – to find line which is the closest to all experimental
points
Results: a, b and uncertainty u(a) and uncertainty u(b)
(Type A standard uncertainty)

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Least squares method (2)
y = ax + b
n
1
xi = xi −  xi
~
n i =1
n

 xi yi
~
1 n a n
a= i =1
n
b =  y i −  xi
 i
~ 2 n i =1 n i =1
x
i =1

n
~ 1
di = yi − ax~i −  yi
n i =1
2
n
~2  n

 i
d n
  xi 
xi2 +  i =1 
1 1
sa =
n−2
i =1
n
sb = s a  ~
 n 
 ~x 2 n i =1
i  
i =1  
Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology
Least squares method(3)

Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Physics, Warsaw University of Technology

 Test 2

Test function 2 n

⚫ Definition  =
2
w (y
i =1
i i − y ( xi )) 2 wi = [u ( yi )]−2
⚫ Statistical weight n

⚫ Linear type function  =  wi ( yi − B ( xi ) − A) 2

2

i =1

Significance value  – the probability of hypothesis rejection

⚫ Value in the range of 1 to 0
⚫ Determined by the investigator (typically 0.05)
⚫ Depends on the number of degrees of freedom (number of measurement
points minus the number of calculated parameters)

Critical value χ2critical (listed in the table for every significance value and
number of degrees of freedom)

Test function
⚫ χ2  χ2critical– there are no arguments to reject the hypothesis
⚫ χ2 > χ2kcritical – hypothesis should be rejected

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 What should be in the report?
Each report MUST be signed with your names and the team’s number, date, and day of the week
1. Purpose of the exercise
2. Theoretical introduction. Purpose of the exercise, discussion of the phenomenon under
study, description of the measurement method, formulas used.
3. Description of the measurement setup. Diagram of the measurement system, list of
devices used, and description of the measurements performed.
4. Measurement results. Results and tables, direct charts. Appropriate conversions,
consistent with the previously proposed model, relevant charts (if necessary, after
conversions).
5. Uncertainty analysis. Determining the sources of uncertainty in measurement.
Determination of the uncertainty of individual measured values. Calculate the combined
(total) uncertainty - if possible, both with the type A and B methods. Providing the final
measurement result together with the calculated uncertainty.
6. Conclusions. Are the measurements carried out consistent with the theory, and if not, why?
Which components of uncertainty are the largest? How to improve the conduct of the
experiment, whether it would be necessary to repeat some measurements and take additional
ones. If possible, compare the results to table values.
7. Protocol from laboratories.

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