II

UNIT 8 GANDHI'S VILLAGE: AN IDEAL

ECOLOGICAL UNIT
Structure
8.1 Introduction
Aims and Objectives

8.2 Gandhi's Ashrams

8.3 Ecology: Definition
8.4 Gandhi's Ideal Village
8.5 Village or Gram Swaraj
8.6 Self-sufficient Village Republics
8.7 Summary
8.8 Terminal Questions
Suggested Readings

8.1 INTRODUCTION
On his return to India from South Africa in 1914, Gandhi promised Gopal Krishna
Gokhale, whom he considered his political guru that for one year he (Gandhi) would
travel the length and breadth of India to understand and gain experience about the
country. Gandhi accordingly travelled third class on trains and went into villages and thus
got a first hand knowledge of the social and economic conditions of h e villages.
Furthermore, his early Satyagrahas in Champaran and Kheda (1917 and 1918) also
opened his eyes to the economic exploitation of the villagkrs by the British. Since eighty
per cent of the population of India lived in villages, for Gandhi, the economic and social
revival of the seven lakh villages was a top priority. In his own words- "To serve our
villages is to establish Swaraj. Everything else is but an idle dream". Many years later,
in 1933, on his nation-wide tour in which he covered 12,500 miles in nine months,
penetrating into some of the remotest villages on foot, he saw the plight of the deprived
sections of society, and he brought in even more reforms into his concept of Gram
Swaraj.
Having witnessed the ills of industrialisation in England, he wanted to protect India fiom
following in its footsteps saying, "God forbid that India should ever take to industrialization
after the manner of the West. The economic imperialism of a single tiny island kingdom
(England) is today keeping the world in chains. If an entire nation of 300 million took
to similar economic exploitation, it would strip the world bare like locusts".
On the other hand, he had experienced the advantages and joys of the community
Ashrams he had set up in South Africa- Phoenix and Tolstoy Farm. These ashrams were
self-sufficient centres where people of different castes, faiths and nationalities lived
harmoniously with each other, as well as the environment. The community life, which he
developed in these ashrams, consisted of the inmates doing manual labour, cooking,
agriculture and crafts. These experiments in his ashrams gave him a vision for developing
Gandhi 's fillage: An Ideal Ecological Unit 75

the seven lakh villages of India into village republics which were self-sufficient units with
decentralisation, trusteeship, swadeshi, nai talim or basic education, bread-labour, full
employment, equality and cooperation.
Aims and Objectives
After studying this Unit, you would be able to understand
The Community life in Gandhi's ashrams in South Afiica and India;
The importance of Gram Swaraj or Village self-reliance;
The significance of Village Industry.

8.2 GANDHI'S ASHRAMS

South Africa- Phoenix Settlement and Tolstoy Farm
Gandhi aspired to realise a village community throughout his life. The frst attempts were
made in South Africa at Phoenix Settlement and Tolstoy Farm. More lasting attempts
were made in India at Sabarmati and Sevagram. In her book, 'Global Concern with
Environmental Crisis and Gandhi's Vision', Dr.Savita Singh writes, " G a n a built his ashrams
in wastelands adjacent to villages. The aim of these experiments was to bring back a
generation gone astray under the onslaught of Western industrial culture as also to prepare
a model for the seven lakh villages and prove the efficacy of living in harmony with nature
and the fruits of bread labour". The ashrams in fact were precursors for the Gram Swaraj
movement and village industries.
What was it that motivated Gandhi to think of starting an ashram in the first place? It
was a book, 'Unto This Last' by Ruskin, lent to him by his friend Henry Polak. This
book had a great impact on Gandhi- particularly the point "That a life of labour, i.e., the
life of the tiller of the soil and the handicraftsman, is the life worth living".
Gandhi lost no time in procuring 100 acres of land situated amidst sugar plantations,
served by a spring and many fi-uit trees, in a place called Phoenix, 14 miles fiom Durban.
He proposed that the printing press for Indian Opinion be shifted to this farm, on which
every one should labour, drawing the same monthly allowance of 3 pounds irrespective
of colour.and nationality and attending to the press work in spare time. However not
everyone agreed to settle down there as the place was overgrown with grass, uninhabited
and infested with snakes. The nearest station too was two and a half miles away.
However they all agreed to work for the press and bring out the Indian Opinion.
Within a month a big shed seventy-five feet long and fifty feet wide was erected by the
joint effort of all of them for the press. Eight buildings of corrugated iron and thatched
roofs were built for the settlers. Thus the Phoenix Settlement started in 1904.The
settlers were divided into the 'Schemers' and the 'Workers'. The schemers had to make
a living by manual labour. They were given three acres of land around the press. No land
was fenced in and just narrow paths divided the holdings. On the days the Indian
Opinion was to be printed, there was a flurry of activity- Gandhi and Polak corrected
the proofs, the printers ran off the corrected pages, the children folded and wrapped the
journal.
Every Sunday all the residents met in Gandhi's cottage for a community prayer in which
 76 Gandhi: Ecology and Sustainable Development

recitations from the Gita, Koran and the Bible, Christian hymns and Gujarati bhajans
were sung cutting across all race and religion barriers. One of the inmates, Millie Graham
Polak describes life in the Phoenix settlement as a community life in the miniature.
"Gandhi as the benevolent patriarch had no special privilege except to look after everybody
else. The house resounded with laughter as the children joined with the parents every
morning in the grinding of wheat in a hand-mill. The evening meal was a pleasant hour,
interspersed with light conversations and serious discussion".
In order to sustain the Satyagraha struggle in South Africa, Gandhi felt the need to lodge
the satyagrahis in a co-operative farm and so in 1910 he set up the Tolstoy Farm on
a 1100 acre land which was given rent free to him by Mr.Kallenbach. The farm was
twenty one miles from Johannesburg. The seventy-five odd residents hailed from all parts
of India and espoused different religions. They were served by a common vegetarian
kitchen and led a fi-ugal and hard life. All of them, including the children, had to do their
quota of manual labour. Vocational training was also given to the youngsters. Kallenbach
learnt shoe-making from the Trappist Monks and taught this craft to the residents. Since
the morning hours were devoted to farm work and domestic duties, the school for
imparting literary training was kept for after the mid-day meal.
India- Sabarmati and Sevagram Ashram
- As mentioned earlier, India, since ancient times, has had its people living in the villages-
in fact 80% of its population lived in villages. However, the villagers were steeped in
poverty, ignorance, malnutrition and due to terrible insanitation and unhygienic conditions
the people suffered from terrible diseases. Those who had managed to get education had
moved into the city to further their prospects while completely ignoring the lot of their
brethren back in the village. Under the British rule the natural and human resources of
the country had any way been ruthlessly exploited and on top of that, their attempts to
convert the ancient traditions of India and to convert India from village life to town life
was totally destroying India's structure- its culture and economy- from the very roots.
The only connection the British seemed to keep with the village was to exact revenue
from them.
Gandhi took stock of the situation and immediately foresaw the total ruination that was
taking place unless he did something for the villages. With 80% of India's population in
villages, Gandhi knew that if the village perished then India would perish. He therefore
gave all his attention to this foundational work and persuaded everyone who wanted
freedom of India from the British, to go a step further and think of 'Poorna Swaraj' and
bring true freedom to the villages. This was the spirit behind Gandhi's Constructive
Programme and its practical implication was, 'Village Reconstruction'.
On his final return to India, Gandhi lost no time in seeking to establish a community
settlement in India also. He first established his Satyagraha Ashram in Kochrab, a small
village near Ahmedabad in 1915. But two years later, after an outbreak of plague, he
shifted this ashram to a place on the banks of the Sabarmati river. From the very outset
the Ashram was mainly ~oncernedwith the fight against untouchability and later in 1933
it was given up for a cintre for the removal of untouchability- Harijan Sevak Sangh.
Gandhi then decided to settle down in a poor village in Segaon, near Wardha with a
population of just 600 which lacked bare amenities like a pucca road, shop or post
office. Later it was renamed as Sevagram. Sevagram became the pivotal point for all
Gandhi $ KZZage: An Ideal Ecological Unit 77

the historical happenings that ultimately led to India's independence. In J.C.Kurnarappa's

words, it was "the defacto capital of India".
The experiments carried out in Sevagram reveal the utopian dream of Gandhi, namely a
village republic with self-rule by the villagers who are able to live with true dignity and
freedom. Life in the ashram was one of simplicity and a daily routine. The day began at
four o'clock in the morning with communal prayers and spinning. Breakfast was served
at dawn. Then after a brisk walk Gandhi would spend time in his mud hut, writing. Lunch
was served at 11 am with all inmates squatting on the floor in the verandah. This was
followed by reading, spinning, and meditation. Dinner was served at 5 o'clock after
which there were inter-faith prayers. Like the ashrams in South A£iica, it was a classless
community where everyone engaged in bread-labour, spinning, craft-work and lived
harmoniously with each other. At the ashram he taught the people cattle-keeping, nature-
cure, hygiene and sanitation, compost making, eradication of untouchability, cropping
patterns and irrigation practices. He taught them to live a life of sharing and mutual aid
amongst themselves and with the eco system so as to be able to show the world at large
that a sustainable future lies in human beings living in small communities in tune with
nature.

8.3 ECOLOGY: DEFINITION

The dictionary meaning of ecology is:
la. The science of the relationships between organisms and their environments. Also
called bionomics.
lb. The relationship between organisms and their environment.
2. The branch of sociology that is concerned with studying the relationships between
human groups and their physical and social environments. Also called human ecology.
3. The study of the detrimental effects of modem civilization on the environment, with a
view toward prevention or reversal through conservation.
4. The political movement that seeks to protect the environment especially fiom pollution.
Gandhi suggested three balances to be maintained in order to lead a life of peace and
harmony on this earth. These were the balances between (i) the interests of human beings
and Nature (ii) the individuals and the society they constituted, and (iii) the physical and
spiritual desires of man. candhi envisioned a society where men lived close to nature and
closer still to each other. The small village communities he conceived gave such
opportunities for people to be close to each other as well as with nature. The bread
labour, Nai Talim and inter-faith activities also helped in the development of the body,
mind and spirit. Having understood the meaning of ecology it will be interesting to study
and understand how Gandhi's ideal village took into consideration all the above points-
the social, human and political aspects so as to create a truly self-sufficient village republic.

GANDHI'S IDEAL VILLAGE

I would say that if the village perishes, India will perish too. It will be no more
India. Her own mission in the world will get lost."
 78 Gandhi: Ecology and Sustainable Development

Since ancient times India has been a land of relatively autonomous and self-governing
village communities which based their life on dharma and righteousness. The British rule
disintegrated these village communities by subordinating them to a formal and centralised
legal system. In doing so, the traditional foundation was demolished and along with it the
inner cohesion which had kept the Indian village going for thousands of years. The study
tour that Gandhi undertook for one year on the advice of Gokhale helped him to see the
pathetic reality of India- the horrible trains with a sea of humanity, shoving and jostling
each other, the dirty roads, the heaps of refuse and night soil at the entrance of villages-
all this shook Gandhi to his core.
As a first step Gandhi appealed to the educated city dwellers to return to the villages
with a spirit of service and make a beginning by making the village cleaner by their own
labour and removing illiteracy to the best of their ability. This was no easy task as Gandhi
was not oblivious to the actual realities of Indian villages. He admitted that, "Instead of
having graceful hamlets dotting the land, we have dung heaps. The approach to many
villages is not a refreshing experience. Often one would like to shut one's eyes and stuff
one's nose; such is the surrounding dirt and offending smell".
But then he shared with them his dream of how he envisioned his beloved India to be.
He pictured India not as a poverty-stricken India teeming with ignorant millions but one
which was continuously progressing and tapping the genius within her. He appealed to the
educated class to join him in making India's villages into a republic which would have
no illiterates, in which everyone is usefully occupied, has nourishing food, Khadi (meaning
yarn spun by themselves) to clothe themselves, well ventilated homes, with a strict sense
of hygiene and sanitation and which will be governed by a Panchayat. On another
occasion he defined his ideal Indian village as follows:
"An ideal village will be so constructed as to lend itself to perfect sanitation. It will have
cottages with sufficient light and ventilation built of a material obtainable within a radius
of five miles of it. The cottages will have courtyards enabling householders to plant
vegetables for domestic use and to house their cattle. The village lanes and streets will
be free of all avoidable dust. It will have wells according to its needs and accessible to
all. It will have houses of worship for all, also a common meeting place, a village
common for grazing its cattle, a co-operative dairy, primary and secondary schools in
which industrial (i.e. vocational) education will be the central fact, and it will have
Panchayats for settling disputes. It will produce its own grains, vegetables and h i t , and
its own Khadi. This is roughly my idea of a model village." Furthermore, he pointed out
that 'all should make it a point of honour to use only village articles whenever and
wherever available. Given the demand there is no doubt that most of our wants can be
supplied by the villages. When we become village-minded we shall not want imitations
from the West or machine-made products.'

8.5 VILLAGE OR GRAM SWIARAJ

Thus we can see that for Gandhi, freedom in its truest sense was the uplift and Swaraj
of the village and its inhabitants. So he set about reconsmcting the Indian society based
on the village system with the village as the basic unit. He called this Gram Swaraj.
Based on the above quotation by Gandhi about his utopian village, we can understand
that he wanted the village to produce basic useful goods for consumption purpose rather
than trade and the governance was to be bottom-up, not top-down. The basic principles
Gandhi S Village: An Ideal Ecological Unit

1. Supremacy of Man- Full Employment

2. Body-Labour
3. Equality
4. Trusteeship
5. Decentralisation
6. Swadeshi
7. Self- Sufficiency
8. Co-operation
9. Satyagraha
10. Equality of Religions
11. Panchayat Raj
12. Nai Talim

SELF-SUFFICIENT VILLAGE REPUBLICS

Constructive Programme- Khadi and Village Industries
How did Gandhi go about achieving his village republics and how did he picture its
hnctioning? What did he mean by it being self-sufficient? Were they to work in isolation?
Would not that defeat the whole picture of world being one family? The underlying spirit
behind the revival of the village was Sarvodaya or welfare of all.
First of all, Gandhi outlined and launched his Constructive Programme. The first practical
thing he laid out was the charkha programme and spinning of Khadi. For almost four to
six months of the year the men in the villages were without work and took to drinking
and gambling and behaving atrociously towards their wives and family. Spinning now
ensured they were gainfully employed throughout the year, the women earned extra
money and the rhythmic operation of the charkha was said to have a therapeutic value.
Of course in addition to this people were now wearing clothes spun out of Khadi and
thus boycott of British made clothes was complete.
Khadi is a village industry within the reach of the 'last person'. It signifies self-reliance
and self-sufficiency. It is human centred, creative, participative, and based on the principles
of self-reliance, ecology and peace. Gandhi referred to Khadi as the 'sun of the village
solar system' and the other village industries as the planets supporting the sun (Khadi)
in return for the heat and sustenance they derived from it.
The other village industries which he helped promote and develop were dairy farming,
hand-pounding of rice and corn, soap-making, bee-keeping, pottery, tanning, hand-made
paper, ink, handicrafts and palm-gur. All of this ensured not only a means of subsistence
but also ensured that such village art and skill would not die out. Such focus on the
villages also made the migration of able-bodied youth from the villages to the urban
centres a less attractive option. In addition Gandhi strongly advised the city dwellers to
'use and purchase only those articles manufactured by the villagers'.
 80 Gandhi: Ecology and Sustainable Development

Gandhi was no idle dreamer. Always a man of action and an ever growing dynamic
individual, his experiments in his community life the ashrams had taught him thai it is not
possible to be completely self-sufficient. It was not possible to be able to produce
everything that was required for a simple basic living. So though the aim was complete
self-sufficiency, he advised each village to produce more than the village requirements and
exchange it with the surplus fiom a neighbouring village for in the final analysis 'man is
not born to live in isolation but is essentially a social afzunal independent and interdependent'.
Thus, when Gandhi speaks of villages collectively striving for a self contained system, he
is advocating the need for regional specialisation and exchange of goods between regions.
Supremacy of Man- Full Employment, BreadIBody Labour
Gandhi's social and economic views were human centred. In his own words 'The supreme
consideration is man'. He believed that every man has a right to be happy and ought to
have the right to livelihood. In his Hind Swaraj he had been critical about the 'time and
labour saving machinery' not because he was against machinery but if the use of such
technology was going to replace human beings and thus render them unemployed he was
against it. He said, "the poor of the world cannot be helped by mass production, only
by production of the masses". He was in favour of Appropriate Technology i.e. technology
appropriate for rural India where capital was scarce and labour in plenty. So the technology
ought to cater to increased production in agriculture and rural industry, should not be
capital intensive and should properly utilise man-power so as to solve-the problem of
unemployment.
He was emphatic that everybody should be able to get sufficient work to enable them
to feed and clothe themselves and make the two ends meet. In continuation with this right
to livelihood was his belief in the dignity of labour. This idea first hit home to Gandhi
when he read Ruskin's 'Unto This Last' and he was struck by the point- "A lawyer's
work has the same value as the barber's, as all have the same right of earning their
livelihood fiom their work". He felt 'How can a man who does not do body labour, have
the right to eat'? So in Gandhi's scheme of things, each and everyone had an obligation
to engage in productive physical labour.
Equality and Trusteeship
In the very firit Ashram founded by Gandhi in Africa, economic equality was something
laid down from the very beginning. Everyone drew the same wage and all tilled the land
or worked at the press equally. To him the rich and poor divide was unbearable. He
wanted to level down the few rich in whose hands lay the bulk of the nation's wealth
and level up the semi-starved naked millions. Of course by this he did not mean to
forcehlly dispossess them as that would resort to violence. Instead he preached trusteeship
in which he wanted the rich to become trustees of their surplus wealth for the good of
society since society was an extended family. According to Pyarelal, the Trusteeship plan
is a philosophy of life and organisation, with methods of management that bring about
inter-personal relationships. "It envisages a new structure and system of organization
based on non violence, welfare of all and the sharing of responsibilities".
In addition to economic equality Gandhi also ensured equality in the social structure. He
gave great importance to the welfare of women and was indeed a revolutionary in
bringing about the emancipation of women in India. He not only brought them to the
forefront of his satyagraha movement but also strongly denounced the purdah, sati and
dowry system, child marriage, and advocated widow remarriage. He wanted equal rights
Gandhik Village: An Ideal Ecological Unit 81

and duties for men and women and said, "Woman is the companion of man, gifted with
equal mental capacities. She has the right to participate in the very minutest detail in the
activities of man and she has an equal right of freedom and liberty with him. She is
entitled to a supreme place in her own sphere of activity, as man is in his". Gandhi also
strongly worked for the uplift of the oppressed Dalit class to bring about a just society.
Self-Sufficiency and Co-operation
Gandhi wanted every village to be self-sufficient in regard to food, clothing and other
basic necessities and to never be a burden on society. After having achieved that, he
wanted the people to use their spare time for the service of others. He explained that
man is a social being and in as much he is independent he is also inter-dependent. He
gave the example of a family. Each member while being self-independent is also inter-
dependent, and all cooperate and help each other. He wanted everyone to do the same
in society, for the nation and the world.
Equality of Religions
From childhood, Gandhi had never made any distinction between, Hindus, Muslims,
Parsis or Christians. So he was pained to see the deep division between Hindus and
Muslims in India. Till his last breath he fought for communal harmony. He proclaimed that
all.religions were good and equal and it was only the followers of these different religions
who quarreled with one another. Religion was a personal matter and everyone was
entitled to retain his or her own religion without interference. He taught, "Every religion
has its full and equal place. We are leaves of a majestic tree whose trunk cannot be
shaken off its roots.. ..". Thus in his earliest ashrams every evening it was common place
for hymns, bhajans and scriptures to be read from the Bible, Gita and Koran.
Panchayat Raj
Gandhi was pained to see the decline of the panchayati raj which was a system of
governance since ancient times. With the British system of centralised rule and their
ruthless method of revenue collection, the panchayat had all but become defunct. Gandhi
set out to revive this and outlined a system of governance whereby the village was to
be ruled by an assembly of five people elected annually by the villagers themselves. It
was the responsibility of the panchayat to ensure the education of all children in its
village, its sanitation, medical care, cleanliness of its wells, and uplift of the so-called
untouchables.
post-independence, Gandhi gave an amazing blue-print for the future governance by the
Panchayat. He described his concept in terms of an oceanic circle. Most organisational
charts show a pyramid like hierarchy where there is a top to down rule and approach.
Instead, Gandhi spoke of an oceanic circle where he goes beyond the individual village
and sees the structure "composed of innumerable villages ever-widening, never ascending
circles". They are all at the same level related to each other in the metaphor of the circle,
not the pyramid. Moreover, each individual is the centre of his / her own circle and these
circles intersect and expand in all direction, but never so that there is any "apex sustained
by the bottom". Such a type of structure indicates and enables common ownership, equal
opportunity, rights and responsibilities. In this structure every person has a right to contribute
to the formulation of policy through participation in various committees at various capacities.
There is no management or control from top. Only self discipline and self regulation
guides the function of the whole community.
 82 Gandhi: Ecolog and Sustainable Development

Nai Talim or Basic Education

Gandhi was very distressed to see how ignorant and steeped in superstition the villagers
were. Education to him did not mean just literacy, rather for Gandhi literacy was just the
beginning of education. It was practical and basic education for the 5 H's- Hand, Head,
Heart, Health and Habit. Education through craft was taught along with importance of
health and hygiene. This basic education was for children and adults, men and women.
The aim of Adult Education was to educate village adults to have a better, fuller and
richer lives, both as individuals and in the community. The education was imparted to
them through handicrafts and other creative activities.
In addition to all the above points Gandhi also took care to impart sound advice on
health and hygiene. He found that eighty percent of the disease in nual India was caused
either due to malnutrition or lack of hygiene and sanitation. Malnutrition severely effects
body and mind development and reduces working efficiency. He advised them to eat
hand-pound rice and jaggery rather than polished rice and sugar, to reduce salt intake
and spice, eat more vegetables, boil drinking water, eat meals at specific times. He also
told them the importance of personal hygiene and community sanitation and cleanliness
saying 'Cleanliness is next to Godliness'. He made them realise how precious the human
body was by likening it to a Temple. A Temple was a holy place where God resides and
hence should be kept clean. Similarly our bodies should also be kept clean as God is
housed within our bodies.
Thus Gandhi had a comprehensive ideal of village Swaraj encompassing the economic,
political, social and educational dimensions. Prof. Johan Galtung expresses this quite
succinctly in his book 'The Way is the Goal: Gandhi Today' by describing Gandhi's
village as a place where individuals led a modest almost puritan life and found joy and
contentment in the life of villager, 'but in an uplifted form- with all basic needs satisfied
and a high level of self-reliance. No big power to be exercised over millions of people,
through the segmentation of modem social life, promised by modernization: you can
become minister of education, you minister of health, you minister of public works, etc.
Instead of that the power has to be limited to a small unit, a village, and shared with
everybody in that unit since it is clear that Gandhi wanted some kind of direct democracy
however much it was exercised through the five-person rule at the top of the village, by
the Panchayat'.

8.7 SUMMARY
To Gandhi, the village is a primary community, large enough to offer a diversified life and
small enough to generate and sustain a sense of community. Johan Galtung summarises
it well by saying, "It is a republic steered by the Panchayat - a five person committee.
Economically it is self-sustained and self-governed and the people are wise, cultured and
courageous to do their own policing and ward off any evil forces from the outside. The
village produces mainly for its own consumption, it respects scarcity of resources and
there exists a spirit of sharing among the villagers."
As Gandhi's village was to be a self-governing autonomous community, he considered it
necessary that it should be self-sufficient in its basic needs like food, clothing and shelter.
Further, Gandhi's village was not an exclusively agricultural community; it maintained a
balance between agricultural and village industries. Jayaprakash Narayan made the
following observation- "Gandhiji spoke of self government, self sufficient village republics.
Gandhi S Ellage: An Ideal Ecological Unit 83

He taught us to visualize the village that does its own policing, settles its own disputes,
looks after its sanitation, its education, its industries and its agriculture. He also spoke of
establishing equality in the village society."
In his book 'Gandhi's outstanding Leadership' author Alan Nazareth, sums it up well by
writing, " Gandhi's leadership in the environmental and ecological fields is clearly seen in
his insistence on leading a simple life, keeping one's surroundings clean, protecting animal
life, avoiding all wastage and utilizing locally available renewable materials to the maximum
extent". To quote Gandhi on the subject- "The real conflict is not between environment
and development but between environment and the reckless exploitation of the earth by
man".

8.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS .

1. Why did Gandhi focus on village revival?

2. Briefly explain life at the ashrams established by Gandhi.
3. In what way did Khadi and spinning help in village swaraj?
4. Describe Gandhi's ideal village. Give five practical actions Gandhi took to achieve
Village Swaraj.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Gandhi, M.K., Wllage Swaraj, Navajivan Trust, Ahmedabad, 2007
Gandhi,M.K., An Autobiography OR The Story of My Experiments With Truth,
Navajivan Trust, Ahmedabad, 1996.
Gandhi, M.K., Satyagraha In South Africa, Navajivan Trust, Ahmedabad, 1995.
Nazareth, Pascal Alan., Gandhi's Outstanding Leadership, Sarvodaya International Trust,
Bangalore, 2010.
Khoshoo, T.N, and Moolakkattu, John.S., Mahatma Gandhi And The Environment, TERI,
New Delhi, 2009.