TOPIC ONE: PROPERTIES OF MATTER

 UNIT 1: THERMAL EXPANSION

 UNIT 2: NEWTON‟S LAWS OF MOTION
 UNIT 3: FRICTIONAL FORCE
 UNIT 4: HOOK‟S LAW
 UNIT 5: UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
 UNIT 6: MOMENTUM

TOPIC TWO: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

 UNIT 7: MAGNETISM
 UNIT 8: ELECTROMAGNETISM
 UNIT 9: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
 UNIT 10: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

TOPIC THREE: OSCILLATION AND WAVES

 UNIT 11: ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

 UNIT 12: LIGHT AND LENS
 UNIT 13: ISOTOPES
 UNIT 14: RADIOACTIVITY
 PROPERTIES OF MATTER

TOPIC ONE:

THERMAL EXPANSION

THERMAL EXPANSION

 Is the increase in volume of substance due heat and increase in temperature.

 When the temperature decreases, the substance decrease in size.
 This is called contraction.

TEMPERATURE

 Is the degree of coldness or hotness of the body.

 Kinetic Theory of Matter states that particles of matter are always in motion.
 Temperature can be defined as a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules
of a substance.
 The SI unit for temperature is Kelvin(K).
 But the common measure of temperature is in degrees Celsius (oC).

HEAT

 Is the form of energy which passes from the body of high temperature to the body of low
temperature.
 The SI unit of heat is joule (J).

THERMAL EXPANSION IN SOLIDS

 When solids are heated, there is an increase in

 Length
 Volume
 Area

INVESTIGATION

 Aim:
 To determine thermal expansion and contraction in solids using the cast iron bar
breaker.
 Apparatus:
 Cast iron bar breaker
 Two Bunsen burners
 Thin cast iron rod
 Procedure:
  Case one
 Fix the steel bar in the frame of the bar breaker as shown in the setting
below.
 Lock the steel bar by inserting the thin cast iron in the hole on the steel
bar. Clamp the steel bar strongly and observe what happens to the cast iron
rod.

Thin cast iron rod Nut

Steel

Bunsen burner Bunsen burner

 Heat the steel bar strongly using two Bunsen burners and observe what
happens to the cast iron rod.
 Case two
 Repeat this experiment but in this case, first heat the steel bar strongly and
insert the cast iron rod through the hole then clamp it firmly. Observe what
happens as the steel bar cools.
 Observation:
 When the steel bar in case one is heated, the cast iron rod breaks with loud sound.
 When the steel bar is cooled in case two, the cast iron rod breaks.
 Discussion:
 When the steel bar expands, it pushes the iron cast iron rod against the outer
frame of the bar breaker. Hence the rod breaks.
 When the steel bar contracts, it pulls the cast iron rod against the inner frame of
the bar breaker. Hence the rod breaks.
 Conclusion
 Solid expand when heated and contract when cooled.

THERMAL EXPANSION IN LIQUIDS

 Liquids also expand when heated and contract when cooled.

  Liquids expands greater than solids.
 They have weaker intermolecular forces.

INVESTIGATION

 Aim
 To demonstrate thermal expansion in liquids.
 Apparatus
 Water bath
 Paraffin
 Alcohol
 Heater
 Water
 Similar test tubes with fitted similar capillary tubes through the corks.
 Procedure
 Label the three test tubes as A, B and C and fill them with different liquids(In this
case let‟s use alcohol, paraffin and water respectively). Cork them and place them
in water bath as shown below.

Initial Final
levels levels

A B C A B C

 Het some water to boiling point using the heater and place it in a water bath.
 Tie the three test tubes A, B and C together and place them inside the water bath
while stirring the hot water to ensure even distribution of heat in contact with test
tubes A, B and C.
 Observe the level of the liquids in the test tubes after 3 minutes.
 Observation
 The level of the liquids in the three test tubes falls slightly at first then start rising
again up the capillary tubes after sometimes.
 Alcohol rises to the highest level followed by paraffin and least being water.
 Discussion
  Heat from water bath reaches the test tubes making them to expand and increase
in volume hence the liquid level falls.
 After sometime, the heat reaches the liquids and they start expanding.
 Alcohol expands more than paraffin and paraffin expands more than water.
 Conclusion
 Liquids expand when heated and contract when cooled.
 Liquids expand differently when heated.
 Explanation
 Liquid molecules are loosely packed and move freely.
 The force of attraction between their molecules is weaker than in solids.
 On heating, the speed of the molecules increases.
 The collisions between the molecules increase the distance between them causing
the liquid to expand.

THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN GASES

 Gases also expand when heated and contract when cooled.

 Gases expand more than liquids and solids because their molecules move furthest on
heating.

INVESTIGATION

 Aim
 To demonstrate expansion in gases.
 Apparatus
 A thin glass flask
 A rubber stopper
 A long narrow glass tube
 A balloon
 Procedure
 Take a thin glass flask and the balloon tied on it as shown below and immerse
them in the water bath.

Balloon before heating Balloon after heating

  Heat the apparatus placed on the tripod stand as shown above.
 Observe what happens.
 Observation
 On heating, the balloon is inflated hence bulges.
 Discussion
 On heating, the air in the thin flask expands, increasing volume in the flask and
balloon hence inflating the balloon.
 Conclusion
 Gas expand when heated and contract when cooled.
 Explanation
 Molecular distances in gases are large compered to liquids and solids.
 Forces between gas molecules are very weak and almost negligible.
 Molecules move freely in all directions.
 When gas is warmed, the kinetic energy of particles increases hence its volume
increases.
 Gases expand with the same volume. (equal volume of gas expands equally).

ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER (UNUSUAL EXPANSION OF WATER)

 Most liquids expand steadily on heating.

 Water behaves in an unusual (abnormal) manner.
 When water is heated above 0oC, temperature rises up to 4oC without changing its
volume.
 Above 4oC, volume starts to increase like other liquids.
 Between 0oC to 4oC. Water shows abnormal behavior (unusual) called unusual expansion
of water.
 Thus a fixed mass of water has a minimum volume at 4oC.

Volume

4oC
Temperature

 From the graph it is seen that a fixed mass of water is minimum at 4oC.
 That‟s where the water has the minimum density.
 Density

4oC
Temperature

EFFECTS OF ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER

 Survival of aquatic organisms in freezer of lakes and ponds.

 The maximum density of water is at 4oC.
 Anything above or below 4oC becomes less dense.
 The frozen water becomes less dense hence floats on top.
 This makes the bottom water still at liquid state.
 Bursting of water pipes.
 When water is below 4oC, it starts to freeze and expands.
 This expansion increases the volume and cannot fit into the pipes hence pipes
break.
 Weathering of rocks.
 When water freezes in the rock cracks, it expands hence increasing the crack of
the rock.
 This results into breaking of the rock (weathering).

APPLICATION OF THERMAL EXPANSION

 Loose fitting of electric wires.

 The loose fitting of electric wires gives a room of expansion during the cold
seasons.
 This is to avoid breaking of the wires due to expansion.
 Separating stuck tumbler/glasses.
 Stuck tumblers can be separated by putting them up right in the hot water an pour
cold water in the inner tumbler.
 This makes the outer tumbler to expand and inner tumbler to contract hence can
easily be separated.
 Tooth fitting.
  When the tooth cavity is to be filled, materials used to fill should have the same
thermal expansion property.
 This makes the material and the tooth to expand and contract equally.
 Removing tightly screwed cover.
 Tightly fitted screw/bottle top can be removed by placing the bottle in cold water
and heat the cover.
 The bottle contracts while the cover expands.
 Use of alloys
 Tape measures used by surveyors are made up of an alloy of nickel and iron
called invar.
 This alloy has very small change almost negligible in length when temperature
changes.
 Gaps in railway tracks.
 Railway line has gaps between the rail bars.
 This is give room for expansion when the temperature increases.
 Rollers on bridges
 The ends of steel and concrete bridges are supported on rollers.
 This is to give room for expansion during high temperatures and contraction
during low temperatures.
 Expansion gaps in fences
 During the construction of the fence, the builder leaves small gaps between the
two walls.
 These gaps are used for expansion during the high temperature periods.
 Shrink fitting
 Is a method used to make mechanical joints when two tubes or axles.
 One is fitted inside the other of the same size.
 One is expanded while the other is contracted.
 The contracted fits inside the expanded and let the gain the normal temperature of
the environment.
 MECHANICS

UNIT TWO

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

 State that if there is no force acting on an object, the body will either be at its rest or at its
constant velocity in a straight line.
or
Everybody preserves its state of rest or uniform motion in the right line unless compelled
to change the state by force impressed there on.

INTERPRETATION OF THE NEWTON’S FIRST LAW

 The body‟s velocity will not change unless the resultant force acts on it.
 The body has constant velocity unless there is a net force acting on it.
 The body which has no resultant force on it either remains at rest or move in a straight
line at constant velocity.
 Everybody remains at rest or move at a constant velocity in a straight line unless acted
upon.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

 When a body is set in motion, the body moves at constant speed in a straight line if the
body is frictionless.
 The law defines the force which changes the state of motion of the body.
 Matter has an inbuilt resistance (inertia).
 The law gives one condition of force to be at equilibrium i.e. when the resultant force is
zero.
 The law defines a reference frame for motion of an object.

ACTIVITIES USED TO DEFINE NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

INVESTIGATION

 Aim :
 To demonstrate inertia on card being pulled slowly and suddenly.
 Materials:
 A coin
 A beaker
 A smooth cardboard
  Procedure:
 Place a coin on a smooth cardboard and place it over a beaker. Pull the cardboard
slowly and observe what happens to the coin.
 Repeat the experiment but this time pull the cardboard away suddenly and
observe what happens to the coin.
 Observation:
 When the cardboard is pulled slowly, the coin moves together with the cardboard.
 When the cardboard is pulled suddenly, the coin falls into the beaker.
 Discussion:
 When the cardboard is pulled slowly, the frictional force between the cardboard
and the coin makes the two to move together,
 When the cardboard is pulled suddenly, the coin resists motion and does not move
with the cardboard and hence drops vertically downwards into the beaker.
 The coin resists to change its state of rest but due to lack of support from below
falls into the beaker.

INVESTIGATION

 Aim :
 To demonstrate inertia on a pile of wooden blocks pulled slowly and suddenly.
 Materials:
 Four wooden blocks.
 Procedure:
 Place a pile of wooden blocks on a table.
 Pull the lower block slowly and not what happens.
 Repeat the experiment but this time pull the lower block suddenly.
 Observation:
 When the lower block is pulled slowly, the whole pile moves.
 When the lower block is pulled suddenly, the lower end block moves leaving the
other blocks behind.

INVESTIGATION

 Aim
 Materials
 Procedure
 Observation
 Discussion

NOTE:
  You can also demonstrate inertia using a string pulled slowly and suddenly.

INVESTIGATION

 Aim:
 To show that bodies will continue in their state of motion unless compelled
otherwise.
 Apparatus:
 A wooden block
 Inclined plane
 A trolley
 Procedure:
 Place a wo0den block on a trolley and allow the trolley to move down a friction
compensated runway.
 Stop the trolley and observe what happens to the block.
 Observation:
 The wooden block slides off the trolley and continues moving in the same
direction the trolley was moving.
 Wooden block is reluctant to stop moving.
 Conclusion:
 The reluctant of a body to change its state of motion is called inertia.
 This observation was summarised by Sir Isaac Newton as the first law of motion.
“states that a body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
unless compelled by some external force to act otherwise.”

MASS AND INERTIA

 Mass is the amount of matter in a substance.

 Inertia is the reluctance of a body to change its state of motion.

INVESTIGATION

 Aim:
 To investigate the relationship between mass and inertia of the body.
 Materials:
 String
 Hook
 Heavy stone
 Light stone
 Procedure:
 Suspend the heavy stone and a light stone using the stings.
  Push the heavy stone and light stone towards one side so that it can swing and try
to stop it from moving.
 Repeat second step now with the small stone.
 Which stone is easier to start moving and stop moving?
 Observation:
 The lighter stone is easier to start and stop moving while the heavier one is more
difficult to start and stop moving and requires a lot of force.
 Conclusion:
 This shows that the mass of the body is the measure of its inertia.
 The body with large mass has large inertia and vise versa.
 Even if the investigation is done where there is no gravitational pull, the same
results will be obtained
 The mass of the body is called inertia mass.
 When the mass is pulled by gravitational force, the mass is called gravitational
mass.

MOMENTUM

 Is defined as the product of mass and velocity of the body.

i.e p = mas x velocity
p = mv
 SI unit of momentum is kgm/s.
 Momentum is a vector quantity.
 The direction of the momentum is the same as that of velocity.

Example

1. A car of mass 600kg moves with a velocity of 40m/s. Calculate the momentum of the car.
Momentum = mass x velocity
= 600kg x 40m/s
= 24,000kgm/s in the direction of velocity
2. A body A of a mass 4kg moves to the left with a velocity of 7m/s. Another body B of
mass 7kg moves to the right with a velocity of 6m/s.
4kg 7kg
7m/s 6m/s

Calculate
a. The momentum of A.
Momentum = mv
= 4kg x 7m/s
 = 28kgm/s

b. The momentum of B.
Momentum = mv
= 7kg x 6m/s
= 42kgm/s
c. The total momentum of A and B.
 Since the two boxes are moving to different directions, one has positive
momentum and the other one has negative momentum.
i.e. A is negative while B is positive
 These should be resolved by adding them.
i.e. –A + +B
-
28kgm/s + +42kgm/s
+
14kgm/s to the right hand side

IMPULSE

 Is the impact produced by force (F) that acts on an object for a very short time
 Is defined as the product of force and time.
Impulse = Force (F) x Time (t)
I = Ft
 SI unit of impulse is the Newton-second (Ns).
 Impulse produces a change in momentum of the object.
 The velocity changes from initial velocity (U) to a final velocity (V) while mass remains
unchanged.
Impulse = Change in momentum
Ft = v
Ft = mv – mu

Example

1. A hammer strikes a metal rod with a force of 20N. If the impulse lasts 0.4s, calculate the
impulse due to this force.
Impulse = Force x time
= 200N x 0.4 s
=80Ns

NOTE:

The knowledge of impulse helps one to understand the law of conservation of

momentum.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

 States that the rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the directly
proportional to the resultant force and it takes place in the direction in which the force
acts.
Force (F) α
Force (F) α
 If m is the mass of the body and taking u and v to represent initial and final velocities
respectively.
Initial momentum = mass x initial velocity (mu)
Final momentum = mass x final velocity (mv)
Change in momentum = final momentum – initial momentum
= mv – mu
 Rate of change of momentum =
=
But =a
Thus F α ma
F =kma where k = 1,
Therefore, F = ma
 This is the mathematical representation of the Newton‟s second law.
 The relationship F = ma shows that the greater the force applied on an object, the more
acceleration it causes on the object.

Example

1. A truck of mass 2.5 tonnes accelerates at 7.5m/s2. Calculate the force generated by the
truck‟s engine to attain this acceleration.
F = ma
= 2.5 x 1000kg x 7.5m/s2
= 18750N
2. An object of mass 4kg accelerates to 5m/s2. Calculate the resultant force.
F =ma
= 4kg x 5m/s2
= 20N
3. Calculate the acceleration produced by a force 20N on an object of mass 300kg.
a=
=
= 0.0667m/s2
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

 For every force of action, there is equal and opposite force of reaction acting on a body.
or
If a body A exerts force f on a body B, then the body B exerts a force -f on the body A.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTION AND REACTION FORCES

1. They are equal in magnitude.

2. They are opposite in direction.
3. They are perpendicular to the surface in contact.
4. They act along the same line of action.
5. They act on different bodies.

IMPLICATION OF NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

1. Two forces different bodies.

2. Forces would be created irrespective of movement of the bodies.
3. Forces always occur in pairs as a result of interaction between two bodies.
4. The action and reaction forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
5. There are always two bodies and two forces.

EXAMPLES OF ACTIONS AND REACTIONS.

 When you push a rigid wall (action) the wall pushes back (reaction).
 A book placed on the table exerts action while the table supports the book with a
reaction.
 Charged bodies show two equal but opposite forces.
 The game of tag of war.

SOME COMMON EXPERIANCES DUE TO NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

1. When running or walking a person exerts a backward force on the ground while the
ground exerts a foreword push on the person to make walking possible.
2. When a gun is fired, the bullet travels in one direction while the gun recoils backwards
with equal forces.
3. A balloon will always move in the opposite direction to the motion of the air inside it.
4. The water sprinkler works on action and reaction principle. Its rotation is in the opposite
direction to that of water jet.

Example
A 60kg passenger rides in an elevator up wards at an acceleration of 2m/s2 because of
 external forces. What is the force exerted by the passenger on the floor of the elevator?
Solution
fnet = fu – mg = ma
fu – mg = ma
fu = ma + mg
= (60kg x 2m/s2) + (60kg x 10)
= 120 + 600
= 720N

CONVSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

 Consider two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 moving in the same direction with
different velocities.
 On collision, A pushes B with forces FA and B reacts by pushing A with an equal and
opposite force FB.
 Thus FA = -FB
 Since the time spent in colliding is the same, A experiences an impulse -FBt and B
experiences an impulse FAt from A.
 Thus –FBt = FAt ……………………………………………. (i)
 Letting final velocity of A and B be VA and VB respectively,
Then –FBt = mAvA - mAuA ………………………………… (ii)
FAt = mBvB – mBuB …………………………………(iii)
Equating (ii) and (iii)
-(mAvA – mAuA) = mBvB - mBuB
-mAvA + mAuA = mBvB - mBuB
mAuA + mBuB = mBvB + mAvA
But mAuA + mBuB = total momentum before collision
and mBvB + mAvA = total momentum after collision.
Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision.
 The law for the conservation of momentum states that when two or more bodies collide,
their total momentum remains constant provided no external forces are acting.

COLLISION

 Are two types of collisions

 Elastic collision
 When the total kinetic energy is conserved after collision, the collision is
said to be elastic.
 This is only possible within atoms.
 However, the collision between two smooth marble balls is appropriately
elastic.
 Inelastic collision
 We have seen that when the two bodies collide, their total momentum is
conserved.
 The total kinetic energy is however not usually conserved. Some kinetic
energy is converted into sound and heat energy. Collisions where the total
kinetic energy is not conserved are called inelastic collisions
 A completely inelastic collision is the one where colliding bodies stick
together after collision.
 UNIT THREE

FRICTIONAL FORCE

FRICTION

 Is the force that opposes the relative motion of the two surface areas that are in contact
 Main factors that affect friction between bodies are
 The nature of the surface.
 The normal reaction (R).

COEFFICIENT OF SOLID FRICTION

 When the body is about to start moving, it experiences solid friction called static friction.
 This is the force that opposes motion between surfaces so that the body should not start
moving.
 When the body starts moving, it experiences solid friction lower than static friction called
kinetic (dynamic) friction.
 This opposes motion when the bodies have relative motion.
 From the Newton‟s third law of motion,
 Weight (W) of an object placed on the bench is equal and opposite to the normal
reaction (R) between the surface of the bench and the body in contact.
 Therefore, F α R
FαR
F = sR where s is a coefficient of static friction.
s =
 Therefore, the coefficient of static friction can be defined as the ratio of static frictional
force (F) to the normal reaction (R).
 This has no unit since it is a ratio of forces.
 When kinetic frictional force is greater than the static frictional force, the body moves.
Fk = kR where R is the normal force and k is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

Example

1. A force of 25N limits the motion of a block of mass 50kg which is being dragged on the
horizontal ground. Calculate the coefficient of static friction force ( s).
F = sR
s =

s =
s = 0.05
 2. Figure below shows a block of mass 200kg being dragged at a constant velocity with
force 40N at an angle of 60o to the horizontal.
Block (200kg) F

FR 60o

Determine the coefficient of kinetic friction ( k).

F = kR
Since F is acting at an angle, this is a horizontal component of a vector.
i.e. FH = Fcos
= 40N cos 60o
= 40N x 0.5
= 20N
k =
k=
= 0.01

VISCOSITY

 Is the measure of how easily a fluid flows.

 Is the opposition to the body I through the fluid (liquids and gases).
 The resistance offered by different liquids do also differ.
 Frictional force in liquids is due to viscosity.
 The low the frictional force the low the viscosity and the vice versa.
 Air has very low viscosity.
 The resistance due to fluids is called viscous drag.

TERMINAL VELOCITY

 Is the maximum downward velocity possible for a particular object falling through a
fluid.
 The falling body experiences three forces namely
 Weight of the body (W)
 Up thrust (U)
 Viscous drag (fluid friction) (F)

U F

W
  Initially W (U + F) hence the body accelerates downwards.
 As fluid friction (F) increases, it reaches a point where U = F = W
 There being no resultant force, the body moves at uniform (constant) velocity.

AIR RESISTANCE

 Is the backward push experienced by the moving bodies due air force.
 This is also called air friction.
 It is a form of dynamic friction.
 To reduce this bodies have streamline bodies i.e have smoothened, rounded and pointed
bodies.

RESISTIVE MEDIA

 Is an example of the resistive or viscous forces which objects experience when they move
through a fluid (liquid or gas).

FREE FALL IN VACUUM

 An object falling in the vacuum does not experience any resistance or upthrust force
opposing its motion.
 The body accelerates downwards due its body mass i.e acceleration due to gravity.

Free fall body

Vacuum
W

 Since the weight is the only force acting on this body, a = g (where a = acceleration and g
= force of gravity).

APPLICATIONS OF FRICTION FORCES

1. Brakes in a car use pads made of material that offer a lot of friction.
2. The friction between the soles of shoes and tyres of cars provide a grip on the ground.
3. The conveyor belts in factories do not slip because of friction between them.
4. Nails are able to hold the piece of wood.
5. Writing on paper, chalkboard etc uses friction.

DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION

1. Can cause surfaces in contact to wear.

 2. Can cause surfaces in contact to tear.
3. Can cause surfaces in contact to become hot.

HOW TO REDUCE FRICTION

 Use
1. Rollers
2. Ball bearings
3. Oiled/greased surface
4. Very smooth surface
5. Stream lined shape bodies.
 UNIT FOUR

HOOKE’S LAW

HOOK’S LAW

 States that provided the elastic limit is not exceeded, the extension of a spring is directly
proportional to the load applied on the spring

EFFECTS OF FORCE

 Makes the body to start moving.

 Makes the body to stop moving
 Makes the body to be deformed/stretched
 Makes the body to change direction of motion.
 Makes the body to accelerate/decelerates.

STRETCHING OF MATERIAL

 Robert Hook tried a number of investigations on

 Stretching of spiral springs.
 Stretching of wires.
 Loading horizontal beams fixed at one end.
 He discovered the relationship between applied force and the extension.

INVESTIGATION

 Aim:
 To investigate the relationship between the extension produced in a spring and the
force applied.
 Apparatus:
 A metre rule
 A spring
 A stand with clamp
 Seven, 50kg masses
 Procedure:
1. Set the apparatus as shown below.
2. Load the spring with a 50g mass and record the new pointer reading.
Unload the spring and observe what happens to the pointer.
3. Repeat step 2 with 100g, 150g 200g, 250g, 300g, 350 g masses and record the
readings in the table of values.
4. Draw a graph of applied force against extension produced.
 Table of values
Mass (g) Force (N) Final reading y (cm) Extension (e) = Y – X (cm)
50
100
150
200
250
300
350

 Discussion:
 The graph of force against extension gives a straight line graph passing through
the origin.
= gradient of a graph of force against extension.
the spring constant (k) = = gradient of a graph of force against extension.

Force (N)

Extension (cm)

 Conclusion:
 From the graph, the extension produced is direct proportional to the applied force.
 Each time the spring is unloaded, the pointer returns to its original position.
 These materials which are able to recover their original shape and size after being
unloaded are called elastic materials.
 The point at which no extension can be experienced even if some more load is
added to the elastic material is called the elastic limit.
 When the pointer does not point at its original position after the elastic material
has been unloaded, we say the spring has been permanently deformed.
 The point where the spring experiences elastic deformation, it fails to obey
Hook‟s law.
 Mathematically
Fαe
F = ke
k = where k is spring constant.
  The SI unit of the spring constant (k) is the newton-metre (N/M)
 The spring constant is the measure of the stiffness of the spring.
The larger the spring constant the stiffer the spring.

Example

1. A sack containing drug and narcotic substance intercepted by the police, was weighed on
the spring balance and the spring balance stretched by 3cm. The owner was arrested and
finally jailed after a court case. If the sack had a mass of 200g, calculate the spring
constant of the spring balance.
F = ke
k= =
=
= 66.67N/m
2. A spring has a spring constant of 200N/m. If it is compressed by 0.06m. Calculate the
compressing force.
F = ke
= 200N/m x 0.06m
= 12N

COMBINATION OFSPRINGS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

INVESTIGATION

 Aim:
 To determine the spring constant of two springs arranged in series and in parallel.
 Materials:
 Two springs
 Ruler
 Mass
 Stand
 clamp
 Procedure:
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown below
 2. From the results, draw a graph of the force applied against the extension.
3. Use your graph to determine the spring constant for two springs in series
4. Now arrange the apparatus as shown below.

5. From the results, draw a graph of the force applied against the extension.
6. Use your graph to determine the spring constant for two springs in series.
 Discussion:
 You have observed that the single spring produces an extension (e).
 Two identical springs arranged in series can produce an extension (2e).
 For a single spring
F = k1 e
 For two springs
F = ks x 2e
Where F is the applied force, k1 is the spring constant for the single spring
and ks is the constant for the two springs connected in series.
 Since same force is used,
Ks x 2e = k1 x e
Ks =
=
 This shows that the spring constant for two identical springs in series is
equal to half of the spring constant of one spring.
 When two springs are connected in parallel
 For a single spring
F = k1e
 For two parallel springs
F = kp x ( e)
k1e = kp x ( e)
kp = 2k1
 In general, kp = nk where n is number of springs connected in parallel and
kp is a spring constant for n springs in parallel.
  Parallel connected springs produce a stronger stiffer spring system than
single spring.

APPLICATION OF HOOK’S LAW

1. In making of spring balances

2. Elasticity in materials like springs is applied in
a. In making spring beds.
b. In making diving boards.
3. Stretching and compressing of springs helps in designing
a. Shock absorbers in car suspensions
b. Shock breakers in car suspensions
4. Elastic materials are used in making rubber bands, rubber shoes, etc.
5. Elastic materials are used in making catapult used for hunting birds.
6. Elastic materials are used to make equipment used in trampoline games.
 UNIT FIVE

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

ILLUSTRATING CIRCULAR MOTION

 Activity:
 Motion of mud on a rotating bicycle wheel.
 Apparatus:
 A bicycle wheel with dry mud stuck tyres.
 Procedure:
 Place a bicycle, which has been ridden on a muddy road, on its stand and rotate
the pedals.
 Rotate the pedals faster and watch the motion of the rear wheel and the mud stuck
to the tyre.
 What happens to the mud as the wheel starts rotating faster?
 Why?
 Discussion:
 Initially, the mud stuck to the tyre moves in a circular motion along with the
wheel.
 This is as a result of adhesion between the mud and the tyre.
 As the speed of the wheel increases, the adhesive force of mud stops and the mud
breaks off and flies away along the tangent of the rim of the tyre.

 Activity:
 Motion of drips of water on a rotating umbrella
 Apparatus:
 A wet umbrella
 Procedure:
 Take a wet open umbrella with water, handle it and rotate the handle in a circular
manner.
 Rotate the handle faster and watch the motion of the umbrella and the drops of
water on the cloth of the umbrella.
 What happens to the drops of water?
 Why?
 Discussion:
 Initially, water drops move in a circular path with the cloth of the umbrella.
 This is as a result of adhesion between the umbrella cloth and the water drops.
 As the speed of the handle increases, the adhesive force of water drops stops and
the drops break off and flies away.
 Activity:
 Motion of a rotating mass attached to a spring balance
 Apparatus:
 Mass
 String
 Spring balance
 peg
 Procedure:
 Take a disc with a smooth surface and mount it horizontally with a peg through
the Centre so that it can be rotated a vertical axis.
 Attach one end of a string to the peg and the other to a spring balance.
 Place the spring along the radius of a disc. Attach a mass (e.g. 100g) to the other
end of the spring balance using a string as shown below.
 Rotate the disc and observe what happens to the reading of the spring balance.
 What happens to the mass?
 Why?
 Discussion:
 The mass moves outwards and the string tightens
 The reads the force exerted by the string on the mass.
 When the speed increases, the reading increases.
 The balance reading is a measure of the force direction towards the centre.

 Activity:
 Motion of a rotating ball attached to a string
 Apparatus:
 Small ball
 A string
 Procedure:
 Tie a small ball to one end of a string.
 Grip the free end of the string with one hand and rotate it in a circular manner,
above the head, so that the ball moves in a horizontal circle.
 Make sure that the ball is tied securely to the string and the area around
you is free.
 Rotate the hand faster and then release the string.
 What happens to the ball as the string is released?
 Explain.
 Discussion:
 When the hand rotates faster, the ball moves in a circular path with a higher speed
along with the hand.
  The pull of the hand on the string provides a force direction towards the centre
and the ball is kept in a circular path of constant radius.
 When the string is released, suddenly there is no tension in the string and the ball
having uniform velocity flies off along the tangent, at the point of release.

ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT AND ANGULAR VELOCITY

ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT

 When the body is moving in a circular way, it displaces an angle ( ) from one point to
another e.g. point A to point B.
 This angle is called angular displacement.
 It is measured in radian.
 The length of the arc AB is equal to the radius r of the circle.
 The angle subtended by this arc at the centre of the circle is equal to one radian.
 One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of length
equal to the radius of the circle.
 If the length of the arc is 2 times the radius, then the angular displacement is 2 radians.
 For the whole circle, the length of the arc is its circumference i.e. 2πr.
 The angular displacement is therefore 2πr radians.
 The angle at the centre of a circle is 2πr radians which is equal to 360o.
1 radian =
= 57.3o.
 If the angle at the centre is 1 radian, then the length of then, arc is r units.
 If the angle at the centre is radians, the length (s) of the arc AB of the circle is given by
s= x xrad = r

Example

1. The radius of a particle moving along a circular path sweeps through an angle of 60o at
the centre of the circle. Calculate the angular displacement of the particle in radians.
360o = 2π rad
1o =
Hence, 60o = x 60o rad
= rad
Angular displacement of the particle = radians or 1.05 rad.

ANGULAR VELOCITY

 A body moving from point A to point B in a straight line,

 Velocity is defined as the rate of change of linear displacement.
V= =
 When the particle is moving in a circular path with an arc of length AB in time (t),
angular velocity is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement
Angular velocity = and expressed in radians.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANGULAR VELOCITY AND FREQUENCY

 For one complete circular motion, 360o = 2π radians and tine take t = T where T is
period.
ω= =
 Since the frequency of revolution ƒ =
ω = 2πƒ

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ANGULAR VELOCITY AND THE LINEAR

VELOCITY

 Using arc length s = r

Dividing both sides by time t, =
But = v (linear velocity or tangential velocity of the rotating particle) and is angular
velocity.
linear speed (v) = radius (r) x angular velocity (ω)
v = rω

Example

1. A bicycle wheel makes 300 revolutions per minute (rpm). Calculate the angular velocity
of the wheel.
The wheel makes 300 revolutions in 1 minute.
in each second the wheel makes = 5 revolutions.
= 2π rad
revolutions = 5 x 2π rad = 10π rad
ω= = = 31.4 rad/s
the angular velocity of the wheel is 31.4 rad/s
2. Calculate the angular velocity of the earth when it is rotating about its own axis. (Time
period of the earth about its own axis = 24hours)
The earth takes 24 hours to rotate once about its own axis
angular velocity is given by ω =
 ω=
= 7.3 x 10-5
3. A ball tied to a string is rotated at uniform speed in a circle of radius 10cm. It takes 1.5s
to describe an arc of length6 cm. Calculate its:
a. Tangential velocity
Tangential velocity = linear velocity
Linear velocity (v) = = = 4.0cm/s
b. Angular velocity
Since linear speed (v) = ωr,
Angular velocity (ω) = = = 0.4 rad/s
c. Period time
ω=
T= = = 15.7 s
4. The wheel of a car of radius 20cm is rotating at a frequency of 20Hz. Calculate the linear
speed of the car.
Angular velocity of the wheel (ω) = = = 2πƒ
ω 2 x π x 20 = 40π rad/s
Linear speed (v) = radius ® x angular velocity (ω) = 0.20 x 40π = 25.12m/s
The speed of the car is 25.14m/s

CIRCULAR MOTION AND CENTRIPITAL FORCE

CENTRIPITAL FORCE

 The motion in a strain line is a common phenomenon.

 The deviations from this type of motion are caused by a force pulling the body out of the
line.

ACTIVITIES

 Aim:
 To investigate the relationship between the force (F) and the radius (r) of the
circular path
 Apparatus:
 1.5 m long string
 A glass tube
 A mass
 Procedure:
1. Keeping the mass (m) constant, and adding the slotted masses (M) in turn to the
hunger
 2. By trial and error, make the frequency of revolution of the mass (m) the same for
each added mass (M).
3. Measure the radius (r) of the circular path. Record your observation in the table
below
Mass of the hanger and t
he slotted masses (M) (kg)
Radius (r) (m)
4. Determine the relationship between the values of mas (M) and radius (r).
 Discussion:
 When mass (M) is doubled, the radius of the circular path is halved ( 2m = )
 Similarly when the mass is 3M, the radius is
 the force (F) needed is inversely proportional to the radius (r) of the circular
path, when the speed of revolution of the body is constant (F α )

 Aim:
 To investigate the relationship between the force (F) and mass (m) of a body
undergoing circular motion.
 Apparatus:
 Four 20g masses
 1.5 m long string
 A glass tube
 Procedure:
1. Attach a known mass (m) to the string and rotate when the radius of the circular path
is 1m. Find the number of revolutions made by mass (m) in a certain time and
determine the frequency of revolution.
2. Tie two identical masses (2m) securely to the end of the string and at the same time
add one slotted mass (M) to the hunger so that the total hanging mass is 2M.
3. Repeat step2 keeping the radius of the circular path constant (1m) and determine the
frequency of revolution of the mass (m). increase the number of identical masses (m)
tied to the string and each time add one more identical slotted mass (M) to the hanger
4. Repeat the experiment to maintain the same radius as before and determine the
frequency of revolution each time. Record your observation in a table below
Mass attached to Mass of the hanger Number of revolutions Frequency (ƒ)
the string m (kg) and the slotted masses made in time t (N)(s) ƒ = Hz
M (kg
 5. Deduce the relationship between mass (M) in the hanger and the speed of revolution
(v) of the mass (m).
 Discussion:
 The tension developed in the string due to the force of gravity on the hanger and
the slotted masses (Mg) provides the horizontal force (F) needed to keep mass (m)
in a circular path.
 Conclusion:
 From the experiment, we may conclude that
 When the frequency is doubled, the speed also doubles while the force is
multiplied by four to maintain the same radius.
 When the force is multiplied by nine, the speed is multiplied by three and
frequency increases by three.
 The force F required to keep the body in a circular path of constant radius is
directly proportional to the square of the speed of revolution.
F α v2, Fα , and Fα m.

CENTRIPETAL FORCE

 Is a force that constrains an object in motions to move in a circular motion.

 An external force acts towards the centre of the circle and keeps the body of mass (m) at
a fixed distance from the centre.
 This force is called centripetal force.
 Centripetal is a Greek word meaning „seeking centre‟.
 This force is also called the centre seeking force.
 Using F α v2, F α , and F α m;

Fα

F=
Experiments show that K = 1
F= where m is the mass of the object, v is the linear speed along the circular path
in m/s and r is the radius of the circular path.

CENTRIPETAL FORCE IN TERMS OF ANGULAR VLOCITY

 Centripetal force (F) is given by F =

But v = r where is angular velocity.
2
This gives F = = mr .
2
F = mr
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THE CENTRIPETAL FORCE FAILS?

 The force of adhension between mud particles and the tyre or the water drops and the
cloth of the umbrella provides the centripetal force.
 When the wheel of the bicycle or the umbrella starts moving at higher speed, the
centripetal force acting towards the centre of the circle increases.
 Since the adhensive force is small, it is not able to provide the required centripetal force
and the mud particles or the water molecules fly off along the tangent.
 So, if there is no centripetal force, there can be no circular motion.

CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION

 When a body executes uniform circular motion.

 Though the speed is uniform, its direction of motion is continuously changing.
 The direction of motion of the body is along the tangent.
 The speed is a scalar quantity with magnitude only while velocity is a vector quantity
with both magnitude and direction.
 The body in uniform circular motion, the linear velocity changes continuously since only
direction changes continuously.
 Change velocity with time is the acceleration and so during circular motion, the body is
accelerating due to continuous change in direction though the speed remains uniform.
Acceleration = =
From Newton‟s second law , F = ma
But centripetal force, F =

a= is the acceleration of the body towards the centre.

 This acceleration is called the centripetal acceleration and is different from the usual
linear acceleration.
 The acceleration acts towards the centre of the circle and is at 90o to the tangent at each
point of motion.

Examples

1. A 5kg mass moves at uniform speed of 18m/s in a circular path of radius 0.5m. calculate
the centripetal force acting on the mass.
Centripetal force, F = m

=5x
= 3240N
 2. A car of mass 1200kg has to make a circular turn radius 30m. If it is moving with a
uniform speed of 10m/s, calculate the centripetal force acting on the car.
Centripetal force, F = m

= 1200 x
= 4000N

APPLICATION OF UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

 A car negotiating a circular path on a level horizontal road.

 When a car is going round a circular path on a horizontal road, the centripetal
force required for circular motion is provided by frictional force (F) between the
tyres and the road.
 Centripetal force F =
 This give the maximum speed for the motorist not to skid off the track as
Vmax = √F x
 Banked tracks.
 In order that a motorist does not fully depends on the frictional force between the
tyres and the road, circular path are given a small banking angle.
 The outer edge of the road is raised a little above the inner side so that track is
slopping towards the centre of the curve.
 Leaning inward of a cyclist.
 A cyclist going round a curve inwards to provide the necessary centripetal force,
so as to be able to go along the curved track.
 Part pf contact force or the reaction force provides the required centripetal force
acting towards the centre of the track.
 An aircraft taking a circular turn.
 When an aircraft takes a turn in a horizontal plane, it must make a correct banking
angle in midair in order to successfully negotiate the curved path.
 Conical pendulum.
 A simple pendulum held in the hand with the bob of the pendulum hanging freely,
the hand swings in a circular pattern for the bob of the pendulum starts revolving
in a horizontal circle of radius (r).
 If the speed of the bob is increased gradually, the radius of the circle in which the
bob revolves also increases.
 Part of tension (T) developed I the string provides the required centripetal force
for the bob to execute circular motion.
 If the speed increased gradually, to the maximum value, the string breaks.
 This shows that the tension developed was unable to provide the required
centripetal force.
  This critical stage is given by a maximum tension in the string as
T=m
 Centrifuge
 Is a device that separates liquids of different densities or solids suspended in
liquid.
 The mixture is poured into a tube in the centrifuge, which is then rotated at a high
speed in a horizontal circle, either mechanically or with the help of a motor.
 The tube is initially in the vertical position and takes up the horizontal position
when the centrifuge starts working.
 The matter of low density moves inwards towards the centre of rotation.
 On stopping the rotation, tube returns to the vertical position with less dense
matter at the top.
 In cream separator, when the milk is churned rapidly, cream being lighter comes
towards the top of the tube and can be removed.
 In the same manner when blood is rotated at a high speed in a centrifuge, red
blood cells and the blood fluid are separated.
 Viruses and germs in the blood fluid can be separated in a similar manner.
 Very high speed centrifuge called ultra-centrifuges have been developed which
can be rotated at more than million rotations per minute and are extremely useful
in medical researches.
 Drying machine.
 Wet clothes are rotated in a cylindrical drum containing a lot of perforations.
 Initially the wet clothes move in a circular motion along with the drum.
 As the speed of the drum increases, the adhesive force of the water in the clothes
gives up and water breaks off from the clothes and flies off through the
perforations.
 UNIT SIX

MOMENTS OF FORCES

MOMENTS OF FORCES

 Is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the point to the line of
action of the force.
 It is either clockwise or anticlockwise about the point.
Moment of a force about a point = force x perpendicular distance from the points to the
line of action of the force.
=Fxd

SI UNIT OF MOMENT OF A FORCE

 Is measured in newtonmatre (Nm).

 It is so because force is measured in newton while distance is measured in metres.
 Moment of a force is a vector quantity.

Examples

1. A student applies a force of 10N to the handle of a door which is 0.8m from the hinges of
the door. Calculate the moment of the force.
Moment of a force about a point = force x perpendicular distance from the point to
the force
= (10 x 0.8)Nm
= 8Nm in a clockwise direction.
2. Calculate the moment of the force about fulcrum when a pet dog of mass 10kg is at a
distance of 1.2m from the fulcrum of the seesaw.
F = weight of the dog = mg = 10kg x 10N/kg
= 100N
Moment of the force about the fulcrum = force x perpendicular distance from the point to
the force
= 100N x 1.2m
= 120Nm in the clockwise direction.

THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENT

 Gives the relationship between two moments that are at the same turning point (fulcrum).
 It states that when the body is in equilibrium under the action of forces, the sum of the
clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments about
the same point.

Examples
1. A uniform metre rule is provided at its centre and 3 masses are placed at different
positions as shown in the figure. Find the value for the weight W of the mass M so that
the metre rule is balanced horizontally.

2N 1N W

30cm 10cm 40cm

Sum of the clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments

W x 0.4m = 2 x 0.3m + 1 x 0.1m

W x 0.4 = 0.6 + 0.1

W=

W = 1.75N

2. The uniform plank of wood is balanced at its centre by the forces shown. Determine the
value of W in kg.

24cm 6cm