Prof.

Sunil Jha

Department of Mechanical Engineering

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DELHI
2023
 Contributors
Course Coordinator

Dr. Sunil Jha

Supporting Staff

Jitendra Kumar, JTS

Bhagya Vardhan (Staff In-charge, Welding Shop)

PhD. Students

1. Dilshad Ahmad Khan

2. Manoj Sinha
3. Faiz Iqbal
4. Girish Verma
5. Aviral Mishra
6. Zafar Alam
7. Aman Nohwal
8. Mahesh Jagannath Yadav
9. Tarun Verma
10. Dipin Kumar R
11. Shitanshu Arya
12. Sri Harsha Dorapudi
13. Soham Das
14. Mohit Garg
15. Deepak Gautam
16. Lucky
17. Fisseha Zewdie
18. Madhur Pandya
19. Rajesh Punia
20. Gaurav Tripathi
21. Arun Kumar
22. Neetesh Kumar Sah
23. Made Adi Widyatmika
24. Shubham Shankar Mohol
25. Snehal Arun Shende
26. Deepak Kumar
27. Sudhanshu Maurya
28. Sahil Kumar Yadav
29. Mohit Tyagi
30. Dheeraj Soni
31. Priyabrata Das
32. Shivam Kumar
33. Rakesh Kandulna
 34. Pratik Badguajr
35. Allu Vinodkumar
36. Deepak Sharma
37. Nitin Patel

M.Tech Students

1. Kangkan Kalita
2. Abhishek Prabhakar
3. Utpal Sharma
4. Md. Abdul Haque
5. Rahul Bhushan
6. Ravish Kumar
7. Anurag Singh
 Chapter 1

Machine Shop

In a machine shop, metals are cut to shape on different machine tools. The work is performed
due to relative motion between the job and tool. A machine tool generally consists of a few parts
as follows: Base, Power source with arrangement of gear box or other power transferring
mechanism, Work piece holding component like chuck, table, vice, etc., Tool holding device like
tool post, arbor etc.

The following are the machine tools which are used in machine shops for different types of
operations and shapes.

Lathe machine: A lathe is used to cut and shape the metal by revolving the work against a
cutting tool. Primarily, this machine is used for turning operations. The work is clamped either in
a chuck, fitted on to the lathe spindle or in‐between the centers. The cutting tool is fixed in a tool
post, mounted on a movable carriage that is positioned on the lathe bed. The cutting tool can be
fed on to the work, either lengthwise or crosswise. While turning, the chuck rotates in a
counterclockwise direction, when viewed from the tail stock end.

Shaper machine: Shapers are intended to produce horizontal, vertical, or inclined flat surfaces
by means of a reciprocating single point cutting tool. Tool is given reciprocating motion with the
help of mechanism. In the shaper the tool is held in the tool post of reciprocating ram and the
work piece is held in a vice. Cutting takes place in the forward stroke and no material is removed
in the return stroke. The work piece is given indexed feed perpendicular to the direction of ram
at the end of return stroke. To reduce time in the return stroke, the Whitworth quick return
mechanism is used, which results in the mean speed of the return stroke being higher than that of
the forward stroke.

Planer machine: Planer is used to produce large flat surfaces which are almost impracticable to
be machined on a shaper. In planer the work piece reciprocates past the stationary single point
cutting tool as compared to shaper in which the cutting tool reciprocates past the stationary
work.

Slotter machine: The vertical position of a shaper machine is known as slotting machine which
is used to produce splines, slots etc. The slotting machine is a reciprocating machine tool in
which the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a vertical axis and the cutting action of the tool
is only during the downward stroke.

Drilling machine: Drilling is an operation of producing circular holes in a work piece by using
a rotating tool known as drill. In drilling operation, a hole is produced by feeding the rotating
drill in a direction parallel to its axis into a work piece fixed to the table. During cutting, the
metal comes in contact with the two cutting edges of the tool and removes the metal stock.
Grinding Machine: Grinding is the metal cutting process in which the material is removed from
the work piece by the abrasive action of a rotating cutting tool known as grinding wheel. In
grinding wheel abrasive grains are held together by a binding material called bond. Abrasive
grains of the grinding wheel act as cutting tool and remove the material in the form of small
chips. Grinding is used in finishing operations because it imparts high surface finish by
removing a very small amount of material. A low material removal rate is maintained as
grinding is a finishing operation and high material removal rates can damage the surface finish
of the job. Common abrasives used for grinding are cubic boron nitride (CBN), diamond,
aluminum oxide and silicon carbide.

Surface grinding machine: Surface grinders are used to produce flat surfaces. According to the
type of table these can be classified as planer type or rotary type. In planer type grinder is
rectangular and may have horizontal or vertical spindles.

Power saw: Power saw is power operated saw which is used to shear the metal in large quantity
in a short time. They are used to cut large sizes (sections) of metals such as steel. Cutting
diameters of more than 10 to 15mm is very hard work with a normal handheld hacksaw.
Therefore, power hacksaws have been developed to carry out difficult and time-consuming
work. The heavy ‘arm’ moves backwards and forwards, cutting on the backwards stroke.

Milling machine: The milling machine is used to produce, mainly prismatic components, flat,
curved, parallel, stepped, square and inclined faces as well as slots, grooves, threads, and tooth
systems. The milling cutter performs a rotary movement (primary motion) and the workpiece a
linear movement (secondary motion). Gears are commonly cut in milling machines.

Coolants: Coolants are important during machining operations, especially when a high material
removal rate is needed. Coolants cool the workpiece and the tool, reduce friction between the
two, reduce wear and tear of the tool, remove the chips formed during machining and thus
saving the workpiece from being damaged. Thus, by facilitating easy material removal and
dissipating heat, the coolant increases tool life.

Detail of Lathe Machine: Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all
over the world. It is commonly known as the mother of all other machine tools. The main
function of a lathe is to remove metal from a job to give it the required shape and size. The job is
secure1y and rigid1y held in the chuck or in between centers on the lathe machine and then turn
it against a single point cutting tool which wi1l remove meta1 from the job in the form of chips.
Fig. shows the working principle of lathe. An engine lathe is the most basic and simplest form of
the lathe. It derives its name from the early lathes, which obtained their power from engines.
Besides the simple turning operation as described above, lathe can be used to carry out other
operations also, such as drilling, reaming, boring, taper turning, knurling, screw thread cutting,
grinding etc.

The term “engine” is associated with this lathe due to the fact that in the very early days of it
development it was driven by a steam engine. This lathe is an important member of the lathe
family and is the most widely used. Like the speed lathe, the engine lathe has all the basic parts,
e.g., bed, headstock, and tailstock. But its headstock is much more robust in construction and
contains an additional mechanism for driving the lathe spindle at multiple speeds. An engine
lathe is shown in Fig. Unlike the speed lathe, the engine lathe can feed the cutting tool both in
cross and longitudinal direction with reference to the lathe axis with the help of a carriage, feed
rod and lead screw. Centre lathes or engine lathes are classified according to methods of
transmitting power to the machine. The power may be transmitted by means of a belt, electric
motor or through gears.

The bed of the lathe machine needs high compressive strength and vibration damping. Hence,
cast iron is used to make the bed given its high carbon content. The spindle of the lathe machine
is run by a belt drive, given that there is substantial distance between the headstock and the
source of power. The gearbox inside the lathe machine is used to control relative speed between
the chuck and the lead screw. The lead screw allows the workpiece to move the carriage in time
as the spindle rotates. Controlling the relative speed of the lead screw and the spindle is
important for thread cutting.
LATHE OPERATIONS

1. Straight turning

2. Taper turning

3. Facing

4. Chamfering

5. Thread cutting

6. Grooving

7. Knurling

8. Under-cutting

9. Filing

10. Spinning

11. Forming

12. Polishing

13. Solder turning

14. Spring winding

15. Boring

16. Drilling

Straight Turning:

Work piece becomes cylindrical. The motion of the tool is parallel to the work piece surface.

Figure 2: Straight Turning

Facing:

To make side surface perpendicular via cutting tool. The motion of tool is perpendicular to the work
piece surface.

Taper Turning:

Dia. of cylindrical work piece decreasing or increasing gradually is called taper turning .
..

Types of tapers turning:

● By using form tool.

● By setting over tailstock Centre.

● By swiveling the compound rest.

● By using taper turning attachment.

Taper Turning by using form tool:

A broad nose form tool having straight cutting edge makes half taper angle with the axis of work.

The toll is fed right angle to the work axis.

Work is held in chuck or face plate.

Use to turn short length of taper only.

Taper Turning by setting over tail stock:

The method is suitable when the work is held between the centers.

The work pieces are rotated at an angle to the lathe axis and tool fed parallel to the lathe axis.

Desired conical surface obtained.

Use to turn small external taper into long work piece.

Taper Turning by swiveling the compound rest:

The work piece is rotated at lathe axis and tool is fed at an angle to the axis of rotation of work piece.
Tool is mounted on compound rest. The tool can be fed at angle of compound slide as compound rest is
mount at half taper angle.

Threading:

Pointed form tool is fed linearly across surface of rotating work part parallel to axis of rotation at a
large feed rate, thus creating threads.

Grooving:

Tool is fed radially into rotating work at some location to cut off end of part or provide a groove.
Chamfering:

Cutting edge cuts an angle on the corner of the cylinder, forming a "chamfer". It removes sharp edges,
removes edge irregularities and enables easy assembly in holes.

Boring:

Boring produces circular internal profiles in hollow work pieces

Boring mills are used for large work pieces. the

Used
Holes can be bored up to 20M if needed. existing
enlarge
Machines are available with a variety of features: - holet
Horizontal boring machines.

Knurling:

Knurling is a process of impressing a diamond shaped or straight-line pattern into the surface of a
workpiece by using specially shaped hardened metal wheels to improve its appearance and to provide a
better gripping surface. Straight knurling is often used to increase the workpiece diameter when a press
fit is required between two parts.
Single Point Cutting Tool Definition

The single point cutting tool consists of a sharpened cutting part called its point and the shank. The
point of the tool is bounded by the face (along which the chips slide as they are cut by the tool), the
side flank or major flank the end flank or minor flank, and the base. As we know we perform several
operations on the lathe (like turning and facing) from the single point cutting tool. The tool is usually
made of high-speed steel, which has a higher carbon content than the workpiece material, mild steel.
Cast iron is not used as a tool material despite its high carbon content as it is brittle.

Figure 3: Single point cutting tool.

Types: There are only two types of tools.

Single point cutting tool.

Multi-Point cutting tool.

Single Point Cutting Tool: Lathe Machine, Planning Machine tool etc.

Multi-Point Cutting Tool: Milling cutter, Grinding wheel, drill tool, broaching, etc.
Machine Shop Job Description

Job type: Taper mandrel

Sequence of Operation:

1. TRUEING (Centering)

2. TOOL CENTERING

3. FACING

4. TURNING

5. MARKING A LINE OF 15mm

6. CHAMFERING

Cutting tool material: HSS (High Speed Steel)

Composition: 18:4:1 (Tungsten: Chromium: Vanadium)

Job Material: Mild Steel, Carbon: 0.25% to 0.35%

Questions (Descriptive)

Q1 Define Step-Turning?

Ans Step turning is an operation performed on lathe machine where the excess material is
removed from the workpiece to obtain various steps of different diameters.

Q2 What is a lathe machine?

Ans A lathe is a machine tool which rotates the workpiece on its axis to perform various
operations such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, or deformation, facing,
turning, with tools that are applied to the workpiece to create an object which has
symmetry about

an axis of rotation.

Q3 What are the common machines found in a machine shop?

Ans The common machines in a machine shop are a lathe, a drilling m/c, a milling
machine, a shaper, planer, grinding machine etc.

Q4 Different tool materials used as a cutting tool in Turning process?

Ans 1. HSS tools 3.Diamond tools

2. Ceramic tool 4. Carbide tools

Different operations performed on a lathe machine?

Q5

Ans 1. Straight Turning

2. Step Turning

3. Boring

4. Threading

5. Knurling

6. Facing

7. Parting

8. Drilling

9. Reaming

10. Spinning

~
Q6. Name five major parts of lathe machine?

Ans (i) Bed (ii) Tail stock (iii) Carriage (iv) Chuck (v) Tool post

-
Q7. What is the difference between holding methods of three jaw chuck and four jaw
chuck?

Ans Three jaw chuck is self-centering chuck whereas four jaw chuck is independent
chuck i.e., each jaw is independently moved.

Q8. Define Depth of Cut in milling operations.

Ans The depth of cut in milling is defined as the thickness of the material removed in one
pass of the work under the cutter. Thus, it is the perpendicular distance measured
between the original and final surface of the workpiece, and is expressed in mm.
Q9. Write the name of five types of milling cutters.

Ans 1. Plain milling cutter

2. Side milling cutter

3. Face milling cutter

4. Angle milling cutter.

5. End milling cutter

Q.10 Describe the need of the operation called knurling.

Ans Knurling allows hands or fingers to get a better grip on the knurled object than
would be provided by the originally smooth metal surface. also
Enhance
appearsine
Q11. Why 3-jaw chuck is called self-centered chuck?

Ans In a 3-jaw chuck, all the jaws are tightened by only moving of single jaw. All the 3
jaws are moved by the same distance. These chucks are very much used for
cylindrical jobs.

-
Q12. What is the primary type of cutting operation performed in a lathe machine?

Ans Turning

-
Q13. Which material is the lathe machine bed made of and why?

Ans Cast iron, Because of its high carbon content, it has high compressive strength and
vibration damping capacity.

Q14. What is the function of the gearbox in the lathe machine?

Ans To control the relative speed between the chuck and the lead screw.

Q15. What does the lead screw do during thread cutting?

Ans Allows us to move the workpiece automatically using the power feed

Q16. What is the drive mechanism of the drilling machine?

Ans Rack and pinion mechanism: when the hand wheel is rotated, it converts the
rotational motion to linear motion by using rack and pinion.

Q17. Why is a V-belt used instead of a flat belt between the stepped pulleys for power
transmission in a drilling machine?

Ans To increase the power efficiency

Q18. Why is a high material removal rate not attempted during grinding?

Ans Grinding is a finishing operation and hence to maintain a good surface finish, a
low material removal rate is desired.

Q19. What are the key functions of coolants in machining processes?

Ans To reduce friction,

To remove chips and prevent these from damaging the workpiece,

To improve tool life by easing material removal,

To dissipate heat,

To reduce wear and tear of the tool

Q20. What are the commonly used abrasives for grinding?

Ans 1. CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride)

2. Aluminum Oxide

3. Diamond

4. SiC (Silicon Carbide)

Q21. Gears are popularly cut on which types of machines?

Ans Milling Machines

Q22. What types of motion do the cutter and the workpiece have in a milling operation?

Ans Cutter: Rotary

Workpiece: Linear

Q23. What types of motion do the cutter and the workpiece have in a turning operation?

Ans Cutter: Linear

Workpiece: Rotary

Q24. What is the difference between the motions of the cutter and the workpiece in a
shaping and in a planing operation?

Ans Shaping: The tool reciprocates, and workpiece is held stationary

Planning: Workpiece reciprocates, and tool is stationary

Q25. Why is chamfering done?

Ans To remove sharp edges, thus preventing injuries.

To removes edge irregularities; easy assembly in holes.

Q26. which type of power drive is used drive the spindle of the lathe and why?

Ans Belt Drive, Due to substantial distance from the power source and the head stock

Q27. What is the difference between single point cutting tool and multi-point cutting
tool?

Ans The major difference between single and multi-point cutting tools is that single
point cutting tools have only one main cutting edge, whereas multi-point cutting
tools have multiple cutting edges.

Q28. What is the job that you have prepared on the lathe machine? Describe its utility in
machining.

Ans The job that we have prepared on the lathe machine is a taper mandrel.
 Taper mandrels are used to hold workpieces (say while holding partly machined
workpieces for the purpose of finishing) or as a core for material to be bent, forged
or molded. The taper enables a tight frictional grip if the mandrel is pressed into a
previously machined hole to act as a support during machining. If the mandrel is
used to carry tools, then it is known as an Arbor.

Questions (Objective)

Sl. no. Questions A B C D

1 Carriage consists of Draw slide Compound Tool post All of these

slide

2 Which is a self-centering chuck 3 Jaw chuck 4 Jaw chuck Independent jaw None of
chuck these

3 Step turning is used to Reduce the Increase the Reduce the Making
diameter diameter length joints

4 Tool to measure Outer diameter Inside caliper Vice Outside caliper Chisel

5 Drilling operation can be Both drilling Only on lathe Only on Drilling Neither of
performed on machine and machine these two
lathe

6 Which one of the following Cast steel Mild steel High speed steel Cast iron
materials is used for
manufacturing cutting tools?

7 The commonly used proportions 18% 18% 18% vanadium, 18% cobalt,
of alloying elements in HSS are
tungsten, 4% chromium, 4% chromium 4%
4%
chromium and and 1% tungsten chromium
1% vanadium tungsten and and 1%
1% vanadium vanadium

8 Which one of the following Morse taper Brown and Jarno taper Metric
standard tapers is self-holding Sharpe taper taper
type?

9 An operation of embossing, Grooving Knurling Turning All of the

producing a roughened diamond- above
shaped pattern on a smooth
 surface of a cylindrical job to
provide effective gripping is
known as:

10 Tool used in turning operation Single point Cutter Multipoint Metal

cutting tool cutting tool Remover

11 Bed of lathe is generally made by: Cast iron Mild steel High speed steel None

12 The non-circular jobs can be three jaw Four jaw Collet Chuck Mandrel
suitably held in: chuck Chuck

13 The part of a lathe set on the Tool head Tail Stock Compound Rest Cross Slide
carriage that carries the tool post
and holder is known as:

14 Feed motion is provided by the Lathe and Lathe and Shaper and Milling and
cutting tool in: Shaper Drill milling machine drilling
Machine machine

15 Flat surface can be produced in: Shaping Planning Slotting machine All the
machine only machine only only above

16 Facing operation produces what Tapered Flat Curved Helical

type of shape?

17 Which operation is done to have a Facing Turning Knurling Chamfering

better grip on the job surface?

18 Sharp circular edges are removed Facing Turning Knurling Chamfering

by?

19 Turning reduces which of these in Diameter Length Curved surface None

a job? area

20 Tailstock and dead Centre helps Tool centering Job centering Accommodating All
in? longer length
jobs

21 Tool used in turning operation Cutter Multipoint Single point Metal

cutting tool cutting tool Remover

22 The carriage of the lathe travels X axis Z axis Y axis none of

along which axis: these
 Chapter 2

Sheet Metal Shop

Introduction

Sheet metal is a versatile material used in a wide range of industries, including automotive, aerospace,
construction, and manufacturing. It is characterized by its thin, flat structure, making it ideal for
forming various shapes and structures. In the Sheet Metal Shop, you will learn how to transform raw
sheet metal into functional components, such as ductwork, enclosures, brackets, and more.

Machines and Operations:

Ball/Screw Press (For light press work): The ball/screw press is a machine used for light pressing
operations. It utilizes a ball or screw mechanism to apply pressure to the workpiece. This machine is
suitable for applications that require moderate force, such as assembling components or pressing small
parts together.

Bending Machine (For sheet bending up to 45 degrees): A bending machine is designed to bend
sheet metal up to a maximum angle of 45 degrees. It employs a bending die and a clamping mechanism
to hold and shape the sheet metal. This machine is commonly used in metal fabrication for creating
angular bends in sheet metal components.

Bending Rollers (For piping, bending, curving): Bending rollers, also known as roll benders or
section rollers, are used for bending and curving various materials, including sheet metal and piping.
This machine consists of three rollers that apply pressure to the workpiece, allowing it to be formed
into curved or circular shapes. Bending rollers are commonly used in the fabrication of pipes, tubes,
and cylindrical components.

Double Action Hydraulic Press (For sheet forming operations): The double action hydraulic press
is a versatile machine used for various sheet metal forming operations. It utilizes hydraulic power to
apply force on the workpiece from both the top and bottom directions. This allows for precise and
efficient shaping of sheet metal into desired forms, such as deep drawing, embossing, and coining.

Folding Machine (For sheet bending up to 90 degrees): A folding machine, also known as a press
brake, is designed to bend sheet metal up to a maximum angle of 90 degrees. It uses a punch and die set
to apply controlled pressure and create precise bends in the sheet metal. Folding machines are widely
used in sheet metal fabrication for creating box-shaped components, channels, and flanges.

High Temperature Furnace (For heat treatment): A high-temperature furnace is used for heat
treatment processes in the sheet metal industry. It provides a controlled environment with elevated
temperatures to alter the physical properties of the metal, such as hardness, strength, and ductility. Heat
treatment processes include annealing, tempering, quenching, and stress relieving.
-
Lathe (For spinning sheet metal parts): A lathe is a versatile machine tool used for various
operations, including spinning sheet metal parts. In sheet metal spinning, the metal sheet is clamped to
a rotating mandrel while a forming tool applies pressure to shape the sheet into a desired form, such as
a cylindrical or conical shape. Lathes are widely used in metalworking and sheet metal fabrication for
creating precision components.

Manual Shearing Machine (For sheet cutting up to 1mm thickness): A manual shearing machine,
also known as a hand shear, is used for cutting sheet metal up to a maximum thickness of 1mm. It
consists of a fixed blade and a movable blade that shear the sheet metal as it is pressed between them.
Manual shearing machines are commonly used for straight cuts and trimming of thin sheet metal.

Mechanical Shearing Press (For cutting tensile specimens): A mechanical shearing press is
specifically designed for cutting tensile specimens from sheet metal. It utilizes a shearing mechanism to
precisely cut the metal into required shapes and sizes for mechanical testing purposes. These machines
are commonly used in material testing laboratories and research facilities.

Nibbling Machine (For beading): A nibbling machine is used for beading operations in sheet metal
fabrication. It employs a punch and die set to create intricate shapes or patterns, such as beads or flutes,
on the sheet metal surface. Nibbling machines are commonly used in automotive, aerospace, and
architectural industries for decorative or functional purposes.

Rolling Mill (For cold rolling of sheets and strips): A rolling mill is a machine used for the cold length
rolling of sheets and strips of metal. It consists of a series of rollers that compress and shape the metal increas
as it passes through them. Cold rolling is a process that reduces the thickness and refines the surface A
finish of the metal while maintaining its strength. Rolling mills are commonly used in industries such
as manufacturing, construction, and automotive for producing thin sheets, strips, and coils of metal
with precise dimensions and surface characteristics.

Shearing Machine (For sheet cutting up to 3 mm thickness): A shearing machine is a powerful

machine used for cutting sheet metal up to a maximum thickness of 3 mm. It employs a shear
mechanism that applies a shearing force to the metal, causing it to fracture and separate along a straight
cutting line. Shearing machines can be operated manually, mechanically, or hydraulically, depending on
the size and thickness of the metal being cut. They are widely used in metal fabrication workshops,
construction sites, and manufacturing plants for cutting sheets of metal into desired sizes and shapes.
 Figure: Manual shearing machine

Materials used in sheet metal work.

Y
(a) Black iron sheet

It has a bluish -black appearance and is often referred to as uncoated sheet. Since it is uncoated,
therefore, it corrodes rapidly.

(b) Galvanized iron

It is soft steel coated with molten zinc. The zinc coating resists rust, improves the appearance of the
metal, and permits it to be soldered with greater ease. This sheet is used in fabricated products such as
pans, buckets, furnaces, heating ducts, cabinets, gutters and in many other articles.

(c) Copper

It is a reddish coloured metal and is extremely malleable and ductile. It is used extensively in the
electrical field.

(d) Aluminium

It is silvery white coloured metal and has many qualities like high ratio of strength to weight, corrosion
resistant qualities and ease in fabrication.

(e) Stainless Steel

It is an alloy steel possessing the ability to resist corrosion without any surface coating. One important
type of stainless steel contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel. It is widely used in building streamlined
trains, food handling equipment, kitchen wares and in many other applications which require great
strength and resistant to corrosion.
Tools and Equipment

The following tools and equipment are commonly used in sheet metal shop:

Hand tools: Hammers, pliers, wrenches, screwdrivers, files, saws, and drills

Power tools: Shears, brakes, punches, and drills

Measuring and marking tools: Rulers, callipers, squares, and protractors

Tools:

Centre Punch: The centre punch is similar to prick punch, but its point is ground to an angle of
approximately 90o. It is used to mark the location of bend lines on heavy metal and to mark the centres
of holes to be drilled.

Figure: Centre Punch

Hammer: The ball peen hammer has a round, slightly curved face and a round head. It is general
purpose hammer.

Figure: Hammer

Mallet: The mallets may be made from hide, fibre or wood. The best size of mallet is 5-10 cm
diameter. These may be obtained in various shapes to suit special work. It is used instead of hammer to
avoid dents in sheet metal.

Figure: Mallet

Flat nose plier: The flat nose plier has flat jaws with small grooves. It is used for forming and holding
work.

Figure: Flat nose plier

Round nose plier: The round nose plier has long jaws rounded on the outside. It is used for holding
and forming the various shapes and patterns.

Figure: Round nose plier

Funnel Stake: The funnel stake is used for planishing tapered word and hand forming of funnels and
similar conical shapes of sheet metal.

Figure: Funnel Stake

Beak Horn Stake: The beak horn stake has a round tapered horn at one end and a rectangular tapered
horn at the other end. It is basically used for forming, riveting, and seaming articles made of sheet
metal parts. It is not much suitable like blowhorn stake.
 Figure: Beak Horn Stake

Creasing Stake: This has two rectangular shaped horns. One is plane and the other contains a series of
grooved slots of various sizes. These slots are used for wiring ‘sinking’ a bead on the straight edges of
the flat sheet, and for making small diameter tubes with thin gauge metal.

Figure: Creasing Stake

Lab Operations:

Sheet Operations:

Measurement and marking -

Cutting -

Bending-

Joining ~

Finishing -

Joints Operation:

Hemming: In this process sheets are joined by bending it usually to 180°. Automotive body panels and
automotive parts such as deck-lids, trunk-lids, doors, hoods and tailgates are formed by hemming
process.
 Figure: Single and double Hem

Locked Groove Joint: It is self-locking joint used commonly in the fabrication of cylindrical and
conical objects.

Figure: Locked Groove Joint

Knocked-up Joint (Corner Joint): In this joint, the ends of the two pieces of sheet are cut at a
45-degree angle, creating a metered corner. When assembled, the two pieces fit together to form a right
angle. The joint is then secured with glue, nails, screws, or other fasteners, depending on the specific
application.

Figure: Corner Joint

Flanging: In this operation the edge of the metal is manipulated to create a flange, which is a raised,
folded, or curved portion along the edge. This flange can serve various purposes, such as providing
stiffness, increasing strength, improving alignment, or creating a mating surface for joining with other
components.

Figure: Flanging
Sheet Metal Workshop Practical

Figure: Sheet metal job to be performed

Questions and Answers:

1. what is the difference between sheet, foil, and plate?

Ans: Thickness

Sheet = 0.5mm – 6mm

Foil = < 0.2 mm

Plate > 6mm

2. Which sheets are coated with zinc to prevent rust formation?

Ans: Galvanized iron sheet Gl Shut

3. How do you join sheet metal?

Ans: riveting, spot welding, and seam welding. hemming , resective , seling

4. To make a small indentation (centre hole) in sheet metal, a—————— is used.

Ans: Centre Punch

5. To bend the sheet metal by 180 degrees a ————– is used.

-
Ans: Mallet

-
6. Files are used to ———— metal sheet surface.

Ans: Finish

7. How much thickness of the sheet can be cut by a manual sharing machine and power shearing
machine?

Ans: manual sharing machine for soft metal 1.5mm and for hard metal 1mm

Power-sharing machine for soft metal 5 mm and for hard metal 4 mm

8. Which hand tool is used for cutting the sheets?

Ans: Snip tool

9. The formation of rough edges or ridges on the sheet metal piece is called?

Ans: Burr

10. What are the applications of sheet metal?

Ans: automobile and truck bodies, airplane fuselages, and wings, tinplate for tin cans, roofing for
buildings, and home appliances.

Q. 11 What is a progressive die?

Ans: A “progressive die” is a series of punch press tools that have been specially designed to perform
all the punching, cutting, coining, and bending required to produce a metal part through a multistep
process.

Q. 12 Why progressive die are used?

Ans. Progressive die stamping is an excellent manufacturing solution to manufacture complex parts in
large numbers.

Q.13 __________ snip is used for trimming cylindrical or conical work?

Ans. Bent snip.

Q.14 What is difference between lancing and slitting?

Ans. In Lancing is creating partial cut in sheet, so that material is left attached to sheet. slitting is
cutting straight lines in sheet, such that no scrap material is produced.

Q.15 What is Hemming?

Ans: Hemming is folding the edge of the sheet over itself to increase thickness of part.

Q.16 Difference between mallet and hammer?

Ans. Mallet is used for giving light blows, whereas for heavy blows, hammer is used.

Q.17 Which material is Anvil made of?

Ans. Mild steel or cast steel with hardened surface.

-
Q.18 what is the use of Chisels?

Ans. When there is no approach or access to line to be cut by snips/shears from an edge the material is
cut using chisel.

Q.19 Name of any five measuring instruments?

Ans. (i) Try square (ii) Vernier calliper (iii) Micrometre (iv) Divider (v) Inside calliper.

Q. 20 What is the use of divider?

Ans. It is used for marking arc, dividing a line, or transferring the dimension.
 Chapter 3

Fitting Shop
Introduction

Manufacturing processes are broadly classified into four categories: (i) Casting processes, (ii)
Forming processes, (iii) Fabrication processes, and (iv) Material removal processes. In all these
processes, components are produced with the help of either machines or manual effort. The
attention of a fitter is required at various stages of manufacture starting from marking to
assembling and testing the finished goods. Working on components with hand tools and
instruments, mostly on work benches, is generally referred to as ‘Fitting work’.

Machine tools can produce work at a faster rate, but there are occasions when components are
processed at the bench. Sometimes, it becomes necessary to replace or repair components which
must be fit accurately with another component on reassembly. This involves a certain amount of
hand fitting. The assembly of machine tools, jigs, gauges, etc., involves a certain amount of
bench work. The accuracy of work done depends upon the experience and skill of the fitter.

The term bench work refers to the production of components by hand on the bench, whereas
fitting deals which the assembly of mating parts, through removal of metal, to obtain the
required fit. Both the bench work and fitting require the use of a few simple hand tools and
considerable manual effort. The operations in the above works consist of filing, chipping,
scraping, sawing drilling, and tapping.

Holding Tools

Bench Vice

The bench vice is a work holding device. It is the most used vice in a fitting shop. The bench
vice is shown in the figure below.

Figure: Bench Vice

It is fixed to the bench with bolts and nuts. The vice body consists of two main parts, fixed jaw
and movable jaw. When the vice handle is turned in a clockwise direction, the sliding jaw forces
the work against the fixed jaw. Jaw plates are made of hardened steel. Serrations on the jaws
ensure a good grip. Jaw caps made of soft material are used to protect finished surfaces, gripped
in the vice. The size of the vice is specified by the length of the jaws varying from 75 mm to
300 mm. The vice body is made of cast iron, which is strong in compression, weak in tension
and so fractures under shocks and therefore should never be hammered.

V-block with clamp

The V-block is a rectangular or square block with a V-groove on one or both sides, opposite to
each other. The angle of the V is usually 90º. V-block with a clamp is used to hold cylindrical
work securely, during marking of measurements or for drilling for this the bar is faced
longitudinally in the V Groove and the screw of V clamp is tightened. This grip the rod is firm
with its axis parallel to the axis of the V-groove.

Figure: V- block

C-Clamp

This is used to hold work against an angle plate or block or any other surface when gripping is
required. Its fixed jaw is shaped like English alphabet ‘C’ and the movable jaw is round and
directly fitted to the threaded screw at the end. The working principle of this clamp is the same
as that of the bench vice.

Figure: C clamp

Marking and Measuring Tools

Surface plate

The surface plate is machined to fine limits and is used for testing the flatness of the work
piece. It is also used for marking out small boxes and is more precious than the marking table.
The degree of the finished depends upon whether it is designed for bench work in a fitting shop
or for using in an inspection room; the surface plate is made of Cast Iron, hardened Steel or
Granite stone. It is specified by length, width, height, and grade. Handles are provided on two
opposite sides, to carry it while shifting from one place to another.

Figure: Surface plate

Angle Plate

The angle plate is made up of cast iron in different sizes. It has two planed surfaces at right
angles to each other and has various slots on both surfaces to hold the work firmly by means of
bolts and clamps. The angle plate is used with the conjunction of surface plate for supporting
work at right angles for marking.

Figure: Angle plate

Try Square

It is used for measuring and marking tool for 90° angle. In practice, it is used for checking the
squareness of many types of small works when extreme accuracy is not required. The blade of
the Try square is made of hardened steel and the stock of cast Iron or steel. The size of the Try
square is specified by the length of the blade.
 Figure: Try square.

Scriber

A Scriber is a slender steel tool, used to scribe or mark lines on metal work pieces. It is made of
hardened and tempered High Carbon Steel. The Tip of the scriber is generally ground at 12° to
15°. It is generally available in lengths, ranging from 125 mm to 250 mm. It has two pointed
ends the bent end is used for marking lines where the straight end cannot reach.

Figure: Scriber

Calipers

They are indirect measuring tools used to measure or transfer linear dimensions. These are used
with the help of a steel Rule to check inside and outside measurements. These are made of
case-hardened mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel. While using, the legs of
the caliper are set against the surface of the work, whether inside or outside and the distance
between the legs is measured with the help of a scale and the same can be transferred to another
desired place. These are specified by the length of the leg.

In the case of the outside caliper, the legs are bent inwards and in the case of inside caliper, the
legs are bent outwards.
 Figure: Calipers

Odd leg Caliper

This is also called ‘Jenny Caliper’ or Hermaphrodite. This is used for marking parallel liners
from a finished edge and for locating the center of round bars; it has one leg pointed like a
divider and the other leg bent like a caliper. It is specified by the length of the leg up to the
hinge point.

Figure: Odd leg caliper

Divider

It is basically like the calipers except that its legs are kept straight and pointed at the measuring
edge. This is used for marking circles, arcs laying out perpendicular lines, by setting lines. It is
made of case-hardened mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel. Its size is
specified by the length of the leg.
 Figure: Divider

Vernier Calipers

These are used for measuring outside as well as inside dimensions accurately. It may also be
used as a depth gauge. It has two jaws. One jaw is formed at one end of its main scale and the
other jaw is made part of a vernier scale.

Figure: Vernier Caliper

Outside Micrometer

This is used for measuring external dimensions accurately. Figure shows a micrometer of 0 to
25 mm range with an accuracy of 0.01 mm. These are available in different ranges with
interchangeable anvils varying from 0-25 mm to 2000 mm in sizes and 0.01 to 0.001 in
accuracy. There are many types of micrometers designed for special purpose use. They include
thread micrometers to measure thread dimensions, tube micrometers to measure wall thickness
of tubes, etc.

Figure: Outside Micrometer

Inside Micrometer

This is used to measure inside dimensions accurately. Figure shows an inside micrometer. These
are available in different ranges and accuracies.

Figure: Inside Micrometer

Punches

A punch is a marking tool used in bench work and is known as center punch. It is generally
made from 10 mm octagonal cast steel about 100 mm long. One end of the punch carries a point
ground to an included angle of 90° and is tempered to a pale straw color while the other end is
slightly chamfered to prevent it from burring. The body is knurled for gripping it by hand. It is
used for marking the ends of work to be centered for turning in lathe as well as for all centers of
holes for drilling.

The prick or dot punch is like center punch but small. It is made from 6 mm diameter cat steel
with a sharp point of 60°. It is used for marking the position of lines and centers of circles to be
drawn with the dividers.

Figure: Punches

Vernier height gauge

The Vernier Height gauge clamped with a scriber. It is used for Lay out work and offset scriber
is used when it is required to take measurement from the surface, on which the gauge is
standing. The accuracy and working principle of this gauge are the same as those of the vernier
calipers. Its size is specified by the maximum height that can be measured by it. It is made of
Nickel Chromium Steel.

Figure: Vernier height gauge

Feeler Gauge

The thickness gauges or feeler gauges are a set of gauges consisting of thin strips of metal of
varying thickness. They are widely used for measuring and checking bearing-clearance,
adjusting tappets, spark plug gaps, and so on. The thickness varies from 0.05 to 0.5 mm.
 Figure: Feeler gauge

Cutting tools

Hack Saw

The Hack Saw is used for cutting metal by hand. It consists of a frame, which holds a thin
blade, firmly in position. A backsaw blade is specified by the number of teeth per centimeter.
Hacksaw blades have several teeth ranging from 5 to 15 per centimeter (cm). Blades having
lesser number of teeth per cm are used for cutting soft materials like aluminum, brass, and
bronze. Blades having a larger number of teeth per centimeter are used for cutting hard
materials like steel and cast Iron. Hacksaw blades are classified as (i) All hard and (ii) flexible
type. The all-hard blades are made of H.S.S, hardened and tempered throughout to retain their
cutting edge longer. These are used to cut hard metals. These blades are hard and brittle and can
break easily by twisting and forcing them into the work while sawing. Flexible blades are made
of H.S.S or low alloy steel but only the teeth are hardened, and the rest of the blade is soft and
flexible. These are suitable for use by unskilled or semi-skilled people.
 Figure: Hacksaw frame with blade

The teeth of the hacksaw blade are staggered, as shown in figure and known as a “set of teeth”.
These make slots wider than the blade thickness, preventing the blade from jamming.

Figure: Blade and slot thickness while in operation

Chisels

Chisels are used for removing surplus metal or for cutting thin sheets. These tools are made
from 0.9% to 1.0% carbon steel of octagonal or hexagonal section. Chisels are annealed,
hardened, and tempered to produce a tough shank and hard cutting edge. Annealing relieves the
internal stresses in a metal. The cutting angle of the chisel for general purpose is about 60°.

Figure: Flat chisel

Twist Drill
Twist drills are used for making holes. These are made of High-speed steel. Both straight and
taper shank twist drills are used. The parallel shank twist drill can be held in an ordinary
self-centering drill check. The tapper shank twist drill fits into a corresponding tapered bore
provided in the drilling machine spindle.

Figure: Twist drills

Taps and Tap wrenches

A tap is a hardened steel tool, used for cutting internal thread in a drill hole. Hand Taps are
usually supplied in sets of three in each diameter and thread size. Each set consists of a tapper
tap, intermediate tap and plug or bottoming tap. Taps are made of high carbon steel or
high-speed steel.

Figure: Taps and tap wrench

Dies and die-holders.

Dies are the cutting tools used for making external thread. Dies are made either solid or split
type. They are fixed in a die stock for holding and adjusting the die gap. They are made of Steel
or High Carbon Steel.

Figure: Dies and die holder

Bench Drilling Machine

Holes are drilled for fastening parts with rivets, bolts or for producing internal thread. Bench
drilling machine is the most versatile machine used in a fitting shop for the purpose. Twist
drills, made of tool steel or high-speed steel are used with the drilling machine for drilling
holes.

Following are the stages in drilling work:

1. Select the correct size drills, put it into the check and lock it firmly.

2. Adjust the speed of the machine to suit the work by changing the belt on the pulleys.
Use high speed for small drills and soft materials and low speed for large diameter
drills and hard materials.

3. Layout of the location of the pole and mark it with a center punch.

4. Hold the work firmly in the vice on the machine table and clamp it directly on to the
machine table.

5. Put on the power, locate the punch mark and apply slight pressure with the Feed
Handle.

6. Once Drilling is commenced at the correct location, apply enough pressure and
continue drilling. When drilling steel, apply cutting oil at the drilling point.
 7. Release the pressure slightly when the drill point pierces the lower surface of the
metal. This prevents the drill catching and damaging the work or drill.

8. On completion of drilling retrace the drill out of the work and put off the power
supply.

Figure: Bench drill

Finishing Tools

Reamers

Reaming is an operation of sizing and finishing a drilled hole, with the help of a cutting tool
called reamer having several cutting edges. For this, a hole is first drilled, the size of which is
slightly smaller than the finished size and then a hand reamer or machine reamer is used for
finishing the hole to the correct size.

Hand Reamer is made of High Carbon Steel and has left hand spiral flutes so that, it is
prevented from screwing into the whole during operation. The Shank end of the reamer is made
straight so that it can be held in a tap wrench. It is operated by hand, with a tap wrench fitted on
the square end of the reamer and with the work piece held in the vice. The body of the reamer is
given a slight tapper at its working end, for its easy entry into the whole during operation, it is
rotated only in clockwise direction and also while removing it from the whole.
 Figure: Reamers

Files

Filing is one of the methods of removing small amounts of material from the surface of a metal
part. A file is hardened steel too, having small parallel rows of cutting edges or teeth on its
surfaces. On the faces, the teeth are usually diagonal to the edge. One end of the file is shaped
to fit into a wooden handle. The figure shows various parts of a hand file. The hand file is
parallel in width and tapering slightly in thickness, towards the tip. It is provided with double
cut teeth. On the faces, single cut on one edge and no teeth on the other edge, which is known
as a safe edge.

Figure: Parts of a hand file

Files are classified according to their shape, cutting teeth and pitch or grade of the teeth. The
figure shows the various types of files based on their shape.

Figure: Single and double cut files

 Figure: Types of files

Miscellaneous Tools

File card

It is a metal brush, used for cleaning the files, to free them from filings, clogged in between the
teeth.

Figure: File card

Ball Peen Hammer

Ball Peen Hammers are named, depending upon their shape and material and specified by their
weight. A ball peen hammer has a flat face which is used for general work and a ball end,
particularly used for riveting.

Figure: Ball peen hammer

Cross Peen Hammer

It is like ball peen hammer, except the shape of the peen. This is used for chipping, riveting,
bending, and stretching metals and hammering inside the curves and shoulders.
 Figure: Cross Peen Hammer

Straight Peen Hammer

This is like cross peen hammer, but its peen is in line with the hammer handle. It is used for
swaging, riveting in restricted places, and stretching metals.

Figure: Straight Peen Hammer

Spanners

A spanner or wrench is a tool for turning nuts and bolts. It is usually made of forged steel.
There are many kinds of spanners. They are named according to the application. The size of the
spanner denotes the size of the bolt on which it can work.
Questions (Descriptive)

Q1 What is meant by fitting?

Ans Fitting is the process of assembling the item after bringing the components to the exact
size and geometrical shape and tolerance

Q2 Which material is used to make the file?

Ans High carbon steel

Q3 What are the methods of filing and where it is used?

Ans Straight filing, cross filing and draw filing. straight filing is used to file thick materials
and cross filing is used for filing thin material and to reduce the formation of convexity in
the middle of the materials. draw filing is used for finishing purpose to remove any
convexity. thickness

Q4 What are the types of vices? What is the name of vice used in fitting shop?

Ans Hand vice, pipe vice, bench vice, leg vice, Drill vice etc.

Bench vice

Q5 What is a try square?

Ans A try square is a wood-working or a metal working tool used for marking and measuring
a piece of wood. The square refers to the tool's primary use of measuring the accuracy of
a right angle (90 degrees); to try a surface is to check its straightness or correspondence to
an adjoining surface. A piece of wood that is rectangular, flat, and has all edges (faces,
sides, and ends) 90 degrees is called four squares.

Q6. Name of the operation used to cut thread inside a hole

Ans Tapping

Q7. What is the name of job material used in fitting shop?

Ans Mild steel

Q8. How to specify a file?

Ans By the shape, type, grade, and length.

Q9. List five types of tools used in Fitting shop.

Ans Bench vice

Hand Hacksaw

Hand File

Try square.

Tapping tool

Q10. How are files classified based on cut of teeth?

Ans The most used files according to cuts of teeth are:

Single cut

Double cut and

Rasp cut

Q11. What is the use of triangular files? What is the use for rasp files?

Ans Triangular files are commonly used for filing corners between 60° and 90°. They are
double cut on all faces.

Rasp files are used for wooden sample and soft metals.

Q12. What is the material of scriber?

Ans High carbon steel

Q13. What is the use of Try Square?

Ans Try Square is used mainly for:

To check the flatness of a surface

To check the perpendicularity between two adjacent surfaces.

Q14. What is the use of square files?

Ans Square files are commonly used for filing in corners in jobs. They are double cut on
all sides and tapers.

Q15 What is tapping? Name the tool used and the material of tool

Ans Operation for producing thread inside a hole. Taps made of high-speed steel (HSS) are
used for the operation.

Q16. Distinguish between a single cut file and a double cut file.
Ans Single-cut files have rows of teeth cut parallel to each other at an angle of about 65
degrees from the centerline. Single-cut files are used for sharpening tools, finish filing
and draw-filing. They are also the best tools for smoothing the edges of sheet metal.

Double-cut files have rows of teeth crisscrossed so teeth become diamond-shaped for
fast cutting. Use double-cut files for quick removal of material and for rough work.

Q17. What are the different types of vices?

Ans Bench vice, Pin vice, leg Vice, Machine Vice, Pipe Vice, Angle vice, Rotary vice Saw
Vice etc.

Q18. Mention any 3 types of files and their uses.

Ans Knife files: Used for slotting or wedging operations.

Round files: Used for enlarging round holes or cutting a scalloped edge.

Half round ring files: Used for filing inside of rings.

Q19. What should be the orientation of the hack hacksaw blade teeth to facilitate cutting by
forward stroke

Ans Forward inclined

Q20. Why the hand hacksaw blade comprises of zig zag teeth?

Ans The zig zag nature of teeth facilitates efficient material removal during the cutting
operation by eliminating the possibility of blade breakage.

Q21. What is the name of bench vice jaw plate material used in fitting shop? What is the
name and purpose of the pattern made on the jaw plates?

Ans Mild steel

Knurled pattern for proper grip of the sample

Questions (Objective)

SN Questions A B C D

1 Purpose for which Pin Plumbing Watch making Key making None
vice is used

2 What is the purpose of Holding Device Cutting Device Measuring None

vice Device

3 Files are classified Shape Grade Cut All of these

based on

4 Rasp file can be used Lead Wood Brass All of these

on material like

5 Type of file used for Triangular File Half round file Square file Round file
filing V groove

6 The length of hacksaw one end of the center of one pin end to end of end of one hole
blade is measured from toothed portion hole to the center blade to the end of
to the other end of another pin the other pin
hole hole

7 A rough file is used on irregular jobs to reduce the on wood if smooth file is
metal rapidly not available

8 The tapping hole larger than the smaller than the equal to the equal to the
should be tap size tap size tap size core (minor)
diameter of the
tap

9 Both sides of a flat no cut single cut teeth double cut wavy teeth
bustard file have teeth

10 A file removes the forward stroke both forward and return stroke none of these
metal during return strokes

11 Bench Vice is a tool Cutting Drilling Holding Boring

used for

12 Tap are used for Cutting accurate Finishing the Cutting Cutting
square holes round holes internals externals
threads in jobs threads in jobs

13 For riveting purpose Ball peen Cross peen Straight peen Double face
which hammer is used hammer hammer hammer hammer

14 What is the most High Speed steel Hard grade Iron Mild steel High Carbon
common material for steel
hacksaw blade?
15 Which of these files has Rough Dead Smooth Bastard Smooth
most no. of teeth per
sq. inch?

16 Which tool is used for Try Square Tap Centre Punch Hammer
locating center for
indentation mark for
drilling purposes.

17 All faces of triangular Single Cut Double Cut Rasp Cut None
files are?

18 Tapping creates? Holes Internal threads External Flat Faces

threads

19 Which tool will you use Scale Mortise gauge Try Square File
to check whether a
square hole is truly
square or not?

20 Select the correct Blade and Stock Blade and Stock and None of these
option representing handle handle
parts of Try Square.

21 What is the least count 0.50 mm 0.25 mm 1.0 mm 0.05 mm

of steel rule used in
fitting shop?
 Chapter 4

Computerized Numerical Control Shop

CNC is an acronym for Computer Numerical Control. A dedicated computer is used to perform all the
basic NC functions. The complete part program to produce a component is input and stored in the
computer memory and information for each operation is fed to the machine tools. The program can be
stored and used in future.

Axis in CNC machines

The basis of axis identification is the 3-dimensional cartesian co-ordinate system, and three axes of
movement are identified as x, y and z axis.

Z AXIS

The Z Axis of motion is always the axis of the main spindle of the machine. It does not matter whether
the spindle carries the work piece or the cutting tool. On vertical machining centers Z axis is vertical
and on horizontal machining center and turning centers Z axis is horizontal.

X-Axis

The axis is always horizontal and is always parallel to the work holding surface. Positive X Axis
movement is identified as being to the right, when looking from the spindle towards its supporting
column.

Y- Axis

The axis is always at a right angle to both X-Axis and Z-Axis.

CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM

Dimensional information in a work piece drawing can be stated in two ways Absolute Dimension
System and Incremental Dimension System.

Absolute Dimension System

Data in absolute dimension system always refer to a fixed reference point. This point has the function
of a coordinate zero point. The dimension lines run parallel to the coordinate axes and always start at
the reference point. Absolute dimensions are also called as ‘Reference dimensions.” In this absolute
system, the set point is considered as a reference point as from that point, all the values are calculated,
for example.

Point A = (0, 0)

Point B = (20, 0)

Point C = (20, 10)

Point D = (0, 10)

Incremental Dimension System

When using the Incremental Dimension system, every measurement refers to a previously dimensioned
position. Incremental dimensions are the distance between adjacent points. These distances are
converted into incremental coordinates by accepting the last dimension point as the coordinate origin
for the new point. Incremental dimensions are also frequently called 'Relative dimensions' or 'Chain
dimensions’. In this method, every point is considered as origin from this point; the values are
calculated, for example.

Point A = (0, 0)

Point B = (20, 0)

Point C = (0, 10)

Point D = (-20, 0)

Programming methods:

In CNC machines program are programmed by two methods.

Manual part programming

Computer assisted part programming.

1) Manual part programming:

To prepare a part program using the manual method, the programmer writes the machining instruction.
Hence, the instruction must be prepared in a very precise manner because the typist prepares the NC
type directory from the manuscript some in various form expanding on the machine tool and tape
format used.

2) Computer assisted part programming:

In the more complicated point and in contour application, using manual part programming is difficult
because it is tedious, basic and subject to errors. It is much more appropriate to employ the high
-speed digital computer to assist the part programming languages system that have been
developed to automatically perform most of the calculations which the programmer would otherwise
be forced to do.

CNC program structure

G-Codes: Preparatory Codes.

A number following address G determines the meaning of the command for the
concerned block. G codes are divided into the following two types

Type Meaning

The G itcode
which is specified
is effective only in the block in
One-shot G code
The G code is effective until another G
Modal G code
code of the same group is specified
G00: Rapid Travel

G01: Linear interpolation

G02: Circular interpolation CW

G03: Circular interpolation CCW

G04: Dwell for a specific time

G17: XY plane

G18: XZ Plane

G19: YZ plane

G20: Inch data input

G21: mm data input

G28: Go Home

G40: Cancel cutter Offset.

G41: Offset cutter Left.

G42: Offset cutter Right

G54: Workpiece coordinate system

G90: Program in absolute Coordinate

G91: Program in incremental Coordinate

I, J, K: Coordinate values of arc center corresponding to X, Y and Z axes.

F: Feed rate per minute or per revolution in either inches or mm

S: Spindle speed in RPM

T: Tool selection (used for machine with automatic tool changers)

R: Radius of arc which is used in circular interpolation

M-Code: Miscellaneous Code

These signals are used for ON/OFF control of a machine function such as tool change, spindle rotation
change, coolant ON/OFF. One M code can be specified in one block. Selection of M codes for
functions varies with the machine tool builder.

M01: Optional stop

M03: Spindle start CW

M04: Spindle start ACW

M05: Spindle Stop

M06: Tool Change

M07: Coolant on (Flood)

M08: Coolant on (Mist)

M09: Coolant off

M30: End of program

Figure: CNC Milling machine

Machine specifications:

WORK AREA

Travel in X/Y/Z 200 / 150 / 250 mm

Distance spindle nose 95 - 245 mm

Rapid motion speeds in X/Y/Z 5 m/min

Work feed X/Y/Z 0 - 5 m/min

Feed force in X/Y/Z 2000 N

Clamping area 420 x 125 mm

Max. table load 10 kg

MAIN SPINDLE

Max. speed 5000 rpm

Max. drive power 1.1 kW

Max. torque 4.2 Nm

 Figure 3: Workpiece zero-point referencing

CNC Job description:

G54 Workpiece coordinate system

T3 D1 M06 Tool 3 ready and tool change

S2000 M03 Spindle start in clockwise direction with 2000

RPM

G00 X0 Y0 Z5 Rapid movement to X0 Y0

G01 Z-8 F200 Linear interpolation with feed 200 mm/min

G00 Z3 to Z3

G00 X15 Y-7.5 Rapid movement, go to given coordinates

G01 Z-3 Linear interpolation, go to given coordinates

G03 X0 Y-7.5 CR7.5 Circular interpolation CCW ending at X0

Y-7.5 with radius 7.5 mm

G03 X7.5 Y-15 CR7.5 Circular interpolation CCW ending at X7.5

Y-15 with radius 7.5 mm

G02 X7.5 Y-30 CR7.5 Circular interpolation CW ending at X7.5 Y-30

 with radius 7.5 mm

G02 X0 Y-22.5 CR7.5 Circular interpolation CW ending at X0 Y-22.5

with radius 7.5 mm

G00 Z3 Rapid movement to Z3

G00 X22 Y-30 Rapid movement, go to given coordinates

G01 Z-3 Linear interpolation, go to given coordinates

G00 X31 Y0 Rapid movement, go to given coordinates

G01 X40 Y-30 Linear interpolation, go to given coordinates

G00 Z3 Rapid movement, go to given coordinates

G00 X25 Y-20 Rapid movement, go to given coordinates

G01 Z-3 Linear interpolation, go to given coordinates

G01 X37 Y-2 Linear interpolation, go to given coordinates

G00 Z30 Rapid movement, go to given coordinates

M30 End of program

Questions

Objective

1. On a 3-axis CNC milling machine, rotational degree of freedom to the workpiece can be added
as the 4th axis using an attachment. Say True or False

Ans: True

2. Which G code is preferred when no material removal is involved.

A. G00

B. G01
 C. G02

D. G03

Ans: Option (A)

3. M codes are used for circular interpolations. Say True or False

Ans: False

4. G54 is used to set.

a. Tool Offset

b. Workpiece offset origin.

c. Tool radius offset.

d. Tool length compensation

Ans: Option (b)

5. M06 requires which compulsory command in the same line.

a. Tool magazine number T_ _

b. Spindle Speed S_ _ _

c. Feed F_ _

d. Depth of cut

Ans: Option (a)

6. Tolerances of the order ±0.010mm can be achieved in CNC machining centers. Say True or
False

Ans: True

7. Through hole of 50mm diameter in a direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of

cylindrical workpiece of 100mm can be achieved using

a. Milling with linear interpolation

b. Milling with circular interpolation

c. Milling with helical interpolation

 d. Boring with linear interpolation

Ans: Option (c)

8. Servo motors are used to control the table movement in a vertical machining center. Say True or
False

Ans: True

9. Internal thread milling can be achieved by helical interpolation on vertical machining center.
Say True or False.

Ans: True

10. What is the M-code for coolant ON/OFF?

a. M06/05

b. M07/08

c. M08/09

d. M10/M11

Ans: Option (c)

11. Which of the following is not the advantage of CNC machines?

a. Reduced scrap rate

b. Improved strength of the components

c. Higher flexibility

d. Improved quality

Ans: b

13. Which code is used for 'Circular interpolation clockwise direction'?

a. G01
 b. G02

c. G03

d. G00

Ans: b

14. Feed is measured in units of _____

a. length/revolution

b. degree/revolution

c. length

d. velocity

Ans: a

15. CNC machining centers do not include operations like ______

a. milling

b. boring

c. welding

d. tapping

Ans: c

16. In part programming, interpolation is used for obtaining _______ trajectory.

a. helicoidal

b. pentagonal

c. triangular

d. zigzag

Ans: a

17. The depth that the tool is plunged into the surface is called as ______

a. feed

b. depth of cut

c. depth of tool

d. working depth
 Ans: b

18. In CNC systems multiple microprocessors and programmable logic controllers work ______

a. in parallel

b. in series

c. one after the other

d. for 80% of the total machining time

Ans: a

19. Point-to-point systems are used for _____

a. reaming

b. parting

c. grooving

d. facing

Ans: a

20. CNC machine has the following main advantage over conventional machining practice.

a. Ability to employ higher cutting speeds, feeds, and depth of cut.

b. Feedback control

c. Flexibility

d. None of the mentioned

Ans: b

Subjective

1. Write down the major components of a 3-axis vertical milling machine.

Ans: Table, spindle, work-holding fixture (vice), tool holding adapter, coolant pipe, automatic tool
changer.

2. What is the use of an Automatic Tool Changer (ATC)?

Ans: The ATC helps to hold different types of tools at dedicated stations as defined by the user. A
job may require 2 or more operations to be performed, therefore by using the M06 with T_ _ the
respective tool from the tool station in the ATC can be called and the desired operation can be
performed. Therefore, it eases operator effort and saves time involved in manual changing and
offsetting of tools.

3. Mention any of the three most common types of work-holding devices that are used on a 3-axis
 VMC?

Ans:

a. Universal Vice

b. Angle plate

c. V-block

5. What are synchronous and asynchronous feeds?

Ans: In synchronous feed, the table/spindle movement depends on the RPM of the spindle and is
denoted in mm/rev. In asynchronous feed rate, the table/tool movement is independent of the RPM
of the tool and is denoted in mm/min.

6. How many types of CNC machines are there?

Ans: There are basically five different types of CNC machines:

a. Plasma Cutting Machine.

b. Laser Cutting Machine.

c. Milling Machine.

d. Router Machine

e. CNC Lathe Machine

7. What language do CNC machines use?

Ans: The industry has standardized G-Code as its basic set of CNC machine codes. G-Code is the
most popular programming language used for programming CNC machinery.

8. What is the difference between CNC milling and CNC lathe?

Ans: A lathe turns the material you’re machining, and the tools are held stationary in the turret.
Lathes are used mainly for round parts. Milling machines hold the material stationary and the tools
do the movement. Milling machines are used for any shape part.
10. What Is the Machine Control Unit?

Ans: The machine control unit (MCU) is the heart of a CNC system. It is used to perform the
following functions: To read the coded instructions. To decode the coded instructions. To
implement interpolations (linear, circular, and helical) to generate axis motion commands.
 Chapter 5

X
Welding Shop

Definition of Welding:
Welding is the process of joining similar metals by the application of heat, with or without application
of pressure or filler metal, in such a way that the joint is equivalent in composition and characteristics
of the metals joined. In the beginning, welding was mainly used for repairing all kinds of worn or
damaged parts. Now, it is extensively used in manufacturing industry, construction industry
(construction of ships, tanks, locomotives, and automobiles) and maintenance work, replacing riveting
and bolting, to a greater extent.
In short, the welding can be done:
● with the help of filler material or without filler material.
● with the help of pressure and non-pressure.

Homogeneous Welding – Similar Nature of Material Joining

Heterogeneous Welding- Dissimilar Nature of Material Joining

Importance of Welding:
1. No automobile industry can be assumed without welding.
2. Satellite, Aeronautical Industries (Majorly requires Dissimilar joining)
3. Ship Building Industries, Gas Pipeline, Oil Pipeline Etc.

Classification of welding process:

Welding processes are of several types, these can be broadly classified into following categories:
1. Electric Arc Welding
2. Gas Welding
3. High Energy Beam Welding
4. Resistance welding
5. Thermite Welding (Railway Track are joined chemically)
6. Solid state welding

Further classification the above-mentioned welding processes is given below:

1. Electric Arc Welding:
2. SMAW –Shielded Metal Arc Welding/ MMAW-Manual Metal Arc Welding/ Stick Welding
3. MIG/GMAW-Metal Inert Gas Welding/Gas Metal Arc Welding
4. TIG/ GTAW -Tungsten Inert Gas Welding/Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
5. Gas Welding:
6. OAW-Oxy Acetylene Welding
7. OHW-Oxy Hydrogen Welding
8. High energy beam welding:
9. Laser welding
10. Electron beam welding
11. Resistance Welding:
 12. Spot Welding
13. Seam Welding (Continuous)
14. Butt Welding
15. Projection Welding
16. Solid state welding:
17. Friction welding
18. Ultrasonic welding
19. Soldering and brazing

Possible hazards in the Welding Shop:

Welding “smoke” is a mixture of very fine particles (fumes) and gases. Many of the substances in
welding smoke can be extremely toxic. Generally, welding fumes and gases come from:
the base material being welded or the filler material that is used. Coatings and paints on the metal being
welded, or coatings covering the electrode. Shielding gases supplied from cylinders. Chemical
reactions which result by the action of ultraviolet light from the arc and heat. Process and consumables
used, and contaminants in the air, for example vapors from cleaners and degreasers.

The health effects of welding exposures are difficult to list because the fumes may contain so many
different substances that are known to be harmful. The individual components of welding smoke can
affect any part of the body, including the lungs, heart, kidneys, and central nervous system.

Exposure to welding smoke may have short-term and long-term health effects. These effects are
described below:
Short-Term (Acute) Health Effects:
Exposure to metal fumes (such as zinc, magnesium, copper, and copper oxide) can cause metal fume
fever. Symptoms of metal fume fever may occur 4 to 12 hours after exposure, and include chills, thirst,
fever, muscle ache, chest soreness, coughing, wheezing, fatigue, nausea, and a metallic taste in the
mouth.
Welding smoke can also irritate the eyes, nose, chest, and respiratory tract, and cause coughing,
wheezing, shortness of breath, bronchitis, pulmonary edema (fluid in the lungs) and pneumonitis
(inflammation of the lungs). Gastrointestinal effects, such as nausea, loss of appetite, vomiting, cramps,
and slow digestion, have also been associated with welding.

Some components of welding fumes, for example cadmium, can be fatal in a short time. Gases given
off by the welding process can also be extremely dangerous. For example, ultraviolet radiation given
off by welding reacts with oxygen and nitrogen in the air to form ozone and nitrogen oxides. These
gases are deadly at high doses and can also cause irritation of the nose and throat and serious lung
disease.
Ultraviolet rays given off by welding can react with chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents, such as
1-trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, methylene chloride, and perchloroethylene, to form phosgene gas.
Even a very small amount of phosgene may be deadly, although early symptoms of exposure --
dizziness, chills, and cough -- usually take 5 or 6 hours to appear. Arc welding should never be
performed within 200 feet of degreasing equipment or solvents.

Long-Term (Chronic) Health Effects:

Studies of welders, flame cutters, and burners have shown that welders have an increased risk of lung
cancer, and possibly cancer of the larynx (voice box) and urinary tract.
Welders may also experience a variety of chronic respiratory (lung) problems, including bronchitis,
asthma, pneumonia, emphysema, pneumoconiosis (refers to dust-related diseases), decreased lung
capacity, silicosis (caused by silica exposure) and siderosis (a dust- related disease caused by iron oxide
dust in the lungs).
Other health problems that appear to be related to welding include heart disease, skin diseases, hearing
loss and chronic gastritis (inflammation of the stomach), gastroduodenoscopy (inflammation of the
stomach and small intestine) and ulcers of the stomach and small intestine. Welders exposed to heavy
metals such as chromium and nickel have also experienced kidney damage.
Welding also poses reproductive risks to welders. A recent study found that welders, and especially
welders who worked with stainless steel, had poorer sperm quality than men in other types of work.
Several studies have shown an increase in either miscarriages or delayed conception among welders or
their spouses. Possible causes include exposure to: (1) metals, such as aluminum, chromium, nickel,
cadmium, iron, manganese, and copper, (2) gases, such as nitrous gases and ozone, (3) heat and (4)
ionizing radiation (used to check the welding seams). Welders who perform welding or cutting on
surfaces covered with asbestos insulation are at risk of asbestosis, lung cancer, mesothelioma, and other
asbestos-related diseases. Employees should be trained and provided with the proper equipment before
welding near materials that contain asbestos.

Safety Gear & Purpose:

1. Welding Handheld Face Shield (UV Protection)
2. Strong Leather Shoes (Electric Safety)
3. Leather gloves (Protection from thermal/heat)
4. Metal Tong (Hot Metal/Object Handling)
5. Lab Coat (Hot spatters/Flying Metal Particles)
6. Safety Goggles (Used during Slag removal/ Chipping process)

Figure. Schematic of safety gear for a welding process

Description of welding processes being used for demonstration:

Resistance spot welding:
Basic introduction and principle:
Resistance Spot welding is comparatively modern welding process.
It is the most widely used resistance welding method. The main
purpose of resistance spot welding method is to join two to four light gauge overlapping metal sheets
(which can have thickness up to 3 mm).
At first the job is cleaned and all types of contaminants like grease, oil, dirt, scale, and paint are
removed. The surface pf the electrodes are also very clean. For clamping the metal sheets together two
copper electrodes are used at the same time. The current passes through electrodes and then into the
metal sheets. Because of the resistance, heat is generated in the air gap within the contact points. Since
copper is a great conductor heat dissipates to the metal so quickly. As the metal (workpiece) is a poor
conductor of heat in comparison to the copper electrode the heat remains in the air gap.
So, the heat remains in one place creating a strong effect and the metal is melted at that desired spot.
The period of heat dissipation is very small and currently metal gets melted and then becomes solid and
thus the joint is formed.

Figure. Schematic of resistance spot welding.

Steps involved in Resistance Spot Welding are shown in the following diagram.

Figure. Various steps ivolved to form a joint using resistance spot welding

Applications of Resistance Spot Welding:

Spot welding of thick steel plates has been done and it has replaced the need for riveting.
The welding of two or more sheet metals can be joined by mechanical means more economically by
using the spot-welding methods. We don't need gas tight joints.
Spot welding can be used for attaching braces, pads, or clips with cases, bases and covers which are
mainly products of sheet metal forming.
Automobile and aircraft industries rely greatly of spot welding these days.

Electric arc welding/ Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW):

Basic introduction:
Arc welding or shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is the welding process, in which heat is generated
by an electric arc struck between a consumable electrode and the work piece. Electric arc is luminous
electrical discharge between two electrodes through ionized gas. Any arc welding method is based on
an electric circuit consisting of the following parts:
 1. Power supply (AC or DC).
2. Welding electrode.
3. Work piece.
Welding leads (electric cables) connecting the electrode and work piece to the power supply.
Electric arc between the electrode and work piece closes the electric circuit. The arc temperature may
reach 10000°F (5500°C), which is sufficient for fusion of the work piece edges and joining them.
When a long joint is required, the arc is moved along the joint line. The front edge of the weld pool
melts the welded surfaces when the rear edge of the weld pool solidifies forming the joint.
Transformers, motor generators and rectifiers’ sets are used as arc welding machines. These machines
supply high electric currents at low voltage and an electrode is used to produce the necessary arc. The
electrode serves as the filler rod and the arc melts the surface so that the metals to be joined are fixed
together.

Arc Welding Equipment:

1. Electrode holder- Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually and conducting
current to it. These are usually matched to the size of the lead, which in turn matched to the
amperage output of the arc welder. Electrode holders are available in sizes that range from 150
to 500 Amps.
2. Welding Electrodes- An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or alloy, with or without
coatings. An arc is set up between electrode and workpiece.
3. Hand Screen- Hand screen used for protection of eyes and supervision of weld bead.
4. Chipping hammer- Chipping Hammer is used to remove the slag by striking.
5. Wire brush -Wire brush is used to clean the surface to be welded.

Figure. Schematic of a shielded metal arc welding setup

Gas welding Brief introduction:
Oxygen and acetylene together in a flame provide the heat necessary to melt most metals. This
combined with a neutral welding atmosphere and suitable filler material allows a skilled operator to
weld most metals. Other fuel gases such as LPG or propane produce a reactive secondary flame that
interferes with the molten metal, making them unsuitable for welding. These and other fuel gases are
suitable for heating and cutting purposes.

Applications:

1. It is used to join thin metal plates.

2. It can be used to join both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
3. Gas welding is mostly used in fabrication of sheet metal.
4. It is widely used in automobile and aircraft industries.
 Figure. Various types of welding joints

JOB DESCRIPTION:
Types of Joint :
Lap Joint
Butt Joint
T joint
Corner Joint
Edge Joint

Welding Position:
1. Flat Position
2. Horizontal Position
3. Vertical Position
4. Overhead Position
 Figure. Welding positions

Resistance Spot Welding:

1. Work-piece Material: Galvanized Steel sheets (steel sheets which have been coated with zinc).
2. Workpiece Size: 80x30 x0.3 mm two sheets.
3. Electrode Used: Copper or Tungsten and Molybdenum.

SMAW:
Work-piece Material: Mild Steel/Low Carbon Steel (Carbon Content: 0.15-0.45 percent)
Work-piece Size: 50x50 x6 mm
Electrode Used (3.15x350mm 5 diameters (core metal)
Type of Flux on Electrode: Ferromanganese, rutile, cellulose, potassium, etc.
Specification of 6013 Electrode:
The initial two digits represent tensile strength (Needs to multiply by 1000): 60000 PSI-Pound per
Square Inch.
The Third digit represents the welding position (Could be used in all positions)
The last digit denotes the type of flux coating. 03 stands for ferromanganese, cellulose, rutile,
potassium silicate as a binder, and other siliceous materials.
An operation that can be performed: It can be used for welding ferrous material (including steel,
stainless steel, and cast iron).
Formula to calculate current: 35D (D stands for electrode diameter in millimeters)

Base Metal Thickness Electrode Size in mm Welding Amperes

1.6-3.2 mm 2.5 mm 50-90 A
3.2-6.4 mm 3.15 mm 90-140 A
6.4-9.5 mm 4 mm 120-180 A
9.5-19 mm 5 mm 150-230 A
19-25.4 mm 6 mm 200-300 A

Welding Voltage:
OCV (Open Circuit Voltage)-80 Volt: It helps in easy ignition of the arc.
CCV (Close Circuit Voltage)-15-40 Volt: It is associated with Air Gap and increases with an air gap.

Current (Amp) Voltage

Up-to 100 15
100-200 20
200-250 25
250-350 30
350-500 35
Over 500 40

Welding Speed: Based on the thickness of the base metal and Weld-Bead requirement.
JOB DESCRIPTION WITH DIAGRAMS
Bead on plate (BOP):
1. Workpiece dimensions for BEO:
Length: 100 mm
Width: 50 mm
Thickness: 6 mm
2. Workpiece material: Mild steel
3. Electrode type and diameter: E6013, 3.15 mm

Figure. Workpiece schematic for bead on plate experiments

Butt joint:
Workpieces: 2
Length of each plate: 100 mm
Width: 50 mm
Thickness: 6 mm
Workpiece material: Mild steel
Process: SMAW
Electrode type and diameter: E6013, 3.15 mm
 Figure. Workpiece schematic and dimensions for butt joint

General questions and answers related to welding:

1. What is welding?
Answer: it is a process in which heat and/or pressure can be applied together to join two sheets
or plates.
2. In shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), which type of electrode is used?
Answer: flux coated consumable electrode
3. What is the use of flux coating on welding electrode?
Answer: flux coating is employed to protect the molten metal from atmospheric gases to avoid
defects, it also helps in stabilizing the welding arc.
4. Describe the electrode specifications used in SMAW process?
Answer: for example, a typical SMAW electrode is designated as E6013
where, E (first letter): Extruded rod.
60(2nd and 3rd letters): Strength of electrode in Psi.
1(4th letter): Welding positions in which electrode can be used.
3 (5th or last letter): Type of coating.
5. What is the purpose of chipping hammer?
Answer: it is generally used to remove the slag deposited over the weld bead.
6. In arc welding which type of radiation is produced that affects the human eyes severely?
Answer: ultraviolet radiations
7. What is an arc eye?
Answer: arc eye is the physical condition in which welder’s eyes are red and having severe
needle like pain and irritation in eyes. It happens due to the exposure of eyes to radiation
generated during arc welding.
8. In arc welding, what is the magnitude of current and voltage?
Answer: in arc welding process, current values are significantly higher than voltage. Here,
current varies from 60-150 A and voltage ranges from 15-25 Volts.
9. In shielded metal arc welding which type of polarity is used?
Answer: direct current reverse polarity (DCRP), here electrode is connected to the positive
terminal and workpiece relates to negative terminal.
10. Which type of electrode is used in resistance spot welding?
Answer: copper electrodes (non-consumable and water cooled)
11. What are welding parameters for arc welding?
Answer: Voltage, current and feed speed
12. What is submerged arc welding?
 Answer: A process in which arc is maintained under a blanket of flux
13. Arc length in arc welding should be equal to….
Answer: Rod diameter
14. In arc welding, if arc is too short, it will result in.......
Answer: Electrode sticking to the base metal and base metal not melting and bead resting on top
of the work, leading to poor fusion and gas and slag holes.
15. In arc welding, if arc is too long, it will result in.......
Answer: Formation of large globules in an irregular pattern because of wandering of arc,
leading to poor fusion with base plate.
16. Too low welding current in arc welding would result in.......
Answer: Excessive piling up of weld metal, poor penetration, wasted electrodes
17. Too high welding current in arc welding would result in.....
Answer: Excessive spatter, under cutting along edges, irregular deposits, wasted electrodes
18. Too fast welding speed in arc welding would result in.......
Answer: Too small bead, weak weld, and wasted electrode
19. Too slow welding speed in arc welding would result in.......
Answer: Excessive pilling up of weld metal, overlapping without penetration of edges, wasted
electrodes
20. In resistance welding the electrode material is made of.......
Answer: Copper
21. Which type of electrode is used in submerged arc welding......
Answer: Bare rods
22. Flash butt welding is.......
Answer: Resistance welding