© 2024 The Authors Journal of Water and Climate Change Vol 15 No 9, 4237 doi: 10.2166/wcc.2024.

716

Water quality assessment of Dudhganga river using water quality index and
anthropogenic activities

Vishwajeet Mahadev Lagade a, *, Shital Shantaram Tawareb and Swapnaja Vishwajeet Lagadec
a
Department of Zoology, Shri Yashwantrao Patil Science College, Solankur, Kolhapur, Maharashtra 416212, India
b
Department of Zoology, Rajaram College, Kolhapur, Maharashtra 416004, India
c
Department of Zoology, Rajarshi Chhatrapati Shahu College, Kolhapur, Maharashtra 416003, India
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

VML, 0009-0003-0113-6436

ABSTRACT

The primary goal of this study is to analyze magnitude of water quality of Dudhganga River seasonally and temporally using physico-chemical
parameters, Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index (WA-WQI) and anthropogenic activities of Kolhapur District, Maharashtra. Six sampling
locations of Dudhganga River (sites I to VI) were selected for sampling and analysis. In seasonal analysis, higher values of water parameters
like pH (8.2), TDS (0.42 μs/cm), turbidity (0.14 NTU), DO (6.24 mg/l), nitrate (7.56 mg/l) and phosphate (1.78mg/l) were reported in monsoon
season. Temperature, alkalinity and hardness were noted maximum values (25 °C, 66.67 mg/l and 12.67 mg/l) during summer season. How-
ever, EC was reported maximum (64 μs/cm) in winter season. Results of WA-WQI revealed that water quality index ranged from 14.90 to 24.26
all sampling sites. The values of WA-WQI were reported higher at downstream locations like IV, V, and VI, than upstream sites I, II, and III.
Along Dudhganga River various human activities were substantial contributors for declining the river water quality. The acquired results
suggest that water quality status is close to becoming contaminated and unsafe for domestic and human use. Such contaminated water
also poses risks to plants and animals that make up the aquatic ecosystem.

Key words: anthropogenic activities, Dudhganga River, Kolhapur (Maharashtra), physicochemical parameters, WQI

HIGHLIGHTS

• Dudhganga River is a lifeline for all the living community of the Kolhapur district
• Due to human interferences, the overall condition or health of rivers is badly affected.
• The contaminated water is unsafe for human use.
• Through this study the ecologically sensitive habitats we can identify.
• This study will help to define some probable management and monitoring remedies.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY 4.0), which permits copying, adaptation and
redistribution, provided the original work is properly cited (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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 Journal of Water and Climate Change Vol 15 No 9, 4238

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION
The ecological status and quality of the river is significantly influenced by changing climatic conditions (e.g. floods, droughts)
and human activities (e.g. pollution and habitat degradation). According to literature, the loss of freshwater biodiversity is
mainly due to human related activities like habitat degradation, networking river fragmentation (Sarker et al. 2019; Sarker
2021) water diversions and construction of dams (Gao et al. 2022). Moreover, the water resources are significantly impaired
by pollution due to human activities (Gibbs 2000), hydrological cycle and climate change (Sarker 2022). The human activity
produces considerably negative impacts on the riverine basin, leading to deterioration in water quality and making it unfit for
inhabiting flora and fauna. Moreover, the degraded water quality is also unsafe for human consumption and irrigation pur-
poses. According to Govorushko (2007) the anthropogenic activities have huge negative consequences on river ecosystems.
Very recently authors like Soomro et al. (2023a, 2023b, 2023c) concluded that human activities are the chief source of fresh-
water pollution and declining riverine water quality. According to Soomro et al. (2024) the trace elements have toxicant
impact on water quality and fish populations of Kunhar River in Pakistan.
Anthropogenic activities like agricultural practices and industrial activities create a serious impact on the natural environ-
ment (Kang et al. 2004). These authors also concluded that the extreme human activities are responsible for loss of vegetation,
gradual soil salinization and desertification. Recent literature reported that the discharge of wastewater (e.g., brine) degrades
water quality and thus water cannot be directly used for potable water (via desalination) and industrial applications
(Panagopoulos 2022, 2023; Panagopoulos & Giannika 2022).

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 Journal of Water and Climate Change Vol 15 No 9, 4239

According to Williams (1987) significant variation in salinity may affect the diversity of invertebrates, vertebrates, aquatic
plants, and riparian vegetation. Microbial contamination is one of the issues of water pollution which leads to waterborne
disease (Karaboze et al. 2003) and deterioration of water quality (Standard Methods 1998). Norman et al. (2006) concluded
that each human activity has a potential cyclical and cascading effect on water quality and quantity along hydrologic path-
ways. Dudhganga River is considered as a lifeline for all communities and developing sectors of Kolhapur District in
Maharashtra, India. After looking through the various literature, we came to know that no work has been done on the
water quality of the Dudhganga River. At present, human activity has also increased significantly along the Dudhganga
River, impacting the water quality through different processes. So, there is an urgent need to analyze the water quality
and forecast the present water status of the Dudhganga River. The outcomes of this study may be helpful in executing suitable
management of human activities and maintaining the water resource. Hence, considering the importance and health con-
dition of the river we have concentrated on evaluating the Dudhganga River water quality and documenting the
anthropogenic activities that have resulted in the degradation of the water quality.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area
Dudhganga River is one of the main tributaries of Krishna River in western India. It originates in the Western Ghats of
Maharashtra’s Sindhudurg district, flows eastward for 69 km through Kolhapur District, and joins the Krishna River in
Kallol Yedur, Karnataka (Figure 1) (Government of Maharashtra Water Resources Department 2015).
We visited the six Dudhganga River sampling locations between October 2018 and February 2020. Selection of sites was
done on the basis of the major influence of humans and their activities in and around the Dudhganga River. The distance
between two sampling sites was kept to about 8–10 km. Six sampling stations in total were chosen for collection of water
samples; they were designated on maps as S-I, S-II, S-III, S-IV, S-V, and S-VI. Site I is Kalamwadi; Site II is Sarawade;
Site III is Walwe; Site IV is Bachani; Site V is Vandur; and Site VI is Sulkud (Figure 1).

Physicochemical parameters analysis

Water samples were collected from six sampling stations of Dudhganga River (Figure 1) during three distinct seasons: win-
ter (November–December), summer (March–April) and monsoon (July–August). Water samples were collected in cleaned
dissolved oxygen bottles without bubbles from the midstream sites at a depth of 20–30 cm. Ten important physicochemical
parameters of water samples were estimated for water quality analysis: temperature, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total
dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen (DO), hardness, nitrate and phosphate (Table 1).
Parameters like temperature, pH, EC and TDS of water samples were measured in situ using digital pen-type pH, EC and
TDS meters (Model-AM-P-TEM/EC/TDS and Model-AM-P-PH) from Aquasol. Turbidity of water was measured by turbidity
meter (Model-EQ-811) using Standard Methods (2005). The alkalinity and hardness of water samples were estimated and
tested according to standard titration methods described by Trivedy & Goyal (1986) and Standard Methods (2005). Dissolved
oxygen of water samples was measured by the Winkler methods as described by Trivedy & Goyal (1986) and Standard
Methods (2005). Spectrophotometric analysis (Model-EQ-821) was applied to estimate the nitrate by phenol disulphonic
acid method and phosphates was estimated by the stannous chloride method as described by Trivedy & Goyal (1986) and
Standard Methods (2005). All water parameters were analyzed in triplicate and the average value of three analyses is
represented in results with standard deviation.

WQI analysis
The water quality index of Dudhganga River was calculated using the formula described by Brown et al. (1972). This formula
is based on weights of various water parameters. Therefore, the weighted arithmetic water quality index (WA-WQI) relies on
weighting of each water parameter according to its importance. The mathematical formula of WA-WQI is as follows:
P
WnQn
WA
WQI ¼ P
Wn

Brown et al. (1972) have categorized the WA-WQI status numerical ranges into five classes: excellent (0–25), good (26–50),
poor (51–75), very poor (76–100) and unsuitable for drinking (above 100).

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 Journal of Water and Climate Change Vol 15 No 9, 4240

Figure 1 | Map showing the sampling sites of Dudhganga River. Source: https://mrsac.gov.in.

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 Journal of Water and Climate Change Vol 15 No 9, 4241

Table 1 | Physicochemical parameters and their analytical methods

Water parameters Analytical method Unit Analysis

Temperature Temperature probe °C In-situ (measured in the field)

pH pH probe
Electrical conductivity EC probe μs/cm
Total dissolved solids TDS probe μs/cm
Hardness Titration mg/l
Dissolved oxygen Titration mg/l
Alkalinity Titration mg/l
Turbidity Turbidity meter NTU Ex-situ (measured in the laboratory)
Nitrate Spectrophotometer mg/l
Phosphate Spectrophotometer mg/l
Note: μs/cm ¼ microsiemens/centimeter, NTU ¼ nephelometric turbidity unit.

Anthropogenic study
Land-use modifications due to anthropogenic activities reflect the ecological health status of the river. Anthropogenic activi-
ties modify the natural riverine basin and land cover types (Gao et al. 2019). The various human-made intrusions or
anthropogenic activities in and around the Dudhganga were noted monthly.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Physicochemical parameters
The spatial and temporal analysis of the physical and chemical parameter values of the present study are presented in Table 2
and Figures 2–11.

Temperature
In the current study, the summer had the highest temperature (25 + 0.38 °C), while the monsoon season had the lowest temp-
erature (22.5 + 0.28 °C) (Figure 2). The water temperature rose from upstream to downstream (site I to site VI) in all seasons.
The cloud-free climate during summer was responsible for the increase in water temperature whereas during monsoon the
mixing of cold rainwater by river runoff reduced the water temperature. Agrahari & Kushwaha (2012) state that character-
istics such as solar radiation intensity, water level, current velocity, and atmospheric conditions may be in charge of
temperature variation.

pH
The mean pH values varied according to seasons. In the summer, monsoon, and winter, the river water’s pH ranged from
7.8 + 0.12 to 8.1 + 0.16, 7.9 + 0.12 to 8.2 + 0.12, and 7.6 + 0.18 to 8.0 + 0.12 respectively (Figure 3). In every season,
site VI had the highest pH value and site I the lowest pH. The normal pH range of surface water is 6.5–8.5 while the
maximum limit for water used for irrigation and aquaculture purposes is pH 6.5–8.0 (DoE 1997). In this study, highest
pH values were reported in monsoon season (7.9 + 0.12 to 8.2 + 0.12) while lowest pH was noted during winter season
(7.6 + 0.18 to 8.0 + 0.12). However, Rahman et al. (2021) have reported highest pH during winter and lowest in summer
season for the Turag River in Bangladesh. pH is also raised by the microbial breakdown of organic waste (Venkateshar-
aju et al. 2010).

Electrical conductivity (EC)

According to Table 2, the EC values varied from 44 + 0.20 to 54 + 0.28 μs/cm in the summer, 40 + 0.22 to 51 + 0.12 μs/cm
in the monsoon, and 38 + 0.20 to 64 + 0.26 μs/cm in the winter. The present study reported the lowest values of EC in winter
season from site I (38 + 0.20) and site II (43 + 0.18) while in monsoon season from site IV (45 + 0.19), V (48 + 0.18) and VI
(51 + 0.12) (Figure 4). The lowering of EC values in Dudhganga River may be due to the addition of runoff water to the riv-
erine system during monsoon and post-monsoon season. Rahman et al. (2021) also quoted the same conclusion on lowest

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 Journal of Water and Climate Change Vol 15 No 9, 4242

Table 2 | Spatial and temporal variations in physicochemical parameters of Dudhganga River

TDS Turbidity Alkalinity Oxygen Hardness Nitrate Phosphate

Site Temp. (°C) pH EC (μs/cm) (μs/cm) (NTU) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)

Site I Summer 24 + 7.8 + 0.44 + 0.14 + 0.00 + 40 + 3.42 5.70 + 6.67 + 2 + 0.04 0.40 + 0.04
0.24 0.12 0.20 0.06 0.0 0.47 0.72
Monsoon 22.5 + 7.9 + 0.40 + 0.31 + 0.12 + 31.67 + 5.64 + 4 + 0.42 4.67 + 0.98 + 0.28
0.28 0.12 0.22 0.02 0.02 2.78 0.72 0.22
Winter 23 + 7.6 + 0.38 + 0.18 + 0.00 + 25 + 3.48 5.24 + 6 + 0.48 3 + 0.22 0.40 + 0.18
0.24 0.18 0.20 0.02 0.0 0.62
Site Summer 24.5 + 7.8 + 0.48 + 0.16 + 0.00 + 58.33 + 4.57 + 7.33 + 2 + 0.02 0.27 + 0.12
II 0.26 0.15 0.29 0.02 0.0 4.62 0.42 0.62
Monsoon 22.5 + 7.9 + 0.45 + 0.36 + 0.14 + 33.33 + 5.77 + 4 + 0.36 5.44 + 1.42 + 0.18
0.32 0.17 0.21 0.02 0.02 2.92 0.40 0.56
Winter 23 + 7.8 + 0.43 + 0.20 + 0.00 + 26.67 + 5.10 + 6 + 0.88 2.78 + 0.44 + 0.16
0.26 0.15 0.18 0.02 0.0 3.88 0.35 0.18
Site Summer 24 + 8.1 + 0.48 + 0.16 + 0.00 + 61.67 + 5.24 + 8 + 1.01 2.44 + 0.40 + 0.10
III 0.24 0.10 0.16 0.01 0.0 4.22 0.47 0.22
Monsoon 23 + 8.1 + 0.47 + 0.38 + 0.14 + 35 + 2.42 6.12 + 4.67 + 6 + 0.49 1.38 + 0.08
0.24 0.12 0.20 0.01 0.04 0.32 0.48
Winter 24 + 7.9 + 0.46 + 0.20 + 0.00 + 30 + 3.22 5.68 + 8 + 0.75 3.33 + 0.67 + 0.26
0.26 0.16 0.12 0.01 0.0 0.41 0.28
Site Summer 25 + 8.0 + 0.52 + 0.18 + 0.01 + 68.33 + 5.10 + 9.33 + 2.67 + 0.53 + 0.18
IV 0.32 0.18 0.12 0.01 0.01 4.42 0.32 1.12 0.26
Monsoon 23.5 + 8.0 + 0.45 + 0.41 + 0.15 + 40 + 2.78 6.18 + 6 + 0.47 6.78 + 1.69 + 0.12
0.32 0.12 0.19 0.02 0.04 0.38 0.24
Winter 24 + 8.1 + 0.63 + 0.24 + 0.01 + 31.67 + 5.92 + 6 + 0.32 3.78 + 0.89 + 0.28
0.22 0.10 0.26 0.02 0.01 4.32 0.47 0.42
Site Summer 25 + 8.1 + 0.54 + 0.18 + 0.01 + 71.67 + 5.42 + 10 + 1.46 1.67 + 0.53 + 0.18
V 0.26 0.14 0.26 0.01 0.01 5.42 0.38 0.02
Monsoon 24 + 8.1 + 0.48 + 0.40 + 0.14 + 40 + 4.78 6.18 + 5.33 + 7.22 + 1.73 + 0.08
0.22 0.14 0.18 0.02 0.02 0.32 0.52 0.42
Winter 24 + 8.1 + 0.68 + 0.23 + 0.01 + 40 + 3.42 5.71 + 8 + 0.72 4.22 + 0.98 + 0.18
0.24 0.17 0.20 0.01 0.01 0.42 0.52
Site Summer 25 + 8.1 + 0.54 + 0.21 + 0.01 + 66.67 + 5.76 + 12.67 + 2.72 + 0.53 + 0.22
VI 0.38 0.16 0.28 0.01 0.01 5.02 0.32 1.40 0.22
Monsoon 24 + 8.2 + 0.51 + 0.42 + 0.14 + 46.67 + 6.24 + 6 + 0.48 7.56 + 1.78 + 0.04
0.30 0.12 0.12 0.01 0.06 4.28 0.38 0.42
Winter 24 + 8.0 + 0.64 + 0.28 + 0.01 + 45 + 4.22 5.86 + 8 + 0.86 4.67 + 0.98 + 0.22
0.32 0.12 0.26 0.01 0.01 0.48 0.59
Note: All values are the mean of three observations with + standard deviation; EC ¼ electrical conductivity, TDS ¼ total dissolved solids, μs/cm ¼ microsiemens/centimeter, NTU ¼
nephelometric turbidity unit.

Figure 2 | Seasonal variation in temperature.

values of EC from Turag River. From site I to site VI, the EC values showed a slight increase moving downstream. Increased
household activity and high agricultural waste runoff are the causes of the higher EC value in riverine water. According to
published research, ions and nutrient concentrations affect water’s electrical conductivity (Agrahari & Kushwaha 2012).

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 Journal of Water and Climate Change Vol 15 No 9, 4243

Figure 3 | Seasonal variations in pH.

Figure 4 | Seasonal variations in EC.

Figure 5 | Seasonal variations in TDS.

Figure 6 | Seasonal variations in turbidity.

Figure 7 | Seasonal variations in alkalinity.

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 Journal of Water and Climate Change Vol 15 No 9, 4244

Figure 8 | Seasonal variations in oxygen.

Figure 9 | Seasonal variations in hardness.

Figure 10 | Seasonal variations in nitrate.

Figure 11 | Seasonal variations in phosphate.

Total dissolved solids (TDS)

The TDS mean values of collected water samples of all site locations were within the range of 0.31 + 0.22 to 0.42 +
0.18 μs/cm during the monsoon, 0.18 + 0.22 to 0.28 + 0.10 μs/cm in the winter and from 0.14 + 0.06 to 0.28 +
0.10 μs/cm in the summer (Figure 5). All values of TDS are reported within the permissible limit (DoE 1997). Because of
the discharges of domestic wastewater, sites IV through VI had the highest values of TDS. Those water bodies with the maxi-
mum concentration of total dissolved solids are responsible for the deterioration of the water quality, making it unfit for
human consumption (Mahor 2011). According to Olomukoro et al. (2022) human activity like car washing is responsible
for higher values of TDS at different locations of Orogodo River, Nigeria.

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Turbidity
The turbidity values in this study varied greatly between 0 and 0.14 NTU across all sampling locations. During the monsoon
season, the mean turbidity value was within the range of 0.12 + 0.02 to 0.14 + 0.06 NTU from site I to site VI. In spatial vari-
ation, the sampling sites IV to VI were reported to have negligible values of turbidity (0.01 + 0.01 NTU) in winter (Figure 6).
Conversely, at every sampling site, turbidity values of zero were reported in summer. The monsoon season high turbidity
value was defined by the maximum amount of runoff rainwater entering the system and incorporating colloidal materials
such as clay, slit, organic, and inorganic materials. However, Rahman et al. (2021) found a contrasting value of turbidity
from Turag River with respect to the present study; they noted a higher turbidity value in summer than the monsoon season.

Alkalinity
Highest values of alkalinity were recorded during summer season at all sampling stations and values ranged between 40 +
3.32 mg/l and 66.67 + 5.02 mg/l. Winter season showed the lowest values of alkalinity at all six sampling stations within the
range of 25 + 3.48 mg/l to 45 + 4.22 mg/l. Whereas, the alkalinity values ranged between 31.67 + 2.78 mg/l and 46.67 +
4.28 mg/l in monsoon season (Figure 7). The values of alkalinity increased significantly as one descended from site I to
site VI. Chandra et al. (2011) claimed that water with a high concentration of alkalinity was unfit for residential use. It
may be assumed that anthropogenic activities like vehicle washing, clothes washing and bathing may have effects on the alka-
linity of riverine water (Olomukoro et al. 2022).

Dissolved oxygen (DO)

The highest level of dissolved oxygen was reported during monsoon season; DO fluctuated from 5.64 + 0.72 to 6.24 +
0.38 mg/l from site I to site VI (Figure 8). In winter, moderate values of dissolved oxygen were reported at site I to site
VI, 5.24 + 0.62–5.86 + 0.48 mg/l. The summer season had the lowest dissolved oxygen values across all sites when compared
to the other seasons. The values during summer season ranged within 5.70 + 0.47–5.76 + 0.32 mg/l. The acquired values of
dissolved oxygen progressively declined from site I to site IV. The occurrence of submerged microphytes and riparian veg-
etation may responsible for the declining dissolved oxygen level of Dudhganga River at the downstream sampling
locations. Hasan et al. (2019) stated the floating and submerged microphytes may decrease the DO level. Movement of
water also has a negative effect on the dissolved oxygen levels of riverine ecosystems (Rahman et al. 2021).
The influx of wastewater and sewage, and domestic activities like washing clothes, vehicles, animals, bathing etc. would be
responsible for the declining dissolved oxygen level of the river. Research by Whitehead et al. (2018) and Uddin & Jeong
(2021) concluded that the municipal wastes and industrial wastes are responsible for the reduced oxygen concentration of
water. Besides, agricultural runoff or waste is also entering river water and lowering the water quality. Iqbal et al. (2006)
stated that the addition of sewage waste results in water quality decline by lowering the oxygen level.

Hardness
According to Unni (1985), total hardness was used to evaluate the level of domestic pollution in water bodies. In the context
of seasons and sampling locations, the hardness values in this study were reported in the opposite order than the values of
dissolved oxygen. From site I to site VI, the maximum hardness was measured in the summer (6.67 + 0.72 to 12.67 +
1.40 mg/l), followed by the winter (6.0 + 0.48 to 8.0 + 0.86 mg/l) and the monsoon (4.0 + 0.42 to 6.0 + 0.48 mg/l) seasons
(Figure 9). However, the research of Tahmina et al. (2018) observed highest values of total hardness in winter season, but
Rahman et al. (2021) found similar lowest values of total hardness in monsoon season from Turag River. Agrahari & Kush-
waha (2012) found a positive correlation between the amount of sewage dumped into water bodies and the water’s hardness.

Nitrate
Higher values of nitrate are positively correlated with domestic activities, and the addition of sewage and agricultural runoff
in water bodies. In the present study, the nitrate values were maximum during monsoon season (4.67 + 0.22–7.56 + 0.42 μg/l),
followed by winter season (3.0 + 0.22–4.67 + 0.59 μg/l). However, the lowest values of nitrate were reported (2.0 + 0.04–
2.72 + 0.22 μg/l) during summer season from site I to site VI (Figure 10). The main source of nitrate in aquatic bodies is the
organic substances which come through sewage and industrial wastes (Agrahari & Kushwaha 2012). According to Shrimali
& Singh (2001) the concentration of nitrate in aquatic bodies is due to anthropogenic activities, use of chemical fertilizers
and dumping of domestic sewage wastes.

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Phosphate
Extensive use of fertilizer and detergents, organic manure and wastes of animals and humans result in heavily loading phos-
phorus into water bodies (Ali et al. 2018; De Girolamo et al. 2019). In the present study, a similar trend of phosphate
concentration was reported to that of nitrate with respect to seasons and sites. The maximum concentration of phosphate
was reported in monsoon and the values ranged from 0.98 + 0.48 to 1.78 + 0.04 μg/l, followed by winter season (0.4 +
0.42–0.98 + 0.50 μg/l) and summer season (0.4 + 0.04–0.53 + 0.62 μg/l) (Figure 11). The higher concentration of phosphate
mean value in monsoon season is due to high inputs of nutrients from nearby farmlands through runoff of rainwater. The
same kind of result was reported by Isiuku & Enyoh (2020) that the higher level of phosphate concentration is reported
to be due to runoff from farmlands in proximity to the water bodies.

Correlation matrix analysis of physicochemical parameters

The correlation matrix (r) values of all water parameters are displayed in Table 3. Water temperature had not shown any posi-
tive correlation with any other water parameters, whereas there was a strong negative correlation with nitrate (r ¼
0.93) and
negative relationship with oxygen (r ¼
0.52). pH exhibit a strong positive correlation with EC (r ¼ 0.73), TDS (r ¼ 0.89), alka-
linity (r ¼ 0.77), hardness (r ¼ 0.73), and phosphate (r ¼ 0.72). pH has a negative correlation with water parameters like
oxygen (r ¼
0.15) and nitrate (r ¼
0.05).
Likewise, the EC showed a positive strong correlation with TDS (r ¼ 0.91), turbidity (r ¼ 0.90), and alkalinity (r ¼ 0.95).
However, EC also recorded negative correlation with oxygen (r ¼
0.60) and with nitrate (r ¼
0.05). Strong correlations
were found between TDS and turbidity (r ¼ 0.79), alkalinity (r ¼ 0.88), and hardness (r ¼ 0.89). TDS also reported negative
correlation with water parameters like oxygen (r ¼
0.48) and nitrate (r ¼
0.35). Turbidity shows significantly strong cor-
relation with alkalinity (r ¼ 0.75), hardness (r ¼ 0.84) and phosphate (r ¼ 0.89), and negative correlation with oxygen
(r ¼
0.29) and nitrate (r ¼
0.19). Alkalinity showed strong correlation with hardness (r ¼ 0.70), but a negative correlation
with oxygen (r ¼
0.67) and nitrate (r ¼
0.01). The dissolved oxygen did not show any noticeable relationship with any par-
ameter. On the other hand, hardness showed positive correlation with phosphate (r ¼ 0.75) and a negative relationship with
nitrate (r ¼
0.40). Nitrate was negatively correlated with phosphate (r ¼
0.08). Rahman et al. (2021) also got similar results
that there is no positive correlation of temperature with the rest of the water parameters. Barakat et al. (2016) found that tur-
bidity had a strong correlation with both ammonia and total suspended solids, while DO had a strong correlation with nitrate.
The anthropogenic activities such as domestic and agriculture activities including urbanization and industrialization can con-
tribute to a decline in the WQI of river water (Azha et al. 2023).

Table 3 | Correlation matrix of water parameters of Dudhganga River (Pearson correlation coefficients (r))

Temp. EC TDS Turbidity Alkalinity Oxygen Hardness Nitrate Phosphate

(°C) pH (μs/cm) (μs/cm) (NTU) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)

Temp. (°C) 1.00

pH 0.30 1.00
EC 0.42 0.73 1.00
TDS 0.60 0.89 0.91 1.00
Turbidity 0.30 0.62 0.90 0.79 1.00
(NTU)
Alkalinity 0.32 0.77 0.95 0.88 0.75 1.00
(mg/l)
Oxygen (mg/l)
0.52
0.15
0.60
0.48
0.29
0.67 1.00
Hardness 0.56 0.73 0.78 0.89 0.84 0.70
0.33 1.00
(mg/l)
Nitrate (mg/l)
0.93
0.05
0.18
0.35
0.19
0.01 0.27
0.40 1.00
Phosphate 0.13 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.89 0.56 0.12 0.75
0.08 1.00
(mg/l)
Note: EC ¼ electrical conductivity, TDS ¼ total dissolved solids, μs/cm ¼ microsiemens/centimeter, NTU ¼ nephelometric turbidity unit; figures in bold indicate significant correlation.

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 Journal of Water and Climate Change Vol 15 No 9, 4247

Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index (WA-WQI)

Generally, the physicochemical parameters analysis and their values will not be sufficient to identify the actual quality of
water bodies; therefore, water quality indices have been used to estimate the quality status of water (CCME 2002; Krishan
et al. 2015). WQI is a potent tool for forecasting the deteriorating level of water (Azha et al. 2023). Water quality indices
are based on comparison of water parameters to standards which give a final value for water quality (Bharati & Katyal 2011).
The current study found that the Dudhganga River’s WQI varied noticeably from upstream to downstream across the
sampling locations. From site I to site VI, the WQI varied from 14.90 to 24.26 (Table 4). Due to values of the WQI being
below the standard value (,25), Dudhganga WQI is denoted as excellent and right now is suitable for drinking purposes
(Table 4). However, the WQI was gradually increasing from upstream to downstream sites, and the highest WQI was
noted at site VI (24.26). This value depicts that the water quality decreases towards the downstream, indicating that the
water parameters are significantly varying due to human activities downstream. Barakat et al. (2016) reported similar results
that downstream sites of Oum Er-Rbia River in Morocco were more polluted due to discharging of urban waste. The domestic
and agricultural activities are the key factors for the declining WQI of Dudhganga River. Azha et al. (2023) reached the same
conclusion that domestic and agriculture activities are contributing to the decline in the WQI of river water. Similarly, Azha
et al. (2023) declared that agriculture waste had degraded the water quality of Batu Pahat River in Malaysia. According to
Anani & Olomukoro (2021) a higher value of WQI of water is not ideal for drinking.

Anthropogenic activity
We have documented substantial human activity near the Dudhganga River in our current study. The decline in aquatic diver-
sity, productivity, and quality may be attributed to these activities. The anthropogenic activities are discussed below (see also
Table 5 and Figure 12 (images a–k)).

Domestic activities
The Dudhganga River is severely affected by various domestic activities like washing, bathing, cleaning of clothes, washing
vehicles and domestic animals which are frequently carried out in and around the riverine habitat (Figure 12, images a–d).
These activities are responsible for releasing the soap nutrients and organic content in water while washing vehicles releases
oil and grease directly into river water. Clothes washing and bathing activities are enhancing the nutrients and organic con-
centration in the river basin. Danha et al. (2014) reported that the increased nutrient level promotes rampant algal and weed
growth. Similarly, Rai et al. (2020) reported that the vehicle washing contaminates the river water by adding oil and grease
and sulfate which significantly degrade water quality and affect benthic macro-invertebrate assemblage structure.

Disposing of waste and sewage water

The primary cause of declining water quality and productivity is the release of untreated sewage and household waste into
rivers (Figure 12, image e). It contains all household waste, including garbage from the kitchen, bathrooms, and drains,
which are dumped into the river untreated. The majority of municipal waste, or toilet waste, is made up of human waste,
which also contains some harmful substances and pathogens. All of these wastes have the potential to give water an unplea-
sant, strong odor and turn it into something unsafe to drink. According to Weiner (2013) water quality of any aquatic body
mainly depends on its usage, i.e. drinking and irrigation.

Table 4 | Water quality index (WA-WQI) and status (Brown et al. 1972)

Water quality index (range) Water quality status WQI of Dudhganga River Water quality status of Dudhganga River

0–25 Excellent Site I (14.90) Excellent

26–50 Good Site II (16.80)
51–75 Poor Site III (22.32)
76–100 Very poor Site IV (22.42)
.100 Unfit for consumption Site V (24.27)
Site VI (24.26)
Note: Bold WQI values are highest in study area.

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 Journal of Water and Climate Change Vol 15 No 9, 4248

Table 5 | Sampling sites and anthropogenic activities

Sampling Name of
site sampling site GPS locations Stream type Possible anthropogenic activities (activities are reported on large scale)

0
I Kalamwadi 16°21 48.3″N Upstream Domestic activity, agricultural practices
74°010 27.7″E
II Sarawade 16°250 15.0″N Upstream Domestic activity, agricultural practices, slaughter waste, Ganesh idols
74°050 32.8″E immersion and holy or religious waste (nirmalya), bridge and
construction activity, dumping and releasing waste and sewage water
III Walwe (K) 16°290 00.9″N Midstream Domestic activity, industrial activity, agricultural practices
74°080 54.6″E
IV Bachani 16°310 50.8″N Midstream Domestic activity, agricultural practices, slaughter waste, dumping and
74°110 30.0″E releasing waste and sewage water
V Vandur 16°330 29.8″N Downstream Domestic activity, agricultural practices, encroachment of habitat and
74°170 06.3″E fragmentation, Ganesh idols immersion and holy or religious waste
(nirmalya)
VI Sulkud 16°330 25.3″N 74° Downstream Domestic activity, agricultural practices
220 47.7″E

Agricultural practices
Farmers use a variety of pesticides and herbicides, as well as highly synthetic and organic fertilizers, to cultivate crops along
the banks of riverine habitat. Water’s physical, chemical, and biological characteristics may change as a result of fertilizer,
pesticide, and herbicide runoff or untreated agricultural waste in riverine basins (images f–g). Due to excessive use of pesticide
and fertilizers the riverine water is unsafe for fish and other organism as well (Lake Champlain Basin Program 1998).
Synthetic pesticide may cause gill dysfunction in fishes (Moore et al. 2008). Azha et al. (2023) concluded that agriculture
sector waste may degrade the water quality of Batu Pahat River. Substantial increase in agricultural activity may have unde-
sirable impacts on the water ecosystem (Li et al. 2022).

Bridge and construction activity

In the present study, we reported the bridge construction and bridge repairing activities at sites II (Sarawade), IV (Bachane),
and in regions like Nadi Kinara between sites IV and V (Figure 12, image h). The natural hydrological river regime may be
altered by this construction activity. River flow, water level and volume of water may show adverse effects due to construction
activity and possibly lead to changes in the riverine basin. It was noted that runoff from the construction site of the bridge
contributed a significant amount of nutrients and sediments to the river flow. Additionally, this activity causes sedimentation
and turbidity in the riverine ecosystem. Anthropogenic activity like construction activity and land-use cover in and around the
river may be accelerating the deteriorating quality of water bodies (Pacheco & Fernandes 2016).

Encroachment of habitat and fragmentation

From the perspective of the aquatic ecosystem, this may be of greater concern because humans are acquiring riverine habitat
for personal use. Most riverine habitats are used for cultivation of crops which leads to physical disturbances of the riverbed.
Construction activities were reported at some of sampling stations like site I (Sarawad) and site II (Walwe) as construction of
temples, wells, washing places etc. along the side of the riverine bed (Figure 12, image i).

Ganesh idols immersed and holy or religious waste (nirmalya)

Religious activities have a significant negative impact on riverine water. Large-scale, enthusiastic celebrations are held for
annual religious events like Durga Puja and the Ganesh festival. Following the festivities, the idols of Durga Devi and
Ganesh are submerged in river water, along with its nirmalya (Figure 12, images j–k). A result of these activities are certain
non-biodegradable materials, such as plaster of Paris idols, plastics, oils, decorative items, suspended solids, paints with var-
nish, cement, lime, and other ingredients. These substances, both biodegradable and non-biodegradable, have the potential to
lower the quality of riverine water, making it unsuitable for irrigation and human consumption. According to a few

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 Journal of Water and Climate Change Vol 15 No 9, 4249

Figure 12 | Anthropogenic activities reported in and around Dudhganga River. (a) Washing clothes, (b) washing animals, (c) washing vehicles,
(d) bathing, (e) releasing and dumping drainage waste, (f) agricultural runoff in river water, (g) agricultural practices and drainage water,
(h) bridge and construction activity, (i) encroachment on habitat, (j) immersion of Ganesh idol, (k) nirmalya waste, (l) slaughter waste.

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 Journal of Water and Climate Change Vol 15 No 9, 4250

researchers the idol immersion in water bodies during Ganesh festival and Durga Puja may degrade the water quality and
grossly polluted the riverine habitat (Dhote & Dixit 2011; Bhat et al. 2012).

Slaughter waste
Slaughter waste like sheep or goat hairs, fowl feathers, blood and visceral waste from slaughter houses were directly or
indirectly added to the riverine environment (Figure 12, image l). According to Elemile et al. (2019) the waste from slaughter
houses may create substantial environmental and public health hazards including affecting the water quality. According to
Gao et al. (2019), animal husbandry can significantly affect natural environmental resources.

Industrial waste
In this study, two sugar factories were located near Dudhganga River. One sugar factory was located at Farale near to
Kalamwdi and another at Bidri. Neither factory was directly discharging effluents and other waste like bagasse, molasses,
effluent, wastewater etc. that are generated from the industry. However, the wastewater from cooling towers, molasses and
other chemical waste were indirectly added to the riverine basin. This waste may enhance the turbidity, reduce the oxygen
level of riverine water, and ultimately alter the water quality. According to Rahim & Mostafa (2021) the waste generated
from sugar industries contains toxic chemicals which mainly affect the fish, crops, and human health as well.

CONCLUSIONS
The study concluded that all physicochemical parameters are considerably increased from upstream sampling stations to
downstream stations along the Dudhganga River.

• In seasonal analysis, higher values for pH (7.9
8.2), TDS (0.31
0.42 μs/cm), turbidity (0.12
0.14 NTU), DO (5.64

6.24 mg/l), nitrate (4.67
7.56 mg/l) and phosphate (0.98
1.78 mg/l) were reported in monsoon season.
• On the other hand, the water parameters temperature (24
25 °C), EC (44
54 μs/cm), alkalinity (40
66.67 mg/l) and
hardness (6.67
12.67 mg/l) exhibited maximum concentrations during summer season.
• The Dudhganga River’s WQI ranges from 14.90 to 24.26 at sampling sites I to VI. The status of WQI in the present study is
categorized as excellent.
• However, the present values of WQI gradually increase from upstream to downstream. Therefore, this value indicates that
water quality is leading towards a deterioration in the water quality status.
• Highest significant values of water parameters and human activities are cumulatively responsible for reducing the water
quality of Dudhganga River. Moreover, this condition may have adverse impacts on flora, fauna and productivity of the
riverine ecosystem.
On the basis of the results of the present study, the water quality of Dudhganga River is more or less contaminated and
water is not suitable for human consumption or domestic use unless it is processed, and is also unsafe for inhabitant aquatic
flora and fauna.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Finally, this study suggests that all point sources of contamination of the river should be lowered, and anthropogenic activities
in and around the river minimized. On the other hand, proper and effective management practices and improvement of dom-
estic, organic, and industrial wastes is required to lower the accumulation of pollutants in Dudhganga River. This study
recommended that regular monitoring and further analysis is needed to know the current status of the river. Additionally,
with the help of conservationists and policymakers, mitigation plans and threshold limits can be developed to improve the
river water quality to safeguard the aquatic ecosystem and a healthy environment for future generations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my thanks to Shivaji University Kolhapur for providing the funds to undertake the research work by
sanctioning the project (SU/BCUD/98/227) under ‘Research Initiation Scheme’. I am also very grateful to Professor Raje-
khan Shikalgar, Department of Geography, Rajaram College, Kolhapur for preparing the study area map in Arc-GIS.

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 Journal of Water and Climate Change Vol 15 No 9, 4251

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare there is no conflict.

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First received 15 December 2023; accepted in revised form 19 July 2024. Available online 12 August 2024

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