Medical Imaging

Medical Imaging

➢ Medical imaging is a very interdisciplinary field, and uses concepts from mathematics, physics,
statistics, engineering, biology, and medicine

➢ Medical imaging deals with the interaction of all forms of radiation with tissue and the design
of technical systems to extract clinically relevant information, which is then represented in
image format.

➢ Medical Imaging Techniques are non-invasive methods for looking inside the body without
opening up the body surgically. It used to assist diagnosis or treatment of different medical
conditions.

➢ Medical imaging refers to several different technologies that are used to view the human body
in order to diagnose, monitor, or treat medical conditions. Each type of technology gives
different information about the area of the body being studied or treated, related to possible
disease, injury, or the effectiveness of medical treatment.
 Medical
Imaging
System

Medical imaging systems overview

• Medical imaging systems are based on the physical interaction between some energy source and the
human body.
Most frequent used medical
imaging modalities
radiation refers to energy in the form of waves or
particles that is used to create images of the
inside of the body

What is Electromagnetics?
Electromagnetics

Electric field
Produced by the presence of
electrically charged particles,
and gives rise to the electric
force.

Magnetic field
Produced by the motion of
electric charges, or electric
current, and gives rise to the
magnetic force associated
with magnets.
Electric and magnetic field components of EM radiation
• “Radiation
is an energy in the form of electro-
magnetic waves or particulate matter, traveling in
the air.”

Radioactivity: Elements & Atoms

Atoms are composed of smaller
particles referred to as:

– Protons

– Neutrons

– Electrons
 .

• Electrons (-) orbiting nucleus of protons (+) and neutrons. Same

number of electrons as protons; net charge = 0.

• Atomic number (number of protons) determines element.

• Mass number (protons + neutrons)

• If a nucleus is unstable for any reason, it will emit and absorb

particles. There are many types of radiation and they are all
pertinent to everyday life and health as well as nuclear physical
applications.
 Ionization
Ionizing radiation is produced by unstable
atoms. Unstable atoms differ from stable
atoms because they have an excess of
energy or mass or both.
Unstable atoms are said to be radioactive. In
order to reach stability, these atoms give off,
or emit, the excess energy or mass. These
emissions are called radiation.

Ionization happens when this radiation has enough energy to knock electrons out
of atoms, turning them into ions. This is called ionizing radiation

• Radiation is classified into:

•Ionizing radiation

•Non-ionizing radiation
 Ionizing Versus Non-ionizing
Radiation
Ionizing Radiation
– Higher energy electromagnetic waves
(gamma) or heavy particles (beta and alpha).
– High enough energy to pull electron from orbit.

Non-ionizing Radiation
– Lower energy electromagnetic waves.
– Not enough energy to pull electron from orbit,
but can excite the electron.

“ It is a type of radiation that is able to disrupt atoms and

molecules on which they pass through, giving rise to ions and free
radicals”.
Another Definition
Ionizing radiation
A radiation is said to be ionizing when it has enough
energy to eject one or more electrons from the atoms or
molecules in the irradiated medium. This is the case of
a and b radiations, as well as of electromagnetic
radiations such as gamma radiations, X-rays and some
ultra-violet rays. Visible or infrared light are not, nor are
microwaves or radio waves.

Primary Types of Ionizing

Radiation
Alpha particles
Beta particles
Gamma rays (or photons)
X-Rays (or photons)
Neutrons
 Types and Characteristics of
Ionizing Radiation

Alpha Particles
Alpha Particles: 2 neutrons and 2 protons
They travel short distances, have large mass
Only a hazard when inhaled

Beta Particles
Beta Particles: Electrons or positrons having small mass and
variable energy. Electrons form when a neutron transforms
into a proton and an electron:
 Gamma Rays
Gamma Rays (or photons): Result when the
nucleus releases energy, usually after an alpha,
beta or positron transition.

• X- and Gamma Rays: X-rays are photons (Electromagnetic radiations)

emitted from electron orbits. Gamma rays are photons emitted from
the nucleus, often as part of radioactive decay. Gamma rays typically
have higher energy (Mev's) than X-rays (KeV's), but both are
unlimited.
Types or radiations

According to their interaction with matter:

•Alpha: With limited capacity to penetrate matter but high energy density.

•Beta: Somewhat more penetrating, but less intense than alpha radiations.

•Gamma: The most penetrating radiation of all.

• A. Basic Control Methods for External

Radiation

⚫ Decrease Time
⚫ Increase Distance
⚫ Increase Shielding
 • Time: Minimize time of exposure to minimize total
dose. Rotate employees to restrict individual dose.

• Distance: Maximize distance to source to maximize

attenuation in air. The effect of distance can be
estimated from equations.

• Shielding: Minimize exposure by placing absorbing

shield between worker and source.

B. Monitoring
• Personal Dosimeters: Normally they do not prevent exposures (no
alarm), just record it. They can provide a record of accumulated
exposure for an individual worker over extended periods of time
(hours, days or weeks), and are small enough for measuring localized
exposures Common types: Film badges; Thermoluminescence
detectors (TLD); and pocket dosimeters.
 What Can we Do to Protect Myself and My Family?

Medical imaging is an extraordinary health-care tool that is extremely beneficial.

You can help ensure your safety by remembering to be SMART about medical
imaging.

Seek information (Learn about monitoring and protecting yourself and your
children from over exposure to all types of radiation.)

Make informed decisions (Carefully evaluate imaging options with your doctor.)

Ask your doctor to explain his or her decisions (Is this the only imaging option?
How will it help me? How much radiation will be used? What are the risks?)

Record radiation procedures (Keep track of your medical imaging, as well as any
radiation therapy you may receive.)

Tell health-care providers about previous procedures (Be sure to share information
about previous X-rays, scans or therapies with all of your health-care providers.)

Images of internal body structures require a transfer of energy from an energy

source to the human body and then from the body to an appropriate receptor,
 X-ray and Gamma-Ray Interactions

Following major types of interactions of x-ray and gamma-ray

photons with matter,
Comparison:
Energy Level: Rayleigh scattering involves low-energy X-rays, Compton
a. Rayleigh scattering, scattering uses higher energy, and pair production requires very high
energy.
Outcome: In Rayleigh scattering, the X-ray just bounces off, in Compton
scattering, it knocks out an electron and loses energy, and in pair
b. Compton scattering, production, it creates new particles.
Use in Imaging: Compton scattering happens the most in medical imaging
(like CT scans or X-rays), while Rayleigh scattering and pair production
a. Pair production. are less common but can still occur.
 a. Rayleigh scattering,

b. Compton scattering,
 c. Pair production.

The main purpose of using narrow-beam and broad-beam geometries is

to understand how radiation interacts with materials in different
conditions:

Narrow-Beam Geometry:

Half-Value Layer
Purpose: To measure the true intensity of the radiation beam with
minimal scattering.
How it works: A collimator directs the beam straight to the detector,
reducing the amount of scattered radiation. This setup helps in getting
The half-value layer (HVL) is defned asaccurate
the thickness of material
measurements of therequired to reduce
beam’s strength.
the intensity of an x-ray or gamma-ray Broad-Beam
beam to oneGeometry:
half of its initial value.
Purpose: To see how scattering affects the measurement of the beam’s
intensity.
The HVL of a beam is an indirect measure
Howof the photon
it works: Withoutenergies (alsothe
a collimator, referred to as theout and some
beam spreads
quality) of a beam, when measured under conditions
photons scatter.ofThis
narrow-beam
setup shows geometry.
the impact of scattered radiation on
the overall measurement.
By comparing these two setups, we can better understand how
materials absorb or block radiation, which is crucial for designing
effective radiation shields and ensuring safety in environments where
radiation is used.
x-ray Production, x-ray Tubes,
 X-rays

X-rays

➢ X-rays are a type of radiation called electromagnetic waves.

➢ X-ray imaging creates pictures of the inside of your body.

➢ The images show the parts of your body in different shades of

black and white. This is because different tissues absorb different
amounts of radiation.

➢ The greater the density of the material that the x rays pass
through, the more rays are absorbed. Thus bone absorbs more x
rays than muscle or fat
 X - RAYS
➢ X-rays are produced when highly energetic electrons interact with matter, converting some of their
kinetic energy into electromagnetic radiation.

➢ A device that produces x-rays in the diagnostic energy range typically contains

▪ an electron source,
▪ an evacuated path for electron acceleration,
▪ a target electrode, and
▪ an external power source to provide a high voltage (potential difference) to accelerate the electrons.

Bremsstrahlung Radiation
 Generation of a characteristic x-ray

X-ray Tubes

➢ The x-ray tube provides an environment for the production of

bremsstrahlung and characteristic x-rays.

➢ Major tube components are the

• Cathode,
• Anode,
• Rotor/stator,
• Glass or metal envelope,
• Tube port,
• Cable sockets, and
• Tube housing,
X-ray Tubes

X-ray Tubes
 Cathode

The X-ray tube cathode structure consists

of the filaments and focusing (or cathode)
cup. Current from the filament circuit heats
a filament, which releases electrons by
thermionic emission

Anode

The anode of a fixed anode x-ray tube

consists of a tungsten insert mounted in a
copper block.
 Anode Configurations: Stationary and Rotating

A simple x-ray tube design has a stationary anode, consisting of a tungsten insert embedded in a copper
block.

Rotating anodes are used for most diagnostic x-ray applications, mainly because of greater heat loading
and higher x-ray intensity output.

Anode Configurations: Stationary and Rotating