materials

Article
Experimental Study on Ultrasonic Assisted Turning of
GH4068 Superalloy
Renke Kang, Pengnan Zhang, Zhaocheng Wei, Zhigang Dong and Yidan Wang *

State Key Laboratory of High-Performance Precision Manufacturing, School of Mechanical Engineering,

Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116014, China; [email protected] (R.K.); [email protected] (P.Z.);
[email protected] (Z.W.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-0411-84707430

Abstract: GH4068 superalloy is a new type of nickel-based superalloy in the aerospace field. It is an
important alloy material for the manufacture of aircraft tubular components and aero-engine hot-end
components. These components need to be machined with good surface quality to meet their use
requirements. New hybrid machining processes can improve the quality of surface finish compared
to conventional machines. In this paper, ultrasonic assisted turning (UAT) technology was applied to
the machining of GH4068 superalloy. The experimental system of UAT was established. Experiments
of UAT and conventional turning (CT) of GH4068 superalloy were carried out to study the effects
of cutting speed, feed speed, cutting depth and vibration amplitude on cutting force and surface
roughness. The surface morphology of the workpiece and chip were observed. The experimental
results show that Fx and Fy can be reduced by a maximum of 44% and 63%, respectively, and the
surface roughness can be reduced by a maximum of 31% after adding ultrasonic vibration. Compared
with CT, the UAT has a better machining quality, a more obvious chip-breaking effect, and a smaller
chip bending radius, which guides the high-quality processing of the GH4068 superalloy.

Keywords: GH4068 superalloy; ultrasonic assisted turning; cutting force; surface morphology

Citation: Kang, R.; Zhang, P.; Wei, Z.;

1. Introduction
Dong, Z.; Wang, Y. Experimental Superalloy is an austenitic metal material based on iron, nickel, and cobalt, which can
Study on Ultrasonic Assisted Turning withstand high strength and complex stress above 600 ◦ C. Superalloys have been widely
of GH4068 Superalloy. Materials 2023, used in aerospace, shipbuilding, automotive and biomedical fields due to their excellent
16, 3554. https://doi.org/10.3390/ high-temperature strength, mechanical and chemical properties, high corrosion resistance,
ma16093554 high melting point, and thermal fatigue resistance [1–4]. As indicated by statistics, nickel-
Academic Editors: Stanislaw Legutko based superalloys account for more than half of the aerospace industrial materials [5], and
and Silvio Genna the proportion is growing steadily. GH4068 is a new type of nickel-based superalloy, which
combines the advantages of nickel-based and cobalt-based superalloys. It increases the
Received: 30 March 2023 content of Co and Ti in the alloy design, strengthens the medium-temperature service zone
Revised: 20 April 2023
of the alloy material, weakens the high-temperature processing zone, which ensures that the
Accepted: 26 April 2023
alloy has sufficient strength in the working temperature zone (yield strength ≥ 1500 MPa at
Published: 5 May 2023
750 ◦ C), and improves the hot workability (elongation > 1000% at temperature > 950 ◦ C). It
is an important alloy material applied to the new generation of aircraft tubular components
and aero-engine hot-end components [6,7]. The complex parts made by GH4068 usually
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
include rotary surfaces such as shafts, head cones, and nose cones, which need to be turning
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. precisely. GH4068 superalloy has stable internal structure, small thermal conductivity and
This article is an open access article strong plastic deformation ability. In the actual processing process, the traditional turning
distributed under the terms and processing method has poor performance, which exposes a series of problems, including
conditions of the Creative Commons the large cutting force, the high cutting temperature, the severe tool wear, the poor quality
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// of processing surface, and the uncontrollability of machining accuracy [8].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ UAT is an effective processing method for difficult-to-machine materials such as
4.0/). composite materials, titanium alloys, and high-strength steels. In the process of cutting,

Materials 2023, 16, 3554. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16093554 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2023, 16, 3554 2 of 15

the addition of ultrasonic vibration changes the contact cutting state of the tool and the
material, and the continuous processing of CT is changed into intermittent processing by
the cutting method of periodic separation of the tool and the workpiece [9,10]. Scholars
have expounded on the advantages of UAT from the aspects of cutting force, surface
quality, and chip morphology. Moriwaki et al. [11] used a diamond cutter for ultrasonic
turning of stainless steel and found that intermittent cutting helped reduce the cutting force.
Liu et al. [12] analyzed the cutting force of diamond tool UAT and CT SiCp/Al composites
and concluded that the main cutting force of UAT is much lower than that of CT. The
influence of cutting speed on cutting force is the most obvious, and the influence of
feed speed is the least. Xu et al. [10] conducted a comparative experiment of turning
304 austenitic stainless steel with or without ultrasonic vibration. The results show that
there is an optimal amplitude range for ultrasonic turning to reduce cutting force. Among
the cutting parameters, the cutting depth has the greatest influence on the cutting force,
followed by the cutting speed and feed rate. Chen et al. [13] systematically studied the
influence of UAT on cutting performance in different scenarios, and proposed a new model
to determine the average cutting force and transient cutting force. Maurotto et al. [14]
compared the surface texture of UAT and CT titanium alloy and observed that the surface
of CT has obvious periodicity compared with UAT. At the same time, the surface roughness
level is calculated. Compared with CT, the surface roughness of UAT is reduced by 49%.
Lotfi et al. [15] analyzed the 3D surface morphology of UAT AISI4140 steel. Due to the lower
radial force in the ultrasonic machining process and the longer separation time between
the tool and the chip, the surface roughness is also improved significantly. Yan et al. [16]
found that long spiral chips were produced during the ordinary turning of titanium alloys.
The chips produced by ultrasonic turning are segmented due to ultrasonic vibration. This
kind of chip is thinner and smaller and has less influence on the surface roughness of the
workpiece. Xu et al. [17] found that the chip deformation generated by CT is serious, as the
surface is rough, having defects including grooves, scratches, protrusions and so on. The
chip deformation generated by UAT is relatively small, the chip-breaking effect is ideal, the
surface is smoother, and regular ultrasonic vibration traces can be observed. In summary,
methods of UAT changes the removal mechanism of the material, reduces the cutting force
and tool wear, and improves the machining quality.
Similarly, UAT has also been used in the processing of superalloys in recent years.
Wei et al. [18] conducted experimental studies on UAT and CT of two superalloys Inconel
718 and 625. It was found that the surface grooves of the processed Inconel 625 have a larger
spacing and a better surface morphology than Inconel 718. Jay et al. [19] demonstrated that
UAT produces thinner and shorter chips than CT when machining Nimonic 90 superalloy
with UAT and CT. Chandra Nath et al. [20] found that the workpiece-tool contact ratio is
the key factor to determine the cutting force. Through the cutting experiment of Inconel 718
superalloy, it is found that ultrasonic turning can obtain a higher machining quality and
reduce the cutting force significantly at a lower cutting speed. Babitsky et al. [21] compared
the surface roughness and roundness of Inconel 718 superalloy in UAT and CT under the
same parameters. For the samples processed by ultrasonic turning, Ra is increased by about
50%, the regularity of the surface contour is greatly improved, and the roundness of the
workpiece is also greatly improved.
Airao et al. [22] conducted a comparative study of the machinability of Ti-6Al-4V
and Nimonic 90 under CT and UAT, which significantly reduced energy consumption
and improved tool life of both materials. Nirala et al. [23] combined ultrasonic vibration
with lubrication (MQL) and cooling (LCO2) to improve the workability of Inconel 718.
Compared with the widely studied Inconel 718 and Nimonic 90 superalloy, the newly
developed superalloy GH4068 has higher strength and more difficult processing. UAT
is also expected to become a method to improve processing quality. For GH4068 super-
alloy, the main research focuses on material preparation and material properties. In the
study of Wang et al. [24], friction stir processing (FSP) was for the first time performed to
high-strength and high-melting-point Ni-Co based superalloy (GH4068), and enhanced
 main research focuses on material preparation and material properties. In the study
Wang et al. [24], friction stir processing (FSP) was for the first time performed to hig
strength and high-melting-point Ni-Co based superalloy (GH4068), and enhanc
strength and ductility were achieved in FSP samples. Liu et al. [25] studied the hot def
Materials 2023, 16, 3554 mation behavior and machinability of GH4068 superalloy. However, there3 of are
15 no lite

ture reports on the turning of GH4068 superalloy. In this paper, single-factor experimen
of UAT and CT GH4068 superalloy were carried out in this paper to explore the influen
strength and ductility were achieved in FSP samples. Liu et al. [25] studied the hot defor-
of process
mationparameters
behavior and such as cutting
machinability speed,superalloy.
of GH4068 feed speed, cutting
However, depth,
there are noand vibration a
literature
plitude
reports on the turning of GH4068 superalloy. In this paper, single-factor experiments ofchip m
on cutting force and surface roughness. The surface morphology and
phology
UATcharacteristics
and CT GH4068 in CT andwere
superalloy UATcarried
were observed and the
out in this paper optimal
to explore theprocessing
influence para
eters are determined, which provided a reference for the high-quality
of process parameters such as cutting speed, feed speed, cutting depth, and processing
vibration
amplitude on cutting force and surface roughness. The surface morphology and chip
GH4068 superalloy.
morphology characteristics in CT and UAT were observed and the optimal processing
parameters are determined, which provided a reference for the high-quality processing of
2. Materials and Methods
GH4068 superalloy.
2.1. Tools and Materials
2. Materials and Methods
In
2.1.this
Toolsexperiment,
and Materials WNMG080404-TF-coated cemented carbide blades (XinLi, D
lian, China) were
In this used as WNMG080404-TF-coated
experiment, shown in Figure 1a. Considering the tool
cemented carbide needs
blades (XinLi,toDalian,
have sufficie
strength to reduce the impact on the experimental results. Therefore, the geometrical p
China) were used as shown in Figure 1a. Considering the tool needs to have sufficient
strength to reduce the impact on the experimental results. Therefore, the geometrical
rameters of tool are shown in Table 1.
parameters of tool are shown in Table 1.

(a) (b)
FigureFigure
1. Tool andand
1. Tool material:
material:(a)
(a) WNMG080404-TF blade,
WNMG080404-TF blade, (b) GH4068
(b) GH4068 superalloy.
superalloy.

TableTable
1. geometrical parameters
1. Geometrical parametersof
of tool.
tool.

Project
Project Content
Content

Insert Part
Insert PartNumber
Number WNMG080404N-TF
WNMG080404N-TF
Nose angle (◦ ) 55
Nose
Nose angle (°)
radius (mm) 0.4 55
Nose radius (mm)
Rake angle (◦ ) 7 0.4
Rear angle (◦ ) 0
Rake angle (°) 7
Rear angle (°) 0
The workpiece used in the experiment is GH4068 superalloy as shown in Figure 1b.
This stepped cylindrical workpiece has a diameter of 60 mm and a length of 190 mm for its
The
largeworkpiece
end. used in the experiment is GH4068 superalloy as shown in Figure
This steppedchemical
The cylindrical workpiece
composition of thehas a diameter
workpiece materialofis60 mminand
shown a length
Table 2. of 190 mm
its large end.
Table 2. Chemical composition of GH4068 superalloy.
The chemical composition of the workpiece material is shown in Table 2.
Elements Al + Ti Co W Cr Mo Ni
Table 2.Weight
Chemical
% composition
7.83 of24.83
GH4068 superalloy.
1.19 13.85 2.79 Bal.

Elements AlSystem
2.2. Machining + Ti of UAT Co W Cr Mo Ni
Weight The
% UAT experimental
7.83 24.83is shown in1.19
device 13.85
Figure 2. The experiment 2.79
of UAT superalloy Bal.
is carried out on the CA6140A lathe (Dalian Machine Tool Group Corp, Dalian, China), with
the highest spindle speed being 1400 r/min. In the experiment, the workpiece clamped by
 loy Machining
2.2. is carried out on the
System of CA6140A
UAT lathe (Dalian Machine Tool Group Cor
with the highest spindle speed being 1400 r/min. In the experimen
The UAT experimental device is shown in Figure 2. The experimen
clamped by the three-jaw chuck rotates at high speed, which is the main
loy is carried out on the CA6140A lathe (Dalian Machine Tool Group Co
The tool is installed at the front end of the vibration system and fixed w
Materials 2023, 16, 3554
with the highest spindle speed being 1400 r/min. In the 4experimen of 15
of the machine tool to realize the feed movement of cutting.
clamped by the three-jaw chuck rotates at high speed, which is the main
The
the tool ischuck
three-jaw installed
rotates at the speed,
at high front which
end of themain
is the vibration
motion ofsystem and
cutting. The fixed w
tool
of the machine tool to realize the feed movement of cutting.
is installed at the front end of the vibration system and fixed with the skateboard of the
machine tool to realize the feed movement of cutting.

Figure 2. Experimental device of Ultrasonic turning.

The self-developed ultrasonic vibration system is shown in Figure

Figure
Figure 2. Experimental
2. Experimental device ofdevice Ultrasonic
ofturning.
Ultrasonic
ultrasonic signal generator, a transducer, turning.
a horn, and a tool. The ultraso
tor generates an ultrasonic frequency high-power
The self-developed ultrasonic vibration system is shown in Figureelectrical
3. It consistssignal
of wi
The
an ultrasonic self-developed
signal
quencygenerates
above 18
generator,
kHz. The
a ultrasonic
transducer, a vibration
horn,
piezoelectric
and a system
tool.
transducer
The is shown
ultrasonic
converts in
signal Figure
the electric
generator an ultrasonic frequency high-power electrical signal with adjustable
ultrasonic
mechanical
frequency signal generator,
above vibration. a transducer,
This high-frequency
18 kHz. The piezoelectric a horn,
transducer converts and
vibration a tool.
signal intoultraso
The
is transmitted
the electrical and
tor generates an ultrasonic frequency high-power
is transmittedelectrical
end of the tool through the amplitude amplification of the horn.
axial mechanical vibration. This high-frequency vibration and amplified signal
to w
quency above 18 kHz. The piezoelectric transducer converts the electric
the end of the tool through the amplitude amplification of the horn.

mechanical vibration. This high-frequency vibration is transmitted and

end of the tool through the amplitude amplification of the horn.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of ultrasonic vibration system.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of ultrasonic vibration system.
The resonant frequency of the ultrasonic vibration system in this experiment is
The resonant frequency of the ultrasonic vibration system in this e
19.7 kHz. As shown in Figure 4, the laser displacement sensor (LK-H025, KEYENCE,
Osaka, Japan) is used to measure the amplitude of the tool before the experiment, and the
kHz. As
Figure
maximum showncan
3.amplitude
Schematic indiagram
Figure
reach 4,The
of
12 µm. theoutput
laseramplitude
ultrasonic displacement
vibrationcansystem. sensor
be changed (LK-H025, K
by changing
Japan)
the outputis used
power to power
of the measure the amplitude of the tool before the experim
supply.

mumThe resonantcan
amplitude frequency
reach 12of theThe
µm. ultrasonic vibration system
output amplitude can be in this
change
kHz. Aspower
output shownofinthe
Figure
power4,supply.
the laser displacement sensor (LK-H025, K
Japan) is used to measure the amplitude of the tool before the experim
mum amplitude can reach 12 µm. The output amplitude can be change
Materials 2023,
Materials2023,
Materials 16, xx FOR
16,3554
2023,16, FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 555of
of 16
of15
16

Figure 4.
Figure4. Point
4. Point laser
Point laser measurement
laser measurement of
measurementof ultrasonic
ofultrasonic amplitude.
ultrasonicamplitude.
amplitude.
Figure

Figure
Figure555illustrates
Figure illustrates
illustratesthe the path
thepath
pathofof
ofthe the cutting
thecutting tool.
cuttingtool. The
tool. The tool
The tool of
tool of UAT
of UAT moves
UAT moves along
moves along the
along the feed
the feed
feed
direction while
direction while
direction ultrasonic
while ultrasonic vibration
ultrasonic vibration
vibration and and the
and the trajectory
the trajectory is approximately
trajectory isis approximately a
approximately aasine sine curve.
sinecurve.
curve. InIn
In
the range
the range
the of
range of red
of red curve,
red curve, the
curve, the tool
the tool contacts
tool contacts
contacts the the workpiece
the workpiece
workpiece for for cutting
for cutting motion.The
cutting motion.The
motion.The tooltool cuts
tool cuts
cuts
into the
into the
into workpiece
the workpiece
workpiece at at the
at the time
thetime
timeofoftttaaa,,, and
of and
and the the vibration
the vibration direction
vibration direction changes
direction changes after
changes after crossing
after crossing the
crossing the
the
vertex. When it reaches the time of t b,, the
the longitudinal velocity of
vertex. When it reaches the time of tbb, the longitudinal velocity of the tool is greater than
vertex. When it reaches the time of t longitudinal velocity of the
the tool
tool is
is greater
greater than
than
the rotation
the rotation
the speed
rotation speed
speed of of the
of the workpiece,
the workpiece,
workpiece, and and the
and the tool
the tool
tool isis separated
is separated from
separated from the
from the workpiece
the workpiece
workpiece so so that
so that
that
the periodic
the periodic
the reciprocating
periodic reciprocating realizes
reciprocatingrealizes
realizesthe the purpose
thepurpose
purposeof of intermittent
ofintermittent cutting.
intermittentcutting.
cutting.

Figure 5.
Figure5.
Figure Tool
5. Tool cutting
Toolcutting trajectory.
cuttingtrajectory.
trajectory.

Critical separation
Critical separation
Critical speed
separation speed (v
(vccc)) of
speed (v the tool
of the tool and
tool and the
and the workpiece
the workpiece rotation
workpiece rotation speed
rotation speed (v)
speed (v) is
(v) is as
is as
as
follows [26]:
follows [26]:
follows [26]:
vc = 2πfA, (1)
vvc = 2π fA , (1)
c = 2π fA , (1)

v= = π nD
v πnD
v = π nD (2)
(2)
(2)
In
In the
the formula, f is
ff is the ultrasonic vibration frequency, AA is the vibration amplitude, nn
is the In the formula,
workpieceformula,
rotation is the
the ultrasonic
ultrasonic
speed, and D
vibration
vibration
is the
frequency,
frequency,
workpiece A is
diameter. is the
the vibration
vibrationtoamplitude,
According amplitude,
the existing n
is
is the
the workpiece
workpiece rotation
rotation speed,
speed, and
and D
D is
is the
the workpiece
workpiece diameter.
diameter. According
According to
to the
the exist-
exist-
research,
ing the optimal
research, the turning speed should be 1/3 of the critical speed (vc =(v88 m/min) of
ingtool.
the research, the optimal
Therefore, optimal
the
turning
turning
optimal
speed
speedspeed
turning
should
should be
canbebe1/3 of
of the
the critical
1/3calculatedcritical
as v
speed
speed
= 29.3 (vc = 88 m/min)
c = 88 m/min)
m/min.
of
of the
the tool.
tool. Therefore,
Therefore, the the optimal
optimal turning
turning speedspeed cancan be
be calculated
calculated as as vv == 29.3
29.3 m/min.
m/min.
2.3. Experimental Methods
2.3.
2.3. Experimental
Experimental Methods
Methods
The experiment was designed according to the single factor method. Different from
CT, UAT The experiment
limited bywas
The isexperiment was designed
designed
critical according
according
speed and to
to the
the single
other factors. single factor
factoron
Therefore, method.
method. Different
Different
this principle, from
from
smaller
CT,
CT, UAT
UAT is
is limited
limited by
by critical
critical speed
speed and
and other
other factors.
factors. Therefore,
Therefore,
cutting speed, depth of cut and feed rate were selected in this study, and all process on
on this
this principle,
principle, smaller
smaller
cutting
cutting speed,
parameters speed, depth
depth
were of
of cut
selected and
and feed
cutbased feed rate
rate were
on UAT were selected
selected
literature in
in this
this study,
[17,18,27–29]. study, and
and all
Referring all process
process pa-
pa-
to existing
rameters
rameters were
literature, were selected
selected
the cutting based
speedbased on UAT
on UAT
is 10~100 literature
literature
m/min, [17,18,27–29].
the [17,18,27–29]. Referring
depth of cut isReferring
0.05~0.4 mm, to existing
to existing
the feedlitera-
litera-
rate
ture,
ture,
is the
the cutting
0.05~0.4 cutting
mm/rev speed
andis
speed 10~100
isthe
10~100 m/min,
m/min,
amplitude is the
the
0~15 depth
µm. of
depth of cut
cut is
is 0.05~0.4
Therefore, 0.05~0.4 mm,
mm, the
the parameters the feed
feed rate
ratein
selected is
is
0.05~0.4
0.05~0.4
this mm/rev
mm/revare
experiment and
and the amplitude
the amplitude
shown is 0~15
is 0~15
in the Table µm.
3. Byµm. Therefore,
Therefore,
changing the parameters
the parameters
parameters selected
such as selected in this
in this
cutting speed,
Materials 2023, 16, 3554 6 of 15

feed rate, cutting depth, and vibration amplitude, the changing law of cutting force and
surface roughness with machining parameters was explored, and the machined surface
morphology and chip morphology were observed. What’s more, the machinability of
UAT of GH4068 superalloy was studied compared with CT, and the cutting length of each
parameter group is 20 mm. The study consisted of 27 experiments, each consisting of four
cutting parameters. To reduce random errors in the experiment, each experiment was
repeated three times. In order to avoid the influence of tool wear on the experimental
results, the tool was replaced after every experimental.

Table 3. Experimental design.

Cutting Speed Feed Rate Depth of Cut Vibration Amplitude

Exp. No
(m/min) (mm/rev) (mm) (µm)
1 14, 27, 40, 53, 66 0.08 0.15 12, -
0.08, 0.12, 0.16,
2 27 0.15 12, -
0.20, 0.24
0.05, 0.1, 0.15,
3 27 0.08 12, -
0.20, 0.25
4 27 0.08 0.15 -, 3, 6, 9, 12

In this experiment, a dynamometer (9257B, Kistler Instrumente AG, Winterthur,

Switzerland) was used to measure the three-dimensional cutting force. The dynamometer
has four 3-component sensors, each with three pairs of quartz plates that convert the forces
into electric charges. LN5861 charge amplifier (Jiangsu Lianneng Electronic Technology
Co., Ltd, Changzhou, China) was used to convert the charge signal of dynamometer into
voltage signal output, and the electric signal was digitized and stored in the computer by
a USB-1902 multifunctional data acquisition card (ADLINK TECHNOLOGY, Shanghai,
China). Finally, ADLINK U-test software (v2.4.4.0123) was used for data processing. The
dynamometer is located between the ultrasonic device and the skateboard to measure the
cutting force in real time. The arithmetic square root Ra of the surface contour was used to
evaluate the surface machined by different turning methods. Besides, the Tyler Hopson
surface profiler (CLI2000, Taylor Hobson Ltd., Leicester, UK) was selected as the measur-
ing instrument. The 3D surface optical profile meter (NewView9000, ZYGO Corporation,
Middlefield, CT, USA) was used to observe the two-dimensional and three-dimensional
surface morphology of the 800 µm × 800 µm square area of the machined surface. In order
to observe the surface morphology and chip morphology of the workpiece, the super depth
of a field microscope (OM; VHX-600E, KEYENCY, Osaka, Japan) was used.

3. Result and Discussion

3.1. Cutting Force
The magnitude of cutting force is considered an important indicator to evaluate
the quality of cutting process, which directly affects surface quality, chip formation, and
dimensional accuracy [20]. Currently, when processing difficult-to-machine materials such
as superalloys, only low removal rates are used to avoid excessive tool wear and reduce
cutting force. UAT has demonstrated its enormous advantages [29–31]. By changing
the cutting speed, feed rate, cutting depth, and vibration amplitude while keeping other
parameters constant, the cutting force levels and variation patterns of UAT and CT of
GH4068 superalloy are compared. Typically, in turning GH4068 superalloy, a lower feed
rate and cutting depth are used. Due to the use of hard alloy tools with a larger tool tip
radius in the experiment, the cutting force in the feed direction is much smaller than that in
the other two directions, which is ignored in our analysis.
Figure 6 shows the variation of cutting force of UAT and CT of GH4068 superalloy
at different cutting speeds. For CT, the cutting force increases with the increase of cutting
speed. Due to the good plastic deformation ability of GH4068 superalloy, the actual rake
angle of the tool decreases as the cutting speed increases, while the cutting force increases
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16

Figure 6 shows the variation of cutting force of UAT and CT of GH4068 superalloy at
different cutting speeds. For CT, the cutting force increases with the increase of cutting
speed.Figure
Due to 6 shows the plastic
the good variation of cutting force
deformation ofof
ability UAT and CT
GH4068 of GH4068
superalloy, thesuperalloy
actual rake at
Materials 2023, 16, 3554 different cutting speeds. For CT, the cutting force increases with the
angle of the tool decreases as the cutting speed increases, while the cutting force increases increase of cutting
7 of 15
speed. Due to the good plastic deformation ability of GH4068 superalloy,
as well. In the UAT experiment, with a cutting speed from 14 to 66 m/min, Fx increased the actual rake
angle of the tool decreases as the cutting speed increases, while
from 147N to 425N and Fy increased from 52N to 245N. For UAT, when the cutting speed the cutting force increases
assmall,
is well. In the
thethe UAT experiment,
cutting with a cutting inspeed from 14
the F14 to F m/min, Fx When
66y directions. increased
as well. In UAT force decreases
experiment, significantly
with a cutting speed bothfrom x and
to 66 m/min, Fx increased the
from
cutting147N
speed to 425N
is 14 and
m/min, Fy increased from 52N to 245N. For UAT, when the cutting speed
the F x and F y decrease by approximately 44% and 63%. Never-
from 147N to 425N and Fy increased from 52N to 245N. For UAT, when the cutting speed
is small,as
theless, thethecutting
cuttingforce
speeddecreases
increases,significantly
the reductionin both the Fx and Fyofdirections. Whenand the
is small, the cutting force decreases significantly in in cutting
both the Fforce UAT decreases
x and Fy directions. When
cutting speed
gradually is 14 m/min, of Fx and
theCT. Fy decrease by approximately 44% andincreases
63%. Never-
the cuttingapproaches
speed is 14that m/min, According
the Fx and Fto Section
y decrease 2.1,
bythe cutting
approximately speed 44% and 63%. the
theless, as the
amount of time cutting speed increases, the reduction in cutting force of UAT decreases and
Nevertheless, as the
the tool spends
cutting speedinincreases,
contact with the workpiece
the reduction during
in cutting UAT.
force When
of UAT the cut-
decreases
gradually
ting speedapproaches
exceeds thethat of CT. According
critical to Section 2.1, cannot
the cutting speed increases the
and gradually approaches that ofspeed threshold,
CT. According tothe tool
Section be separated
2.1, the cutting from the
speed increases
amount
workpiece,of time the tool spends in contact with the workpiece during UAT. When the cut-
the amount and the cutting
of time the toolforce
spends increases.
in contact with the workpiece during UAT. When the
cutting speed exceeds the critical speedthreshold,
ting speed exceeds the critical speed threshold,the thetool
toolcannot
cannotbe be separated
separated from
from thethe
workpiece, and
workpiece, and thethe cutting
cutting force
force increases.
increases.

Figure 6. Histogram of the variation of cutting force with cutting speed.

Figure 6. Histogram
Histogram
Figure
Figure 6. of the
thethe
7 illustrates
of variation of cutting
variation
variation of cutting force with
in cutting
force with cutting
forcecutting speed. feed rates. As the feed
with different
speed.
rate increases, the cutting force also increases significantly for CT and UAT of GH4068
superalloy. This illustrates
Figure 7 illustrates
is because thewith
the variation
variation in cutting
in
the increase forcerate,
force
of feed withthe
with different
different feed rates.
feed
actual cutting rates. As the feed
area of the tool
rate increases,
rate increases,
increases. the cutting
the
In addition,
cutting force also
force
the friction
also increases
increases
between significantly
significantly
the chip and the front for edge
for CT and
CT and UAT
UAT
of the toolofincreases,
GH4068
of GH4068
superalloy.
superalloy. This
This is
is because
because with
with the
the increase
increase of
of feed
feed rate,
rate, the
the actual
actual
and the cutting force increases [32]. The addition of ultrasonic vibration significantlycutting
cutting area
area of
of the tool
the tool
re-
increases.
increases. In
In addition,
addition, the
the friction
friction between
between the
the chip
chip and
and the
the front
front edge
edge of
duces cutting force. Cutting force reductions are most significant at 0.08 mm/rev feed
of the
the tool
tool increases,
increases,
and the
and the cutting
rates,
cutting force
with Fx and
forceincreases
Fy reduced by[32].
increases [32].The Theaddition
approximately
additionof and
14% ultrasonic
of ultrasonic vibration
vibration
33%, respectively. significantly
significantly
A higher feed re-
duces results
reduces
speed cuttinginforce.
cutting force. Cuttinginforce
Cutting
an increase
forcereductions
cutting
reductions are most
are
force increases
most
andsignificant
significant at 0.08 mm/rev
at 0.08
the load increases,
mm/rev
which sup-feed
feed
rates,
rates, with
with FFxx and
and F Fyy reduced
reduced by by approximately
approximately 14% 14% and
and 33%,
33%, respectively.
respectively. A A higher
higher feed
feed
presses ultrasonic vibration and weakens the effect of reducing cutting force. Conse-
speed
speed results
results in
in an increase
increase in
an vibration in cutting
cutting force increases
force increases and the
and the load increases,
increases, which
which sup-
sup-
quently, ultrasonic has a greater effect at lower feed load
speeds than at higher feed
presses ultrasonic vibration and weakens the effect of reducing cutting
presses ultrasonic vibration and weakens the effect of reducing cutting force. Conse- force. Consequently,
speeds.
ultrasonic vibrationvibration
has a greater
quently, ultrasonic has aeffect at lower
greater effectfeed speeds
at lower feedthan at higher
speeds than feed speeds.
at higher feed
speeds.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Histogram
Histogram of
of cutting
cutting force variation with
force variation with feed
feed rate.
rate.

Figure
In7.Figure
Histogram of change
8, the cutting force variation
in cutting withincreases
force feed rate. as cutting depth increases. Under
both UAT and CT, the cutting force increases significantly with the cutting depth. Because
of the increase in cutting depth, there is an increase in the cutting area and cutting thickness,
resulting in an increase in deformation resistance and friction, as well as an increase in
cutting force. UAT shows the most significant reduction in cutting force at a cutting depth
of 0.15 mm, but the reduction rate of cutting force in UAT is nonlinear relative to CT.
 In Figure 8, the change in cutting force increases as cutting depth increases. Under
both UATIn Figure 8, the
and CT, thechange
cuttinginforce
cutting force significantly
increases increases as cutting
with thedepth
cuttingincreases. Under
depth. Because
both
of theUAT and CT,
increase the cutting
in cutting force
depth, increases
there significantly
is an increase in thewith the area
cutting cutting
anddepth. Because
cutting thick-
of the increase in cutting depth, there is an increase in the cutting area and
ness, resulting in an increase in deformation resistance and friction, as well as an increasecutting thick-
Materials 2023, 16, 3554
ness, resulting
in cutting in UAT
force. an increase
shows in
thedeformation resistance
most significant and friction,
reduction as well
in cutting as at
force anaincrease
cutting
8 of 15
in cutting force. UAT shows the most significant reduction in cutting
depth of 0.15 mm, but the reduction rate of cutting force in UAT is nonlinear relative force at a cuttingto
depth of 0.15 mm, but the reduction rate of cutting force in UAT is nonlinear
CT. It increases from 11.6% at 0.05 mm to 24.7% at 0.15 mm and then decreases to 4.1% at relative to
CT.
0.25 Itmm.
increases from 11.6% at 0.05 mm to 24.7% at 0.15 mm and then decreases to 4.1% at
It increases
0.25 mm. from 11.6% at 0.05 mm to 24.7% at 0.15 mm and then decreases to 4.1% at
0.25 mm.

Figure 8. Histogram of the variation of cutting force with cutting depth.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Histogram
Histogram of
of the variation of
the variation of cutting
cutting force with cutting
force with cutting depth.
depth.
Figure 9 illustrates the influence of different amplitudes on cutting force. The histo-
gramFigure
Figure 99 illustrates
illustrates the
the influence
influenceof ofdifferent
differentamplitudes
amplitudeson oncutting
Fx and Fyforce.
cutting force.The histo-
The his-
shows that with an increase in ultrasonic amplitude, the of UAT first in-
gram
crease,shows
togram shows thatdecrease.
and then with an increase
that with an increasein ultrasonic
UAT’s cutting
in ultrasonic amplitude,
amplitude,
force increases the Fwhen
slightly
the x Fy ofy UAT first in-
x and
F and F of UAT first
the ultrasonic am-
crease,
plitudeand
increase, andthen
reaches 3decrease.
then decrease.
µm. When UAT’s cutting
UAT’s force
cutting
the ultrasonic increases
force
isslightly
increases
amplitude 12 µm, when
slightly when the ultrasonic am-
the ultrasonic
the reduction in cutting
plitude
amplitudereaches
reaches3 µm. When
3 µm. When the ultrasonic
the ultrasonicamplitude
amplitudeisis12 12µm,
µm,thethe reduction
force is most significant, with the Fx and Fy reduced by 14% and 33%, respectively. This
reduction in cutting
in cutting
force
makesisthe
force most
is most significant,
significant,
machining effectwith
with the FFxxbetter
the
of UAT and F
and Fthan
y reduced
reduced by 14% and
by 14%
that of CT. and 33%,
33%, respectively.
respectively. This
This
makes the machining effect of UAT better than that of CT.
makes the machining effect of UAT better than that of CT.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Histogram
Histogram of
of cutting
cutting force
force with
with amplitude
amplitude change.
change.
Figure 9. Histogram of cutting force with amplitude change.
3.2. Surface Roughness
3.2. Surface Roughness
3.2. Surface
With theRoughness
frequent starting and stopping of aircraft engines, the pressure they endure
With the frequent starting and stopping of aircraft engines, the pressure they endure
With
constantly the frequent
changes.
constantly changes. starting
Through
Through and
the
the stopping
analysis
analysis
ofofengine
aircraft
of engine engines,
failure,the
parts
parts
failure, pressure
it is found
it is found that they endure
that
poor
poor
sur-
constantly
surface changes.
quality Through
of machined the analysis
parts can leadof engine parts
to faster failure,
fatigue it
damage is found that poor
and accelerate
face quality of machined parts can lead to faster fatigue damage and accelerate the failure sur-
the
face quality of machined
failure of
of components. Therefore,parts
components. Therefore,can leadtheto surface
faster fatigue
controlling
controlling
the
qualitydamage
surface
of partsand
quality of accelerate
parts
is also
is also theaircraft
failure
crucial
crucial for
for
of components.
aircraft
engines’ serviceTherefore,
engines’ service controllingSurface
life and
life and reliability. the surface
reliability. Surfacequalityand
roughness of parts
roughness is also
and
surface crucial for are
surface
morphology aircraft
morphology
im-
engines’
portant indicators for analyzing surface quality, and proper cutting parameters can im-
are service
important life and
indicators reliability.
for analyzingSurface
surface roughness and
quality, and surface
proper morphology
cutting are
parameters can
im-
portant
improve indicators for [33].
surface quality
prove surface quality analyzing
[33]. surface quality, and proper cutting parameters can im-
proveThe
surface quality
variation [33]. roughness with cutting speed is shown in Figure 10. Under the
of surface
condition that other cutting parameters remain unchanged, the cutting speed is changed,
and the GH4068 superalloy turning experiment is carried out. For CT, the cutting force
increases overall with cutting speed. This is because cutting speed influences surface rough-
ness mainly caused by physical factors. When the cutting speed is high, plastic deformation
is reduced. Since GH4068 superalloy has superior plastic deformation capabilities, cutting
speed has a more significant effect on surface roughness. UAT applies vibration in an
error-insensitive direction, which reduces the plastic deformation of the workpiece surface
 the condition that other cutting parameters remain unchanged, the cutting speed is
changed, and the GH4068 superalloy turning experiment is carried out. For CT, the cutting
force increases overall with cutting speed. This is because cutting speed influences surface
roughness mainly caused by physical factors. When the cutting speed is high, plastic de-
Materials 2023, 16, 3554
formation is reduced. Since GH4068 superalloy has superior plastic deformation capabil-
9 of 15
ities, cutting speed has a more significant effect on surface roughness. UAT applies vibra-
tion in an error-insensitive direction, which reduces the plastic deformation of the work-
piece surface and reduces the surface roughness without affecting the geometric accuracy
and reduces the surface roughness without affecting the geometric accuracy [34]. As shown
[34]. As shown in the diagram, ultrasonic machining significantly reduces surface rough-
in the diagram, ultrasonic machining significantly reduces surface roughness at speeds
ness at speeds below 66 m/min. When the cutting speed is 14 m/min, the surface rough-
below 66 m/min. When the cutting speed is 14 m/min, the surface roughness after UAT is
ness after UAT is the most obvious, and Ra is reduced by about 31%. With the increase in
the most obvious, and Ra is reduced by about 31%. With the increase in cutting speed, the
cutting speed, the separation between tool and workpiece is weakened, and the improve-
separation between tool and workpiece is weakened, and the improvement effect of UAT
ment effect of UAT on surface roughness is reduced.
on surface roughness is reduced.

Figure 10.
Figure 10. The
The variation
variation of
of surface
surface roughness
roughness with
with cutting
cutting speed.
speed.

Figure 11
Figure 11 further
further explores
explores the
the effect
effect ofof feed
feed rate
rate on
on surface
surface roughness.
roughness. When
When the the feed
feed
rate increases from 0.08 mm/rev to 0.24 mm/rev, UAT surface roughness is the same
rate increases from 0.08 mm/rev to 0.24 mm/rev, UAT surface roughness is the same as as
that
that of CT. This is due to the fact that as the feed rate increases, the relative movement
of CT. This is due to the fact that as the feed rate increases, the relative movement speed
speed
of of the
the tool andtooltheand the workpiece
workpiece increases,increases,
and the and the residual
residual area increases
area increases as well.
as well. Further,
Further, the larger feed will result in an increase in the tool load, which will increase
the larger feed will result in an increase in the tool load, which will increase the cutting the
force,
cuttingand leadand
force, to deterioration of the surface
lead to deterioration of the quality.
surface The alternating
quality. motion of
The alternating the tool
motion of
greatly reduces the surface roughness in UAT. With a feed rate of 0.08
the tool greatly reduces the surface roughness in UAT. With a feed rate of 0.08 mm/rev, mm/rev, the surface
roughness
the surfaceisroughness
most evidentlyis mostreduced,
evidentlyresulting
reduced,in a resulting
reductioninofa23% compared
reduction of 23%to that of
com-
ordinary turning. As the feed rate is increased, the reduction rate of Ra
pared to that of ordinary turning. As the feed rate is increased, the reduction rate of Ra under ultrasonic
vibration processing
under ultrasonic decreases
vibration from 23%
processing at 0.08 mm/rev
decreases from 23%toat4% at mm/rev
0.08 0.24 mm/rev.
to 4% Plastic
at 0.24
deformation plays a significant role in surface roughness
mm/rev. Plastic deformation plays a significant role in surface roughness when when the feed rate is low. As
the feed
a result of the vibration generated by UAT, the plastic deformation of the cutting area
rate is low. As a result of the vibration generated by UAT, the plastic deformation of the
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
is reduced, and the surface roughness is also reduced. Nevertheless, with higher feed
cutting area is reduced, and the surface roughness is also reduced. Nevertheless, with
rates, geometric factors take precedence, and with higher loads, ultrasonic vibration is less
higher feed rates, geometric factors take precedence, and with higher loads, ultrasonic
prominent. Thus, UAT’s surface roughness approaches that of CT.
vibration is less prominent. Thus, UAT’s surface roughness approaches that of CT.

Figure 11. The variation of surface roughness with feed rate.

Figure 11. The variation of surface roughness with feed rate.

The Figure 12 illustrates how surface roughness varies with cutting dep
above figure, it is evident that the depth of the cutting has little influence on th
 Materials 2023, 16, 3554 10 of 15
Figure 11. The variation of surface roughness with feed rate.

The Figure 12 illustrates how surface roughness varies with cutting depth. From the
aboveThe Figure
figure, it is12 illustrates
evident that how surface
the depth roughness
of the varies
cutting has with
little cuttingon
influence depth. From the
the roughness
above figure, it is evident that the depth of the cutting has little influence on the roughness
of the machined surface. As the cutting depth is changed, the trend of UAT and CT re-
of the machined surface. As the cutting depth is changed, the trend of UAT and CT remains
mains the same. Ra decreases with a cutting depth of 0.05 mm to 0.10 mm. Essentially,
the same. Ra decreases with a cutting depth of 0.05 mm to 0.10 mm. Essentially, when
when the cutting depth is too small, normal cutting is not possible, and the blade slips on
the cutting depth is too small, normal cutting is not possible, and the blade slips on the
the surface of the workpiece, which increases the plastic deformation of the workpiece. As
surface of the workpiece, which increases the plastic deformation of the workpiece. As
the cutting depth increases from 0.10 mm to 0.30 mm, the surface roughness increases.
the cutting depth increases from 0.10 mm to 0.30 mm, the surface roughness increases.
When the cutting depth is 0.15 mm, the surface roughness of UAT is significantly reduced
When the cutting depth is 0.15 mm, the surface roughness of UAT is significantly reduced
compared to CT, and Ra is reduced by approximately 23%.
compared to CT, and Ra is reduced by approximately 23%.

Figure
Figure 12.
12. The
The variation
variation of
of surface
surface roughness
roughness with
with depth
depth of
of cut.
cut.

Furthermore, ultrasonic
Furthermore, ultrasonic amplitude
amplitude has
has aa significant
significant impact
impact on on surface
surface roughness
roughness in in
addition to
addition to conventional
conventional cutting
cutting parameters.
parameters. Figure
Figure 1313 indicates
indicates that
that when
when the
the vibration
vibration
amplitude is 3 µm, the Ra value of UAT GH4068 is higher than that
amplitude is 3 µm, the Ra value of UAT GH4068 is higher than that of CT. We find of CT. We find by
by
calculation that the critical speed of UAT is 22 m/min. Due to the high cutting
calculation that the critical speed of UAT is 22 m/min. Due to the high cutting speed, thespeed, the
tool and
tool and the
the workpiece
workpiece cannot
cannot be
be separated,
separated, and
and the
the effect
effect of
of adding
adding ultrasonic
ultrasonic vibration
vibration
cannot be observed. Furthermore, due to the high relative speed between
cannot be observed. Furthermore, due to the high relative speed between the tool the tool and
and
workpiece, continuous impact between the tool tip and the blade leads to no significant
workpiece, continuous impact between the tool tip and the blade leads to no significant
improvement in surface roughness even when a small amplitude is added. However,
improvement in surface roughness even when a small amplitude is added. However, as
as vibration amplitude increases, the tool and workpiece become separated for a longer
vibration amplitude increases, the tool and workpiece become separated for a longer pe-
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 1
period of time, and the surface roughness after processing decreases significantly. There is
riod of time, and the surface roughness after processing decreases significantly. There is a
a significant decrease in surface roughness when the amplitude is 12 µm, indicating that a
significant decrease in surface roughness when the amplitude is 12 µm, indicating that a
larger amplitude can result in a better surface quality.
larger amplitude can result in a better surface quality.

Figure13.
Figure 13.The
The variation
variation of surface
of surface roughness
roughness with amplitude.
with amplitude.

3.3. Surface Morphology

3.3. Surface Morphology
The surface morphology of the workpiece is the key to evaluating the processing
The
quality surface
[35]. morphology
According of the of
to the analysis workpiece is the
Sections 2.1 andkey
2.2, to
theevaluating the processing
following cutting
quality [35]. According to the analysis of Sections 2.1 and 2.2, the following cutting pa
rameters significantly improve the surface quality of ultrasonic machining: cutting speed
27 m/min, feed speed 0.08 mm/rev, cutting depth 0.15 mm, and UAT vibration amplitud
12 µm. Surface morphology characteristics of UAT and CT workpieces are compared un
 Figure 13. The variation of surface roughness with amplitude.

3.3. Surface Morphology

Materials 2023, 16, 3554 11 of 15
The surface morphology of the workpiece is the key to evaluating the processing
quality [35]. According to the analysis of Sections 2.1 and 2.2, the following cutting pa-
rameters significantly improve the surface quality of ultrasonic machining: cutting speed
parameters
27 m/min, significantly
feed speed improvecutting
0.08 mm/rev, the surface
depthquality of ultrasonic
0.15 mm, and UAT machining: cutting speed
vibration amplitude
27 m/min, feed speed 0.08 mm/rev, cutting depth 0.15 mm, and
12 µm. Surface morphology characteristics of UAT and CT workpieces are compared UAT vibration amplitude
un-
12 µm. Surface morphology characteristics of UAT and CT workpieces are compared under
der the same cutting parameters.
the same cutting parameters.
In Figure 14, the typical surface morphology characteristics of UAT and CT are com-
In Figure 14, the typical surface morphology characteristics of UAT and CT are com-
pared. Sa was used to evaluate the three-dimensional surface roughness. Compared to CT,
pared. Sa was used to evaluate the three-dimensional surface roughness. Compared to
UAT’s three-dimensional surface roughness decreased by about 19%, indicating that
CT, UAT’s three-dimensional surface roughness decreased by about 19%, indicating that
UAT’s average roughness decreased within the sampling area. CT shows an obvious pe-
UAT’s average roughness decreased within the sampling area. CT shows an obvious
riodicity, with the contour peaks separated by approximately 80 mm, indicating a feed
periodicity, with the contour peaks separated by approximately 80 mm, indicating a feed
rate of 0.08 mm per revolution. On the machined surface obtained by UAT, the periodicity
rate of 0.08 mm per revolution. On the machined surface obtained by UAT, the periodicity
of this surface profile is weaker. A smoother surface is obtained by alternating the motion
of this surface profile is weaker. A smoother surface is obtained by alternating the motion
of the tool in UAT. When the tool and workpiece are turned, the radial force will cause a
of the tool in UAT. When the tool and workpiece are turned, the radial force will cause
relative displacement of the tool and workpiece. Surface quality and tool stability are di-
a relative displacement of the tool and workpiece. Surface quality and tool stability are
rectly relatedrelated
directly to the to radial
the force.
radial The smaller
force. the radial
The smaller theforce,
radialthe better
force, thethe stability
better be-
the stability
tween the tool
between and
the toolthe workpiece.
and BasedBased
the workpiece. on theonanalysis of cutting
the analysis forceforce
of cutting in Section 2.1, a2.1, a
in Section
smaller radial force is also one of the key factors for UAT to achieve a better surface.
smaller radial force is also one of the key factors for UAT to achieve a better surface.

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 14. Surface
Figure morphology:
14. Surface (a) (a)
morphology: 3D3Dmorphology during
morphology CT,
during (b)(b)2D
CT, 2Dmorphology
morphologyduring
duringCT,
CT, (c)
(c) 3D
3D morphology during UAT, (d) 2D morphology during
morphology during UAT, (d) 2D morphology during UAT. UAT.

Figure 15 shows
Figure 15 showsthe the
surface morphology
surface morphology of UAT
of UATandandCT CT
GH4068
GH4068 superalloy
superalloyunder
under
500500
times
times magnification via super depth of field. Stripes are distributed evenlyma-
magnification via super depth of field. Stripes are distributed evenly on the on the
chined surfacesurface
machined of CT. However, differentdifferent
of CT. However, scratchesscratches
have different lengths, and
have different the differ-
lengths, and the
ences are obvious.
differences Apart from
are obvious. the tool
Apart frommarks, pits
the tool are also
marks, pitsleft
areon theleft
also workpiece as a resultas a
on the workpiece
of the tool.ofFor
result theUAT,
tool. the
Forsurface texture
UAT, the is flat,
surface and the
texture ultrasonic
is flat, and thevibration
ultrasonicleaves textures
vibration leaves
on the surface. However, despite the complex surface texture, the tool marks are uniform
in size and spacing, and the surface is smoother and more delicate in appearance.
 Figure 14. Surface morphology: (a) 3D morphology during CT, (b) 2D morphology during CT, (c)
3D morphology during UAT, (d) 2D morphology during UAT.

Figure 15 shows the surface morphology of UAT and CT GH4068 superalloy under
500 times magnification via super depth of field. Stripes are distributed evenly on the ma-
Materials 2023, 16, 3554 chined surface of CT. However, different scratches have different lengths, and the differ- 12 of 15
ences are obvious. Apart from the tool marks, pits are also left on the workpiece as a result
of the tool. For UAT, the surface texture is flat, and the ultrasonic vibration leaves textures
on the surface.
textures on theHowever, despite the
surface. However, complex
despite surface texture,
the complex surfacethe tool marks
texture, aremarks
the tool uniform
are
in size and spacing, and the surface is smoother and more delicate in appearance.
uniform in size and spacing, and the surface is smoother and more delicate in appearance.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 15.
15. Microscopic
Microscopic images
images of
of machined
machined surfaces:
surfaces: (a)
(a) amplified
amplified500
500 times
times in
in CT;
CT; (b)
(b) amplified
amplified
500 times in UAT.
500 times in UAT.

3.4.
3.4. Chip
Chip Morphology
Morphology
The
The process
process ofof turning
turning superalloys
superalloys is is essentially
essentially thethe process
process ofof material
material removal
removal to to
form
form chips.
chips.InInthe
themachining
machining process,
process, thethe
geometric
geometric shape of chips
shape cancan
of chips reflect friction
reflect be-
friction
tween
between thethe
tool and
tool andthethe
workpiece
workpiece because
becausethetheshape
shapeofofchips
chipsisisclosely
closelyrelated
related to to cutting
cutting
force
force and cutting heat.
and cutting heat. Thus,
Thus,ititisisnecessary
necessarytotojudge
judge machinability
machinability based
based on onthethe appear-
appearance
ance
of theofchips
the chips
[36]. [36]. The morphology
The chip chip morphology characteristics
characteristics of UAT of and
UATCT and
wereCT observed
were observedunder
under
the samethecutting
same cutting parameters
parameters of cutting of cutting
speed 27 speed
m/min, 27 m/min, feed0.08
feed speed speed 0.08 mm/rev,
mm/rev, cutting
cutting depth
depth 0.15
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW mm,0.15
andmm,UAT and UAT vibration
vibration amplitudeamplitude
12 µm. 12 µm. 13 of 16
Figure 16 shows the chip photos of UAT and CT
Figure 16 shows the chip photos of UAT and CTGH4068
GH4068 superalloy.
superalloy. It It is
is evident
evident that
that
UAT and CT are spiral chips, but there are obvious differences between them. The chip of
UAT and CT are spiral chips, but there are obvious differences between them. The chip
UAT
of UATis short, bending
is short, bending radius is about
radius 2mm,
is about 2mm,thethe
chip-breaking
chip-breaking effect is evident,
effect is evident, and it isit
and
loosely spiraled.
is loosely CTCT
spiraled. exhibits a high
exhibits a high degree
degree ofof
chip
chipcurling.
curling.TheThechip
chipbending
bendingradiusradiusisis
about
about44mm,mm,which
which provides
provides certain
certain toughness
toughness andand isis not
not prone
prone toto chip
chip fractures.
fractures.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure16.
16.Chip
Chipmorphology:
morphology:(a)
(a)CT
CTand
and(b)
(b)UAT.
UAT.

Figure
Figure17
17illustrates
illustratesthe
thechip
chipmorphology
morphologyobserved
observedbybythe
theultra-depth-of-field
ultra-depth-of-fieldmicro-
micro-
scope.
scope.The
Thechips
chipsofofUAT
UATandandCT
CTare
areenlarged
enlargedbyby500
500times
timesand
and1000
1000times,
times,respectively.
respectively.
There
There are
aremany
manysharp
sharpsawteeth
sawteethformed
formedbybyaachipped
chippededge
edgeofofCT,
CT,which
whichisislarge
largeand
andsharp,
sharp,
making it easy to scratch the machined surface and affecting the quality of the machining.
Additionally, the chip surface contains cracks, scratches, depressions, and other defects.
Ultrasonic vibration reduces the burr phenomenon at the edge of the chip, forming a rec-
tangular sawtooth with a relatively smooth finish, and there is no significant difference
 (a) (b)
Figure 16. Chip morphology: (a) CT and (b) UAT.

Materials 2023, 16, 3554

Figure 17 illustrates the chip morphology observed by the ultra-depth-of-field micro-13 of 15
scope. The chips of UAT and CT are enlarged by 500 times and 1000 times, respectively.
There are many sharp sawteeth formed by a chipped edge of CT, which is large and sharp,
making it easy to scratch the machined surface and affecting the quality of the machining.
making it easy
Additionally, tochip
the scratch the machined
surface surfacescratches,
contains cracks, and affecting the quality
depressions, of the
and machining.
other defects.
Ultrasonic vibration reduces the burr phenomenon at the edge of the chip, formingdefects.
Additionally, the chip surface contains cracks, scratches, depressions, and other a rec-
Ultrasonic vibration reduces the burr phenomenon at the edge of the chip, forming a
tangular sawtooth with a relatively smooth finish, and there is no significant difference
rectangular sawtooth with a relatively smooth finish, and there is no significant difference
between the sawtooth, which is evenly distributed. Meanwhile, the chip surface is smooth,
between the sawtooth, which is evenly distributed. Meanwhile, the chip surface is smooth,
delicate, and free of obvious defects, and ripples generated by ultrasonic vibration can be
delicate, and free of obvious defects, and ripples generated by ultrasonic vibration can be
observed.
observed.

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 16

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure
Figure17.
17.Chip
Chipmicro
micromorphology:
morphology:(a)(a)
amplify 500500
amplify times in CT;
times (b) (b)
in CT; amplify 10001000
amplify times in CT;
times in (c)
CT;
amplify 500 times in UAT; (d) amplify 1000 times in UAT.
(c) amplify 500 times in UAT; (d) amplify 1000 times in UAT.

4.4.Conclusions
Conclusions
This
Thispaper
paperpresents
presentsthe
theresults
resultsofofsingle-factor
single-factorexperiments
experimentsconducted
conductedon onthe
theCTCTand
and
UAT
UATGH4068
GH4068superalloys.
superalloys.In Inthis
thisstudy,
study,the
the effects
effects of
of cutting
cutting speed,
speed, feed
feed speed,
speed, cutting
cutting
depth,
depth,and
andvibration
vibrationamplitude
amplitudewere wereexamined
examinedon oncutting
cuttingforce
forceandandsurface
surfaceroughness.
roughness.
Several
Several parameters
parameters werewere examined
examinedininorder
ordertoto determine
determine thethe surface
surface morphology
morphology and and
chip
chip morphology of the workpiece. Based on the experimental results, the following con-
morphology of the workpiece. Based on the experimental results, the following conclusions
clusions were reached:
were reached:
1. Choosing the
1. Choosing theappropriate
appropriateprocess
processparameters
parameters of of
UAT
UAT cancan
reduce thethe
reduce cutting force
cutting of
force
GH4068 superalloy. When the cutting speed is 14–53 m/min, the feed speed is 0.08–is
of GH4068 superalloy. When the cutting speed is 14–53 m/min, the feed speed
0.24 mm/rev,
0.08–0.24 and the
mm/rev, andcutting depthdepth
the cutting is 0.10–0.25 mm, the
is 0.10–0.25 mm,cutting force force
the cutting decreases sig-
decreases
nificantly. Compared
significantly. Compared withwith CT, Fthe
CT, the Fx F
x and y are yreduced by a maximum of 44% and
and F are reduced by a maximum of 44%
and respectively.
63%, 63%, respectively. The reduction
The reduction of cutting
of cutting forceforce decreases
decreases as process
as process parameters
parameters are
are increased, but UAT still has a significant impact on reducing
increased, but UAT still has a significant impact on reducing cutting force. cutting force.
2.2. When
Whenthe thecutting
cuttingspeed
speedisislower
lowerthan
thanthethecritical
criticalspeed,
speed,UATUAThas hasaasignificant
significanteffect
effect
on reducing the surface roughness, when the cutting speed is 14–53
on reducing the surface roughness, when the cutting speed is 14–53 m/min, the feed m/min, the feed
speed is 0.08–0.24 mm/rev, the cutting depth is 0.10–0.25 mm, the effect of UAT isis
speed is 0.08–0.24 mm/rev, the cutting depth is 0.10–0.25 mm, the effect of UAT
obvious,reducing
obvious, reducingsurface
surfaceroughness
roughnessby byaamaximum
maximumof of31%.
31%.
3. When using UAT and CT GH4068 superalloy, the surface morphology is obviously
different. CT’s surface profile exhibits obvious periodicity. Scratches of different sizes
are visible on the machined surface. UAT obtains a smoother surface, and the ultra-
sonic vibration produces complex ripples, and the tool marks are uniform in size and
distribution.
Materials 2023, 16, 3554 14 of 15

3. When using UAT and CT GH4068 superalloy, the surface morphology is obviously
different. CT’s surface profile exhibits obvious periodicity. Scratches of different
sizes are visible on the machined surface. UAT obtains a smoother surface, and the
ultrasonic vibration produces complex ripples, and the tool marks are uniform in size
and distribution.
4. The UAT chip is short, the chip-breaking effect is obvious, and the edge of the chip
forms relatively smooth rectangular sawteeth. The chip surface is smooth and delicate.
For CT, the chip bending radius is large, and the edge of the chip formed many
sharp sawteeth.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.W. and P.Z.; methodology, R.K. and Z.W.; software, Y.W.
and P.Z.; validation, R.K., Z.D. and Z.W.; formal analysis, Y.W.; investigation, P.Z.; resources, R.K.,
Z.D. and Z.W.; data curation, P.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, P.Z.; writing—review and
editing, Z.D.; visualization, R.K.; supervision, Z.W.; project administration, R.K.; funding acquisition,
R.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
U20A20291), the High Level Talents Innovation Plan of Dalia (Grant No. 2020RD02) and the National
Key R & D Program of China (2019YFA0705304).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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