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T H E OXFORD H A N D B O O K OF
BYZANTINE
STUDIES
T H E OXFORD H A N D B O O K OF
BYZANTINE
STUDIES
Edited by
ELIZABETH JEFFREYS
with
JOHN HALDON
and
ROBIN CORMACK
OXPORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford 0x2 6DP
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Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press
in the UK and in certain other countries
Published in the United States
by Oxford University Press Inc., New York
© Oxford University Press 2008
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
Database right Oxford University Press (maker)
First published 2008
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press,
or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate
reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction
outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
Oxford University Press, at the address above
You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover
and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
The Oxford handbook of Byzantine studies / edited by Elizabeth Jeffreys
with John Haldon and Robin Cormack.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-19-925246-6
1. Byzantine Empire-History-Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Jeffreys, Elizabeth.
II. Haldon, John F. III. Cormack, Robin.
DF552.093 2008
959.5'o2-dc22 2008024466
Typeset by SPI Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India
Printed in Great Britain
on acid-free paper by
CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham, Wiltshire
ISBN 978-0-19-925246-6
1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2
CONTENTS
List of contributors
List of illustrations, plans, maps, charts
Abbreviations
4. Archaeology
JAMES CROW
6. Iconography
KATHLEEN CORRIGAN
7. Literary criticism
PANAGIOTIS A . AGAPITOS
8. Textual criticism
M I C H A E L JEFFREYS
12. Documents
A. Imperial chrysobulls 129
ANDREAS E. MXJLLER
B. Athos 136
ROSEMARY MORRIS
B. 518-800 249
JOHN HALDON
C. 800-1204 264
CATHERINE HOLMES
D. 1204-1453 280
ANGELIKI LAIOU
6. Settlement
1. Towns and cities 317
HELEN SARADI
4. Ceramics 429
PAMELA ARMSTRONG
5. Metalwork 444
MARLIA MUNDELL MANGO
9. Hierarchies
1. Emperor and court 505
JEFFREY FEATHERSTONE
4. Liturgy 599
ROBERT TAFT
13. Society
1. The Role of women 643
Liz JAMES
2. Philosophies 711
KATERINA IERODIAKONOU AND DOMINIC O ' M E A R A
5. Icons 758
MARIA VASSILAKI
2. Education 785
ATHANASIOS MARKOPOULOS
3. Literacy 796
M I C H A E L JEFFREYS
5. Libraries 820
NIGEL WILSON
18. Literature
1. Rhetoric 827
ELIZABETH JEFFREYS
2. Historiography 838
M I C H A E L ANGOLD AND MICHAEL W H I T B Y
4. Hagiography 862
ALICE-MARY TALBOT
5. Homilies 872
M A R Y CUNNINGHAM
6. Epistolography 882
MARGARET MULLETT
Appendices
1. Rulers 962
2. Patriarchs and popes 972
Index 976
L I S T OF C O N T R I B U T O R S
Manuscripts
Athens, Nat Lib. Athens, National Library (Ethnike Bibliotheke)
Florence, Laur. Florence, Biblioteca Medicea-Laurenziana
Leipzig, Univ. Lib. Leipzig, Universitatsbibliothek
London, BL London, British Library
Milan, Ambros. Milan, Biblioteca Ambrosiana
Naples, Bibl. Naz. Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale
Oxford, Bodl. Oxford, Bodleian Library
Paris, BN Paris, Bibliothfcque Nationale
Sinai Mt Sinai, Monastery of St Catherine
Vat. Rome, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana
Vienna, ONB Vienna, Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek
THE DISCIPLINE
C H A P T E R 1.1
BYZANTINE
STUDIES AS AN
ACADEMIC
DISCIPLINE
ELIZABETH JEFFREYS
JOHN HALDON
ROBIN CORMACK
BYZANTINE Studies are concerned with the history and culture of what has come
to be known as the Byzantine Empire, that is, the empire of East Rome. This
was centred on the city of Constantinople (modern Istanbul), generally agreed
to have been founded in 324 by the emperor Constantine to be the capital of the
eastern portions of the Roman Empire (although the issue of Constantine's actual
intentions remains debated). Its boundaries fluctuated over the centuries but it
remained as a distinct, and for the most part major, political entity in the world
of Europe, the east Mediterranean, and the neighbouring regions for more than a
millennium, until its final capture by the Ottoman Turks in 1453; its influence lives
on to the present day. Its emperors and citizens thought of themselves as Roman
(romaioi) while the inhabitants of Constantinople regularly referred to themselves
as Constantinopolitans and their city as the Queen City.
The term 'Byzantine' derives from Byzantium, the name of the city founded in
the eighth century BCE that had previously occupied the site of Constantine's Con-
stantinople, and is a modern construct first used in seventeenth-century Europe.
'Byzantium' and 'Byzantine' are now used freely to refer to all aspects of the East
Roman Empire and its culture. As an extension of the Roman Empire Byzantium's
structures of government and administration evolved seamlessly from those of the
late Roman empire of the first centuries CE, with Latin initially the language of
administration. The language of its literary culture, however, was Greek. From its
inception Constantinople was a Christian city, whose bishop in time became the
ecumenical patriarch of the Orthodox Church while the rituals and thought pat-
terns of Christianity became all pervasive in the Byzantine way of life. The defining
characteristics of this empire are thus that it was Roman in law and government,
Greek in language and literary culture, and Christian in its religion.
For the English-speaking world of the twenty-first century, or the world of
western Europe in general, Byzantium is something of a black hole, a shadowy
force if known at all, unlike the empire of West Rome whose physical remains are
a conspicuous and very real reminder of its former presence. At its most basic this
difference in perception reflects the linguistic and cultural—as well as political—
divisions between eastern and western Europe that grew up in Late Antiquity and
the Middle Ages, when the east was predominantly Orthodox and with a literary
culture based on Greek whilst the west was Roman Catholic with a Latin literary
culture: at some points an impermeable barrier could be said to have been in place
between the two. In modern times this separation is still visible in many areas. It
has also been reflected in the curricula at secondary and tertiary levels of education
where Byzantium has been given a very small place indeed, although classicists
(albeit often grudgingly) would admit that without the intervention of Byzantine
scribes no texts in ancient Greek would have survived to the present day. Byzantium
has been of esoteric interest only. This damnatio memoriae, this condemnation to
oblivion, however, is no longer quite so true as it once was. Good witness to this
is the intense interest generated by exhibitions of Byzantine art, most notably the
exhibitions staged in the Metropolitan Museum of Art ('Age of Spirituality' in 1977,
'Glory of Byzantium' in 1997, and 'Byzantium: Faith and Power, 1261-1557' in 2004),
with huge sales of the exhibition catalogues. Among the considerations that will
have led to this heightened awareness of Byzantium and its culture must be included
the development of tourism and inexpensive travel to Greece and Turkey, where
access to major monuments is no longer the hazardous adventure it used to be not
so very long ago.
However, academic centres devoted to the study of Byzantium have existed in
many forms in most countries of Europe and North America for many years, in
some cases informally as the result of an individual's special interests, in other
cases formally since the last years of the nineteenth century. These centres have
turned what might have become an antiquarian hobby for dilettante collectors
of precious artefacts, such as enamels or icons, into a coherent discipline. An
important initial, though not necessarily automatic, stimulus for the investigation
of Byzantium lay in the major collections of Greek manuscripts, whether of classical
or medieval texts—all of course dating from the Byzantine period and copied in
areas under Byzantine domination. Such collections, brought together as the result
of widely varied historical circumstances, are to be found, for example, in Athens,
London, Madrid, Paris, the Vatican, and Vienna. This has meant that a primary
focus for interest in Byzantium has often been as much philological as historical.
For others, of course, 'Byzantium' immediately implies a theological tradition and
ecclesiastical structures, though these are only part of the definition of Byzantine
culture.
France saw the first interest in 'le bas empire', as the later stages of the Roman
Empire came to be known, in the court of Louis XIV, where optimistic comparisons
could be drawn between parallel imperial aspirations. This led to an interest in
the acquisition of texts, particularly histories, from the Byzantine period, and the
first printing of a number of these, largely from the royal collections. These Paris
editions, reprinted in Venice, remained important tools until replaced by the Bonn
editions of the nineteenth century. The manuscripts kept in the Paris libraries also
provided the wherewithal for other important academic tools such as Du Cange's
Glossarium mediae et infimae Graecitatis (1688), which is still not entirely super-
seded. Intellectual interest in Byzantine studies has remained a constant in French
academic life, represented in recent years by important work at the Sorbonne and
the College de France.
Perhaps the most significant step towards creating the discipline was taken by
Karl Krumbacher (1856-1909) in-Munich in the 1890s, where he founded Byzanti-
nische Zeitschrift, thefirstjournal to focus on this field and still the journal of record,
and set up an Institute for Byzantine Studies within the University of Munich
which continues to this day. In Germany other important centres appeared in, for
example, Berlin, Bonn, and Hamburg. Also of significance were developments in
Athens, where the newly founded university and the Academy had a strong interest
in this area. Pre-revolutionary Russia saw much important work that was with
difficulty continued through the Stalinist period but which was reflected in the
invigorating perspectives brought by the late Alexander Kazhdan when he moved
from Moscow to Washington in the 1970s.
The next most significant step for the discipline came with the institution of
a series of international congresses of Byzantine Studies, the first taking place in
Bucharest in 1924, with some thirty participants. These have come to be held every
five years, with interruptions only for the Second World War. The most recent have
been in London (2006), Paris (2001), Copenhagen (1996), and Moscow (1991). For
virtually every congress plenary papers and many of the shorter contributions have
been published: these are an invaluable record of changing areas of interest and
methodologies.
In the 1920s and 1930s Byzantine artefacts (icons, ivories, enamels) came to the
attention of collectors of fine art—their abstract qualities accorded with the taste of
the time, and they were relatively inexpensive. Mr and Mrs Robert Bliss, American
connoisseurs, built up a choice collection with an associated scholarly library which
was housed in their home, a charming eighteenth-century mansion in Washington,
DC. In 1940 they presented this to Harvard University: the ensuing Research Library
and Collection in Byzantine Studies at Dumbarton Oaks has become one of the
most significant resources in the field, with a holding of books that can only with
difficulty be matched elsewhere. The existence of Byzantine Studies in many North
American universities owes much to this institution.
In the years after the Second World War Byzantine Studies developed as part of
the general expansion of tertiary education. In Austria, with a significant holding
of Greek manuscripts in the State Library in Vienna and situated centrally at
the crossroads between Catholic and Orthodox Europe, the Institut der Oster-
reichischen Byzantinistik was set up and soon, under the astute guidance of the
late Herbert Hunger, initiated a major series of research projects, starting with
modern manuscript catalogues and encompassing editions of texts, studies of seals,
and mapping Byzantine territories (Tabula Imperii Byzantini). In Britain, where
Byzantine studies had been promoted by individual scholars such as J. B. Bury
(1861-1927) and later his pupil Steven Runciman (1903-2000), weak institutional
support was transformed in the educational creativity of the 1960s and departments
were set up (Birmingham) or strengthened (Cambridge, London, Oxford). On
the model of the Dumbarton Oaks' symposia and the quinquennial international
congresses, British Byzantine studies are held together by annual symposia, which
are regularly published. The rather surprising strength, on paper, of Byzantine
studies in Australia can be seen as an offshoot of the British developments since
most of those involved were trained in the UK.
Today, Byzantine Studies is an academic discipline represented in many universi-
ties throughout the Western world, whether in autonomous departments or by the
special research interests of individual scholars. Its main organs of communication
continue to be academic journals, such as Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies,
Byzantinische Zeitschrift, Byzantinoslavica, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Jahrbuch der
Osterreichischen Byzantinistik, Revue des Etudes Byzantines, Vizantijskij Vremennik,
though electronic means of publication are gaining ground.
As an area of scholarship the current popularity of Byzantine Studies reflects
the expansion of mass tertiary education through universities and equivalent insti-
tutions, especially in the United States and western Europe, as well as an increased
awareness of, and interest in, the post-classical antecedents of much of'western' cul-
ture. There is in addition a corresponding awareness of the proximity to its medieval
forebears of contemporary cultures in which the Orthodox Church has played a
role from medieval times up to the present day. And it also reflects the interest in
one aspect of their own heritage shown by second- and third- or fourth-generation
immigrants from Greece and eastern Europe to the United States, Canada, and
Australia in particular, where the popular combination of Byzantine with Modern
Greek Studies demonstrates the expansion of a small but lively educational market.
Recent and current political and cultural issues in South-East Europe have raised
the consciousness of many with regard to the Byzantine past and its contribution to
the shaping of the modern world in the Balkan and East Mediterranean region. It
is significant, and perhaps also ironic, that it was primarily for reasons of political
concern that interest in the Byzantine world and its heritage received such stimulus
in the early Renaissance period in the first place. For the threat from the expanding
Ottoman state which was perceived in central and western Europe served directly
to arouse interest in Byzantine accounts of the Turks and their history, an interest
which in its turn promoted further probing into the East Roman, or at least post-
Roman imperial past, among political and intellectual circles of the West, especially
in Italy, during the sixteenth century (see the useful brief introduction to the field
in Moravcsik 1976).
Closely bound up with this political historical, indeed, strategic geographical
interest, study of the Greek language and its evolution in the post-classical world
was a central part of this developing tradition. The linguistic evolution of Greek
in its various spoken and written forms, the functional and cultural differentiation
between the various registers and dialects, proved to be a vast field for linguists and
philologists, an interest again stimulated by the need to make sense of medieval
Greek historical writing and chronicles, and tied in with the very immediate
demands of the cultural politics of the period which produced it.
But like much of the subject-matter of western science, Byzantium has remained
the object until quite recently of outside scrutiny, for the scholarly study of
'Byzantium' evolved last of all in those areas most directly part of the heritage: the
Greek-speaking regions of the south Balkans and Asia Minor. An interest did exist
throughout the Tourkokratia, the period of Ottoman control, evolving especially
towards the end of the eighteenth century, but less as a revival of interest in the
Byzantine past than as a re-directing of already existing intellectual currents, from
a more-or-less strictly Orthodox' view of the God-guarded empire and its heritage,
to a more openly pluralistic and, dare one say, more 'scientific' attitude, as the effects
of rationalism and the Enlightenment were felt.
The Enlightenment did not necessarily signal an enlightened approach to
Byzantium. The judgement of Edward Gibbon (1776-89) is all too familiar, a
view determined largely by the eighteenth-century English interpretation of Greek
philosophy and the stoic values of the Roman republic (which fitted comfortably
with the self-image of the English upper class), together with the distaste felt by
many enlightenment thinkers for the politics of the medieval Church, eastern or
western—a view also shared, to a degree at least, by Greek rationalist thinkers such
as Adamantios Koraes (1748-1833). The 'rationalist' hostility to Byzantium displayed
by writers such as Gibbon is, of course, quite different from the prurient moralizing
hostility of later writers of the Victorian age such as William Lecky, whose views
Gibbon would probably have found equally distasteful (Lecky 1869: vol. 2,13-14):
Of that Byzantine empire, the universal verdict of history is that it constitutes,
without a single exception, the most thoroughly base and despicable form that
civilisation has yet assumed. There has been no other enduring civilisation so
absolutely destitute of all forms and elements of greatness, and none to which
the epithet mean may be so emphatically applied... The history of the empire is a
monotonous story of the intrigues of priests, eunuchs, and women, of poisonings,
of conspiracies, of uniform ingratitude/
Byzantine Studies, in the sense of the study of Byzantine history, language,
and literature has a long pedigree, as we have seen. But whether we consider
Hieronymus Wolf, Edward Gibbon, or Karl Krumbacher (Beck 1966, 1958) to be
the founders of 'modern' Byzantine Studies, it is clear that, more than with many
other areas of the study of past societies, it is a multi-disciplinary and, perhaps most
importantly, a multicultural field. In this it reflects its subject, itself a multicultural
and, for much of its history, a polyglot state in which the Greek language and the
Orthodox Church served among many other elements as key unifying factors. The
enormous range of material presented in this volume provides a neat illustration of
the point. Yet at the same time the situation of the empire itself, and the nature of
the skills and study which are required to pursue Byzantine culture and civilization
intellectually and academically—on the margins of mainstream 'western' culture,
so to speak—has sometimes had negative results, insofar as Byzantine Studies can
be seen as an esoteric and somewhat marginal area of interest. To some extent this is
a result of the languages of the sources, and partly also a result of the geographical
centre of the field as it first developed in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,
well away from most of the regions where the subject first evolved.
Only in Greece (and in emigre Greek communities) is Byzantium 'mainstream',
and this has, in turn, brought its own particular disadvantages. For here the exigen-
cies of cultural politics, ethno-history, the continued role of the Orthodox Church
and its particular view of the Byzantine past, along with contemporary national
political issues of identity and relations with neighbouring states and cultures, have
all combined to affect the ways in which Byzantium has been appropriated, studied,
and re-presented to the indigenous consumer of recent and contemporary Greek
culture. The internal debate has in turn had its effects upon the external reader-
ship, so that both a romantic Philhellenic and an anti-Hellenic perspective can be
detected in the writings of non-Greek Byzantinists (Cameron 1992). The literature
on this topic is considerable and well known, and it is unnecessary to pursue the
subject further in this context. But it is important to bear it in mind, because
the bifocal lens of Byzantine studies—informed both by an 'internal' perspective
of those born and brought up within the modern Hellenic tradition, and by an
'external' point of view of those outside modern Greek culture—has determined a
good deal of the discourse of Byzantinists.
Byzantine Studies, as we have now seen, is a convenient term that comprises
a vast range of sub-fields which often have little direct contact one to another—
indeed, the contents of this volume illustrate this very clearly. But these sub-fields, if
that is an appropriate term, themselves fall into two broad categories: instrumental
and interpretational. By the former, we mean those disciplines which are primarily
concerned with the preparation and analysis of source material of one type or
another, without which it must reasonably be conceded that no more broadly
based interpretative or generalizing study can properly be effected. And because
of the nature of the sources, whether literary, epigraphic, archaeological, or visual
representational, the instrumental tradition has tended, by necessity, to dominate
the field of Byzantine Studies as a whole. Most 'Byzantinists' possess a competence
in at least one, and usually more than one, of these instrumental skills. Such skills
are rooted in the positivism of nineteenth-century notions of 'scientificity' which
have dominated and moulded European and North American historiographical
thinking, and it has been until recently the emphasis on the technical and method-
ological skills which are required for the internal and external assessment of textual
evidence that have dominated—quite correctly, of course, in many respects—the
training of those who wanted to study Byzantium more closely. In particular, the
methods and priorities of classical philology have necessarily had a major influ-
ence, even if this is no longer the case today (and without pronouncing any value
judgements in that regard). While there are many individual exceptions, however,
this necessary emphasis on skills also tends to discourage conscious theorizing and
reflection. Theoretical abstraction has been avoided without too many qualms as
largely unnecessary, enabling specialists to pursue their aims using methods which,
by virtue of their proven scientific value, are seen as more-or-less neutral. Such an
approach inevitably has important implications for how Byzantinists understand
their purchase on 'the past', and the ways in which knowledge of the past is con-
structed or generated.
In the 1980s some of the traditional views were subject to questioning, reflecting
a broader trend in history-writing and an ongoing debate between those who were
interested in challenging the theoretical assumptions underlying and informing
their research, and those who were not interested in such debates, preferring to
see them either as irrelevant or as inaccessible (Haldon 1984). Byzantine Studies
was itself in the mid-1980s in the process of what T. S. Kuhn referred to as a
'paradigm shift', a process through which a traditional set (or sets) of assumptions
and priorities, as well as theories and approaches, is replaced or complemented
and then transformed by different sets of ideas. The changes in the nature of the
subject and in those who pursue it have not been particularly marked, yet there
did take place considerable movement in attitudes and assumptions about what
is acceptable material for study and what are appropriate questions to ask. This
was in some respects entirely predictable: changes in social and cultural values
and priorities, in secondary education, and in the context of the major political
issues of the day, naturally worked themselves through to the level of university and
college degree programmes. The effects of gender-studies programmes and feminist
history-writing in particular have been seen in the sorts of social history questions
which are now being asked, especially by successive generations of younger scholars.
But equally impressive changes in the agendas of art historians and archaeologists
have also taken place, with the result that the subject, or bundle of subjects, known
as 'Byzantine Studies' looks today very different from only twenty years ago.
Since the quality of Byzantine art has been more frequently appreciated than the
character of its history or literature, art history has claimed a good proportion of
scholarly attention. Yet the superficial (but often voiced) view of the study of the
art of Byzantium is that it has developed to a great extent in isolation from other
disciplines of the field, and even from the broader interests of art history; that it is
really the empirical study of material objects from an archaeological standpoint. In
fact a historiography of Byzantine art history shows up considerable responsiveness
to intellectual trends, and its development has been a complex mix of national and
international interests.
Interest in the art history of Byzantium was until the middle of the nineteenth
century virtually the preserve of French and German scholars, and their concern
was with the 'neo-Greek' character of the culture (Crinson 1996: 73). The subject
then flourished internationally in response to current aesthetic and political atti-
tudes, church debates, and personal whims for medievalism (Bullen 2003: 4). In
Britain, John Ruskin was a prime mover through his best-selling book The Stones
of Venice (1851-3) and his critical promotion of the church of San Marco; and
consequently interest in Byzantine art was advanced initially through the study
of architecture, thereby avoiding the negative Enlightenment attitudes of Gibbon.
Influential on Ruskin was the traveller Robert Curzon (1849: 34-40), who in turn
owed many of his attitudes about the 'intellectual' and passionless' character of
Byzantine art to A. N. Didron's Manuel d'iconographie chretienne (1845) with its
publication of the eighteenth-century Hermeneia of Dionysius of Fourna which,
despite its late date, was interpreted to show the subservience of Byzantine artists
to the Church and their lack of originality (see Hetherington 1974). A well-rounded
interest in the antiquities of Byzantium emerged in the key monograph by W. R.
Lethaby and H. Swainson, The Church of Sancta Sophia, Constantinople: A Study
of Byzantine Building (1894). The arts and crafts architect and architectural his-
torian Lethaby was influential in raising the profile of Byzantium in Britain, and
he encouraged young architects to travel to the British School of Archaeology at
Athens and to record the Byzantine monuments of Greece and Asia Minor. A
feature of this intense period of activity up to the 1914 war was the combination of
architectural draughtsmanship and photography to record Byzantine monuments
in fieldwork by energetic teams from Germany, Russia, France, and Britain. Partic-
ularly thorough were the photographic campaigns of Millet all over Greece and of
de Jerphanion in Cappadocia.
The 'big question' that lay behind this activity was the origin of Early
Christian and Byzantine art. The centrally planned domed church of Hagia Sophia
at Constantinople was at the centre of this debate. It was energized by Strzygowski
(1901) who first looked for sources in the Hellenistic East but then moved his sights
to the east beyond the Graeco-Roman world and into Iran, with Armenia as the
intermediary for the transmission of oriental ideas. The opposing view was that the
antecedents of the dome lay in imperial Rome alone. The argument in these stark
binary terms was brought to an end by Ward-Perkins (1947), who set out the case for
the development of early Christian architecture within the Roman Empire, while
recognizing the complexity of Roman architecture itself. The striking discoveries
at Dura Europos made no difference to this interpretation of the importance of
Rome (despite Breasted 1924), but the great geographical range of eastern Roman
Christian monuments does cast doubts on what exactly the term Byzantine art and
architecture should ideally encompass and how broad its definition should be. The
question remains: the most popular definition of Byzantine art has been as the art
of Constantinople, but it is the narrowest and may distort our perceptions, since
it sets the notion of a norm against which variations may be seen negatively as
provincial or inferior. The current discourse sees the genesis of Byzantine art as a
progressive 'transformation' of Graeco-Roman art rather than a rejection of it. But
it avoids the question whether the category of Byzantine art represents a political
state, a religion, or a style (Mango 1991).
Byzantine architectural history has followed four approaches (Mango 1991):
classifications of buildings by typology and by so-called regional 'schools'; the
approach to architecture as symbolic or ideological (ways in which dome, for
example, symbolized heaven); the functional approach to explaining architectural
forms and features (expounded by Krautheimer 1942 and Grabar 1946); and the
social and economic approach (as in Tchalenko 1953-8). These can be said to match
the approaches in other art histories too.
Questions of origins equally engaged Russian scholarship, which judiciously
compared the contributions of the Hellenistic east and Rome (Kondakov 1886;
Ainalov 1961; Lazarev 1947-8), with attention particularly focused on the evidence
of manuscripts. Manuscript study was also promoted by Wickhoff (1895) through
his rehabilitation of Late Antiquity and emphasis on the innovations of the Vienna
Genesis. Book illustration became the training ground for art historians for much
of the twentieth century. Weitzmann (1947) set out a philological method for the
study of manuscripts which made assumptions about the quantity of illuminated
books in antiquity and the derivative character of Byzantine manuscripts. His
methodology operated on the assumption that the processes of copying pictures
were subject to the same 'rules' as the transmission of texts, and that they all derived
from a 'correct' archetype. Although influential, in time this was criticized for
exaggerating the study of the postulated lost model over the surviving materials (see
Walter 1971; Lowden 1992). Weitzmann's practice was undermined by the approach
of der Nersessian (1962), who sought not the sources of the ninth-century Homilies
of Gregory but an analysis of how its producers conceived and chose the cycle of
pictures to demonstrate the meanings and allusions of each of the patristic sermons.
Meanwhile a broader, highly formalist, approach to Byzantine art was pursued by
Kitzinger (1976), concerned to deduce the dialectics of stylistic change (and the
disruption of iconoclasm), which owed much to the treatment of Renaissance art
by Wolfflin (1915) and the Viennese school of art history.
Manuscript study was gradually superseded as the main focus of art historical
attention as major discoveries were made in Constantinople by the Byzantine
Institute set up by Whittemore who in 1932 initiated the campaigns to uncover the
mosaics of Hagia Sophia and the Kariye Camii. After 1959 under the auspices of
Dumbarton Oaks this work of uncovering and consolidation of monuments and
their decoration in Istanbul was continued and expanded to Cyprus, with the effect
of shifting attention away from Ravenna and Italy and towards the eastern Mediter-
ranean. At the same time publication of monuments in Greece and the Balkans
continued apace, and the work of, among others, Djuric, Orlandos, Soteriou,
Xyngopoulos, Chatzidakis, and Mouriki documented the quantity and nature of
the surviving heritage in Greece (and its post-Byzantine monuments). This interest
in establishing the dates and stylistic sequences of Byzantine art was matched in
the themes of the International Congresses in which Byzantine art was treated in
key periods or centuries. The broader debate within the coverage of monumental
art was the so-called 'Byzantine Question', or how to measure the contribution
of Byzantium to the emergence of the Italian Renaissance. Demus (1948, 1950,
1970) set out a definition of the nature of mosaic decoration, explored its dif-
fusion to the west (more subtly than Byron and Talbot Rice 1931), and rejected
the conventional art historical attitude inherited from Giorgio Vasari (1511-74)
which assumed that the Italian Renaissance was a denial of the Byzantine tradition.
Demus set out the case that east and west were in close contact in the thirteenth
century and gradually followed different (but not unrelated) paths in the fourteenth
century.
The next major shift in emphasis came with the discovery and ongoing pub-
lication of the icons of the Monastery of St Catherine's (see Soteriou 1956-8;
Weitzmann 1982) with the revelation that panel painting was a major medium
throughout the Byzantine period, and that despite its distance from Constantinople
the monastery holds the works of the highest quality. Weitzmann 1982 gave con-
siderable attention to icons which he interpreted as the work of western artists,
following the methodology of Buchthal 1957 derived from the study of manuscripts
from the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Considerable research has recently been devoted to
the study and conservation of icons in other Orthodox monasteries and collections
to establish the functions and roles of icons (and this has been helped by the
existence of documentary evidence about art in the notarial archive of Venetian
Crete). Belting 1990 has surveyed this material and shown the importance of the
eleventh- and twelfth-century monastery in the formation of new patterns of the
devotion of icons in Easter and other rituals, including the cult of miraculous icons.
Maguire 1992 has described some patterns of recent art history (interest in art
and text; art and liturgy). In common with the art history of other periods the main
shift of emphasis has been from the stylistic appreciation of masterpieces from the
producer's perspective (as in Talbot Rice 1959) to the anthropological analysis of the
viewing of images within society (Cormack 1985; Nelson 2000). This move to a post-
structuralist theoretical framework was assisted by the highly influential collection
of texts about art of Mango 1972.
The paradox of Byzantine art history is that its treatment is often seen as frag-
mented and confined to specialist literature, yet it has been the constant sub-
ject of surveys covering the whole period (as Dalton 1911, Diehl 1925-6). These
have covered the general questions of their period, and what media and materials
have survived, and how the losses from Constantinople might distort the sequence.
The agenda of these surveys owes much to national traditions and interests, and are
biased by their choice of supporting literatures and their attitudes. Indeed a recent
polemical survey on the origins of the representation of images of Christ caricatures
a supposed European imperial bias distinct from a more egalitarian, presumably
transatlantic, position (Mathews 1993). The current agenda of art history is to a
large part prompted not by theoretical interests but by major exhibitions of selected
materials in major European and American galleries. Such displays bring together
new discoveries and the key materials of the field and invite public appreciation and
scholarly interpretation. These exhibitions prompt the question of how Byzantine
art is aligned with the history of world art, and what kinds of art history intersect
with its traditional questions. -
Some of the developments outlined here are simply the natural result of a shift
in attention introduced by successive generations of scholars and students. But it
is also true that changes that occurred from the late 1970s were faster and more
far-reaching than those beforehand, and that a real broadening of the intellectual
agenda took place which contrasted very strikingly with the slower rate of change
of the period from before the Second World War until the 1970s. Two fields in par-
ticular benefited from closer engagement with ongoing theoretical debates, namely
art history (discussed above) and literary studies (Brubaker 1992; Mullett 1990).
Attitudes towards Byzantine literature have traditionally been deeply conservative
and largely modelled on older approaches towards classical texts: the prime focus
has been on the production of critical editions, with manuscript and linguistic
studies as a secondary goal. The Corpus Fontium Byzantinae Historiae, which since
1967 has been providing modern editions of the Byzantine historians to replace the
nineteenth-century Bonn Corpus, follows this austere pattern, though increasingly
including a translation into a modern language. It is striking that, although there
are a number of series which provide parallel texts and translations (e.g. Loeb:
Prokopios, the Greek Anthology; Bude: Psellos, Chronographia, Anna Komnene,
Alexiad; Sources Chretiennes: Kosmas Indicopleustes) with limited annotation,
there are as yet virtually no serious attempts at full literary commentaries despite
challenging examples of successful literary interpretations (e.g. Smith 1999) and
vigorous exhortation from critics such as Alexander Kazhdan or Jakov Ljubarskij
(1998).
As with social and economic history, which had similarly engaged to an extent
with developments inaugurated in other fields, Byzantine Studies as a whole
remained peculiarly slow to take up—even if only to debate with and to reject—
some of the issues raised. This was nicely illustrated by Alexander Kazhdan and
Giles Constable's People and Power in Byzantium: An Introduction to Modern Byzan-
tine Studies, which presented historiographical debates about structuralism, for
example, as though they were relatively new, when in fact they had long domi-
nated the scene outside Byzantine Studies (Kazhdan and Constable 1982). Certainly,
individuals in many areas of the subject demonstrated a willingness to challenge a
given consensus, but they had little direct influence, apart from in the tendency
and direction of their own further work. This conservatism, or perhaps caution,
may be ascribed to the rather self-contained character of the field as a whole. It is
perhaps ironic that the study of the Byzantine world and its culture, economy, and
society evolved directly out of classical philology, and classical philology, with its
earlier empirical and positivist emphasis, bequeathed to Byzantine Studies a similar
tendency. Yet this seems now somewhat paradoxical, insofar as the last quarter of
the twentieth century saw classical philology open up to developments both in
structural linguistics, comparative literary theory, and post-structuralist critiques
of traditional approaches to notions of author, reader, and intertextuality, while the
study of Roman history, society, and institutions was likewise transformed from the
1960s by similar developments as well as by exciting advances in archaeology and
related sciences.
The study of Byzantium is by no means impervious to the influence and effects
of the debates in historical and social scientific theory which carry on around it.
Discussion about authorial intention (in respect of the multiple possibilities open
to the reader of a text, written or visual), or the culturally determined nature of
perception, have opened up new debates about interpretational possibilities and
the sorts of questions that can be asked of the evidence. But other debates, in
particular those surrounding the culturally determined construction of evidence
itself have, on the whole, remained marginal to the concerns of Byzantinists. This is
especially true of what has loosely come to be referred to as 'post modernism'. With
a few exceptions, Byzantinists again have tended to shy away from such discussion,
relying for their interpretational framework upon the unstated assumptions of the
positivism of traditional western historiography. In the 1990s the effects of debates
about what was called the New Historicism and of post-modernism left few marks
on Byzantine Studies, again with the exception of those actively involved in art and
literary theory (see, for example, Stone 1991, Joyce 1991, Kelly 1991). Discussions
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