Chapter 2: Laws of Illumination

Laws of Illumination, illumination from point, line and surface sources. Photometry and
spectrophotometry; photocells. Environment and glare.
General illumination design, Illumination levels, loss factors, lamp selection and maintenance.
Interior lighting: Industrial, residential, office departmental stores, indoor stadium, theater and
hospitals. Electrical Control of Light Sources Ballast, igniters and dimmers for different types of
lamps, Photometric Control of Light Sources and their Quantification; Types of Luminaries,
factors to be considered for designing luminaries Types of lighting fixtures. Optical control
schemes, design procedure of reflecting and refracting type of luminaries. Lighting Fixture types,
use of reflectors and refractors, physical protection of lighting fixtures, types of lighting fixtures
according to installation type, types of lighting fixtures according to photometric usages,
luminaries’ standards.

2.1 Laws of Illumination

2.1.1. Inverse square law: This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely
proportional to the square of distance of the surface from the source of light.

Let, ‘S’ be a point source of luminous intensity ‘I’ candela, the luminous flux emitting from source
crossing the three parallel plates having areas A1 A2 , and A3 square meters, which are separated
by a distances of d, 2d, and 3d from the point source respectively as shown in Fig.

For area A1, solid angle , ω = A1/d2

Luminous flux reaching the area A1 = luminous intensity × solid angle

= I * ω = I * A1/ d2
Illumination 'E1' on the surface area 'A1' is:
E1 = flux/area = I * A1/d2 * 1/A1

E1 = I/d2 lux

Similarly, illumination 'E2 ' on the surface area A2 is:

E2 = I/(2d)2 lux
Similarly, illumination 'E3 ' on the surface area A3 is:

E3 = I/(3d)2 lux
From above equations

E1 : E2 : E3 = I/d2 : I/(2d)2: I/(3d)2

Hence, from Equation, illumination on any surface is inversely proportional to the square of
distance between the surface and the source.

2.1.2 Lambert's cosine law: This law states that illumination, E at any point on a surface
is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle between the line of flux and the normal at that
point.

Let us assume that the surface is inclined at an angle ‘θ’ to the lines of flux as shown in Fig. (a)
PQ = The surface area normal to the source and inclined at ‘θ’ to the vertical axis.
RS = The surface area normal to the vertical axis and inclined at an angle θ to the source ‘O
From Fig (b)

cosθ = h/d
or d = h/cosθ
Substitute value of d in above equation
where d is the distance between the source and the surface in m, h is the height of source
from the surface in m, and I is the luminous intensity in candela.
Hence, above Equation is also known as ‘cosine cube’ law. This law states that the illumination at
any point on a surface is dependent on the cube of cosine of the angle between lines of flux and
normal at that point.

Note - From the above laws of illumination, it is to be noted that inverse square law is only
applicable for the surfaces if the surface is normal to the line of flux. And Lambert's cosine law is
applicable for the surfaces if the surface is inclined an angle ‘θ’ to the line of flux

Illumination from point, line, and surface sources is a fundamental concept in lighting design and
understanding how light behaves in different scenarios. Let's delve into how light emanates from
each of these source types:
2.2.1 Point Sources:
A point source is an idealized light source that emits light uniformly in all directions from a
single, infinitely small point in space.
In reality, true point sources are rare, but small, concentrated light sources like incandescent
bulbs or small LEDs approximate this behavior closely.
The illumination from a point source follows the Inverse Square Law, which means that as you
move farther away from the point source, the intensity of the light diminishes proportionally to
the square of the distance. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
Illuminance (E) ∝ 1 / (Distance)2 This law implies that the illuminance (brightness) on a surface
decreases rapidly as you move away from the point source. Point sources are often used for
focused or directional lighting applications.

2.2.2 Line Sources:

A line source is a source of light that emits light along a linear path or a finite line segment.
Common examples of line sources include fluorescent tubes, LED strips, and neon lights.
Line sources distribute light more uniformly along the length of the source compared to point
sources. However, they still follow the Inverse Square Law with respect to distance from the
source.

2.2.3. Surface Sources:

Surface sources, also known as area sources, emit light from an extended surface rather than a
single point or line.
Examples include large LED panels, skylights, and windows.
Surface sources provide even and diffused illumination over a defined area. Unlike point sources,
the intensity of light from surface sources may not decrease as rapidly with distance, depending
on the size and characteristics of the surface.
In summary, the choice of a point, line, or surface source for illumination depends on the specific
lighting requirements and design goals. Here are some practical considerations:

 Point sources are often used for task lighting or accent lighting, where a concentrated and
directional light beam is needed.
 Line sources are suitable for providing linear and even illumination in applications such as
under-cabinet lighting, cove lighting, or highlighting architectural elements.
 Surface sources are excellent for creating ambient lighting and evenly illuminating large
spaces or areas, such as in office environments or residential living rooms.

2.3 Photometry and Spectrometry

Photometry and spectrophotometry are two important techniques used in the measurement and
analysis of light and its properties. They are widely employed in various scientific, engineering,
and industrial applications. Here's an overview of each:

2.3.1. Photometry:
Definition: Photometry is the science and measurement of visible light in terms of its perceived
brightness to the human eye. It focuses on quantifying the visual aspects of light, including its
intensity and color as perceived by human observers.
The photometry is used to measure the light quantity, and it is the branch of optics in which we
discuss the intensity emitted by a source. The differential photometry and absolute photometry are
the two types of photometry.
The radiant flux, luminous flux, luminous intensity and efficiency, and illuminance are the terms
used in photometric. The radiant flux is defined as the total number of energy which is radiated by
a source per second and it is represented by a letter ‘R’.
The luminous flux is defined as the total number of energy which is emitted by a source per second
and it is represented by a symbol φ.
The luminous intensity is defined as a total volume of luminous flux divided by 4Π. The luminous
efficiency is defined as a ratio of luminous flux to the radiant flux and it is represented by a symbol
‘η’. The intensity is defined as a ratio of luminous flux per unit area and it is denoted by a letter
‘I’ (I=Δφ/ΔA). The illuminance (E) is the light falling on the surface of the earth.
Units: Photometry uses units such as the lumen (lm) for luminous flux (total visible light emitted
by a source), candela (cd) for luminous intensity (the amount of light emitted in a specific
direction), and lux (lx) for illuminance (the amount of light incident on a surface).
Applications:
Lighting design: Determining the appropriate amount and quality of light for indoor and outdoor
spaces.
Automotive lighting: Designing headlights and taillights for optimal visibility.
Display technology: Evaluating the brightness and color quality of screens and displays.
Photography: Measuring and adjusting lighting conditions for photography and cinematography.
Instrumentation: Photometers and light meters are common instruments used in photometry to
measure luminous flux, illuminance, and luminous intensity. These devices are designed to mimic
the spectral sensitivity of the human eye.

2.3.2 Spectrophotometry:
Definition: Spectrophotometry is the measurement of the intensity of light as a function of its
wavelength (spectral distribution). Unlike photometry, which focuses on the human visual
response, spectrophotometry provides a detailed analysis of the entire electromagnetic spectrum.
Units: Spectrophotometry typically reports results in terms of absorbance (A) or transmittance
(%T). Absorbance measures how much light is absorbed by a sample, while transmittance
q11uantifies the amount of light that passes through a sample.
Applications:
Chemistry: Determining the concentration of a substance in a solution based on its absorbance of
specific wavelengths of light (e.g., in colorimetry).
Material analysis: Identifying and characterizing substances based on their spectral fingerprints.
Environmental monitoring: Analyzing pollutants in air or water based on their absorbance or
fluorescence properties.
Biology and biochemistry: Quantifying DNA, proteins, and other biomolecules using absorbance
measurements.
Instrumentation: A spectrophotometer is the primary instrument used in spectrophotometry. It
shines a beam of light through a sample and measures how much light is absorbed or transmitted
at various wavelengths. Modern spectrophotometers often use a monochromator to select specific
wavelengths of light.
 2.4. Environment and Glare:
Lighting design should consider the surrounding environment, including natural and artificial light
sources, to minimize glare and create comfortable spaces.
Glare occurs when excessive brightness or contrast impairs vision and comfort. Anti-glare
measures are essential in lighting design.

2.5 .Illuminance Levels:

Determining the appropriate illuminance levels for the space is crucial. Illuminance is measured
in lux (lx) or foot-candles (fc) and varies depending on the type of space and its intended use.
Lighting standards and guidelines (e.g., IESNA standards) provide recommended illuminance
levels for different applications, such as offices, residential areas, industrial spaces, and outdoor
areas.
2.6. Lighting Quality:
• Beyond achieving the required illuminance levels, lighting quality considerations are
important. This includes factors like color rendering index (CRI), correlated color temperature
(CCT), and glare control.
• CRI measures how accurately a light source renders colors compared to natural daylight.
• CCT indicates the color appearance of the light (warm, neutral, cool).
• Proper glare control ensures that the lighting system does not cause discomfort or impair
visual tasks.

2.7. Loss Factors:

• Loss factors account for various factors that can reduce the effectiveness of the lighting system.
These include dirt and dust on luminaires, aging of lamps, and the reflectance of surfaces in the
space.
• Calculating and considering these factors ensures that the lighting system remains effective over
time.
2.8 Lamp Selection:
• Selecting the right type of lamps (light sources) is essential. Choices include incandescent,
fluorescent, LED, high-intensity discharge (HID), and more.
• Lamp selection should align with energy efficiency goals, maintenance requirements, and
lighting quality needs.

Luminaires:
• Luminaires are fixtures that house light sources and control their distribution. They come
in various shapes, sizes, and designs to suit different applications.
• The choice of luminaires affects the lighting distribution and aesthetics of the space.

Energy Efficiency:
• Energy-efficient lighting design is a key consideration. LED lighting is a popular choice
due to its high efficiency and long lifespan.
• Implementing lighting controls, such as dimmers, motion sensors, and daylight sensors,
can further enhance energy savings.

Lamp Placement and Layout:

• Proper positioning and layout of lamps and luminaires are crucial to achieving uniform and
balanced illumination.
• Factors like mounting height, spacing, and aiming angles should be carefully considered.
Maintenance:
• Establishing a maintenance plan is important for sustaining the lighting system's
performance over time.
• Regular lamp replacement, cleaning of luminaires and lenses, and periodic inspections are
part of maintenance efforts.

Compliance with Codes and Standards:

Ensure that the lighting design complies with local building codes, energy codes, and industry
standards related to lighting.
2.9. Lamp selection and maintenance
Lamp selection and maintenance are crucial aspects of lighting design and operation. Choosing
the right type of lamp and implementing a proper maintenance plan ensures efficient, effective,
and long-lasting lighting systems. Here's an overview of lamp selection and maintenance
considerations:

2.9.1 Lamp Selection:

Type of Lamp:
Consider the specific needs of the space and the characteristics of different lamp types. Common
lamp types include incandescent, fluorescent, LED, high-intensity discharge (HID), and halogen.
LED lamps are increasingly popular due to their energy efficiency, long lifespan, and versatility.
They are suitable for various applications and are compatible with modern lighting control
systems.
Energy Efficiency:
Evaluate the lamp's energy efficiency by examining its luminous efficacy (lumens per watt).
Choose lamps with higher efficacy for reduced energy consumption.
Look for ENERGY STAR or similar certifications for energy-efficient lamps.
Color Rendering Index (CRI):
CRI measures how accurately a light source renders colors compared to natural daylight. Higher
CRI values (typically 80 or above) are desirable for spaces where color accuracy is important, such
as retail stores and art galleries.
Color Temperature (CCT):
CCT indicates the color appearance of the light. Choose lamps with a suitable CCT for the space's
ambiance and function. For example, warmer (lower CCT) lighting is often preferred in residential
areas, while cooler (higher CCT) lighting may be suitable for offices.
Lamp Life and Maintenance Requirements:
Consider the lamp's rated lifespan and maintenance needs. LED lamps, for example, generally
have longer lifespans and require less frequent replacement compared to traditional lamps.
Evaluate the maintenance ease, especially in hard-to-reach areas.
Compatibility with Lighting Controls:
Ensure that the selected lamp type is compatible with any lighting control systems or dimmers that
you plan to use.
Cost Considerations:
Balance the initial cost of lamps with their long-term operational costs, including energy
consumption and maintenance expenses.
LED lamps, while often more expensive upfront, can offer significant long-term savings due to
their efficiency and durability.

2.9.2 Lamp Maintenance:

Scheduled Inspections: Regularly inspect lamps and luminaires to identify issues such as
flickering, dimming, or color shifts.
Check for loose connections, damaged sockets, and signs of wear.
Cleaning: Dust and dirt can accumulate on lamps and luminaires, reducing light output and
efficiency. Regularly clean fixtures to remove debris.
Consider professional cleaning for hard-to-reach or delicate fixtures.
Lamp Replacement: Follow manufacturer-recommended lamp replacement schedules or
guidelines. Keep a record of lamp replacements to track their lifespan and performance.
Ballast and Control Maintenance: If your lighting system includes ballasts or controls (e.g., LED
drivers), inspect and maintain them as recommended by the manufacturer.
Upgrades and Retrofits: Consider upgrading to more energy-efficient lamps or retrofitting
fixtures with LED technology as part of a long-term maintenance strategy.
2.9.3 Safety:
Always prioritize safety when performing maintenance tasks, especially when working with
electrical components. Turn off power to the fixture before replacing lamps or performing
maintenance.
Environmental Considerations:
Dispose of old lamps properly, following local regulations for recycling or hazardous waste
disposal.

2.10. Ballasts and Igniters

Ballasts, igniters, and dimmers are essential electrical components used in various
lighting systems to control and regulate the operation of different types of lamps. Each of these
components plays a specific role in ensuring proper lamp function and control. Here's an overview
of their functions and applications for various lamp types:
1. Ballasts:
Function: Ballasts are devices used to control the current flow through certain types of lamps,
particularly fluorescent and HID (High-Intensity Discharge) lamps. They provide the necessary
voltage and current regulation to start and maintain lamp operation.
Applications:
Fluorescent Lamps: Magnetic and electronic ballasts are used with fluorescent lamps, including
T5, T8, and T12 tubes. Electronic ballasts are more energy-efficient and are commonly used in
modern fluorescent fixtures.
HID Lamps: High-intensity discharge lamps, such as metal halide and high-pressure sodium
lamps, require specific types of ballasts designed for these lamps. They are used in applications
like outdoor lighting, sports facilities, and streetlights.
2. Igniters:
Function: Igniters are components that provide the high-voltage pulse needed to start certain types
of discharge lamps, primarily HID lamps. The high-voltage pulse creates an arc within the lamp,
initiating the discharge process.
Applications:
HID Lamps: Igniters are typically used with metal halide and high-pressure sodium lamps, which
require a high initial voltage to ignite the lamp. These lamps are commonly found in commercial
and industrial lighting applications.
3. Dimmers:
Function: Dimmers are devices that allow users to control the intensity or brightness of lamps,
thereby adjusting the light output. They work by modulating the voltage or current supplied to the
lamp.
Applications:
Incandescent Lamps: Incandescent lamps are often dimmed in residential and commercial spaces
to create different lighting levels for ambiance and energy savings. Traditional incandescent
dimmers use resistance-based control.
Halogen Lamps: Halogen lamps are typically dimmed using the same dimmers as incandescent
lamps.
LED Lamps: Dimmable LED lamps require compatible dimmer switches designed for LED
lighting. Dimming LEDs can save energy and create versatile lighting environments.
CFL Lamps: Some compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) are compatible with dimmer switches, but
they require specific dimmers labeled as "CFL/LED compatible."
Fluorescent Lamps: Dimming fluorescent lamps can be challenging and may require specialized
ballasts and dimming controls. It's essential to use dimmable fluorescent lamps with compatible
dimming systems.

When selecting ballasts, igniters, and dimmers for different types of lamps, it's crucial to consider
lamp compatibility and ensure that the components are rated for the specific lamp type and wattage.
Compatibility issues can lead to poor performance, flickering, or even damage to the lamps and
control devices. Always follow

2.11. Types of Lighting Fixture

 2.12 .REFLECTORS
With most light sources, it is desirable to use some additional equipment to direct the
whole of the light output on to the surface to be illuminated, to diffuse the light in order to
prevent glare or to change its color.
Various types of reflectors are commonly used are described below:

Dispersive Type Reflector:

 A typical fitting of this type is shown in the figure aside.
 It is considered a universal fitting for all types of industrial uses.
 Such reflectors are constructed of heavy gauge steel finished with vitreous enamel green outside
and white inside. They are type of the standard type of lamps from 60-1500 W.
 The spacing should be 1.5 times the height of lamp filament above the working plane. It is
combination of concave and cylindrical reflecting surfaces in the form of a deep bowl of
wide dispersive powder. It gives maximum intensity between 0-45 degrees.

Diffuser Type Reflectors

An industrial diffusing unit has a slightly Iower efficiency than

dispersive type reflector, but the appearance is better and it is particularly
useful to minimize the glare reflected from polished surfaces. The
maximum light intensities are from 0-45 degrees. Uniform illumination is
obtained with a space-height ratio of one and a quarter one.

Concentrating Type Reflectors:

In this type of reflector,the reflecting surface is designed in the shape of a deep parabola. This
type of reflector is suitable for high mounting height as required in industries and shops.
These reflectors are used for lamps from 60 to 1500 W.

Parabolitical or Elliptical Angle Reflectors:

Elliptical angle reflector is suitable for side illumination. Normal overhead lamps
cannot provide illumination on vertical surfaces. Hence these reflectors are used for
such applications.
Extensive Type Reflectors.
These are constructed in steel with vitreous enamel finish. The bowl is in the
form of hyperbolic curve. The maximum light intensities are obtained
between 0-45 degrees. Spacing should be 4 .5 times the mounting
height.
 Intensive Type Reflectors:
This is similar to extensive type, the difference lying in the shape of the reflector
bowl which is a combination of convex and concave curves. This is also a
local lighting reflector. The maximum light intensities are from 0-45 degrees. Uniform
illumination is obtained with a space-height ratio of one and a quarter one.

Benflux Reflector:
 A wide distribution fitting is made in vitreous enamel with a glass diffusing
shape enriching the lamp.
 Small apertures are left above the glass shade to ensure adequate ventilation. Space
–height ratio should be 1: 2/3

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Why is reflector used in lighting system?
Reflectors are devices that reflect light, and they are commonly used in lighting systems to control
the direction and intensity of light output. One of the key benefits of using reflectors is that they
can help to reduce glare and ensure that light is distributed evenly across a given space.
What is the importance of reflector?
Reflectors are used to redirect light onto your subject. They come in various shapes and sizes, but
they all serve the same purpose - to bounce light back onto your subject. This can help enhance
the natural lighting, fill in shadows, and create a more even overall look.
What is the benefit of reflector?
A reflector is a simple device that bounces light back in the direction it came from. This can help
to brighten up a dark room or provide more even lighting for your workspace. It's also a great way
to reduce eye strain and improve your mood.
What is a refractor in lighting?
Reflectors are optical systems that form in the focal plane, a stigmatic image of an object at infinity,
so a fraction of the sky.
What is the main advantage of refractors?
Refractors also have the highest light transmission - the percentage of the light gathered by the
scope that actually reaches your eye. Refractors typically transmit 90% or more of the light they
collect, compared with the 77% to 80% transmission of reflectors and 64% to 75% of catadioptrics.
How does a light refractor work?
Lenses are curved pieces of glass or plastic, which bend rays of light and can make objects appear
bigger. Refracting telescopes use one or more lenses to collect and focus the light from objects in
space, forming an image. Then, an eyepiece lens enlarges, or magnifies, the image of the object.