EEEE3109: Material Science for Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Lecture 1: Introduction to Material Science and Engineering

Outline;
Definitions and Basic Concepts of Materials Science and Engineering
Development of Materials; Classification of Materials and Their Characteristics
Uses of Materials
1.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Materials are probably more deep-seated in our culture than most of us realize.
Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, and food production;
virtually every segment of our everyday lives is influenced to one degree or another by
materials. Materials play an important role for our existence, for our day to day needs ,and even
for our survival. In the stone age the naturally accessible materials were stone, wood, bone, fur.
Gold was the 1st metal used by the mankind followed by copper. In the bronze age Copper and
its alloy like bronze was used and in the iron age they discovered Iron (sponge iron & later pig
iron). Historically, the development and advancement of societies have been intimately tied
to the members’ ability to produce and manipulate materials to fill their needs. Early
civilizations have been designated by the level of their materials development (Stone Age,
Bronze Age, Iron Age)
The earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of materials, those that
occur naturally: stone, wood, clay, skins, and so on. With time they discovered techniques
for producing materials that had properties superior to those of the natural ones; these new
materials included pottery and various metals. Furthermore, it was discovered that the
properties of a material could be altered by heat treatments and by the addition of other
substances. At this point, materials utilization was totally a selection process that involved
choosing from a given, rather limited set of materials the one best suited for an application
by virtue of its characteristics.

1.2 MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

In order to aid understanding, the discipline of materials science and engineering into
materials science and materials engineering subdisciplines. Materials science involves
investigating the relationships that exist between the structures and properties of materials.
In contrast, “materials engineering” is, on the basis of these structure–property
correlations, designing or engineering the structure of a material to produce a
predetermined set of properties. From a functional perspective, the role of a materials
scientist is to develop or synthesize new materials, whereas a materials engineer is called
upon to create new products or systems using existing materials, and/or to develop techniques
for processing materials.
The structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal
components. Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and
interactions with their nuclei. On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization
of atoms or molecules relative to one another. The next larger structural realm, which contains
large groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together, is termed “microscopic,”
meaning that which is subject to direct observation using some type of microscope. Finally,
structural elements that may be viewed with the naked eye are termed “macroscopic.”
During usage, all materials are exposed to external stimuli that evoke some type of
response. For example, a specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation, or a
polished metal surface will reflect light. A property is a material trait in terms of the kind
and magnitude of response to a specific imposed stimulus. Generally, definitions of
properties are made independent of material shape and size.
Properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different categories: mechanical,
electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative. For each there is a characteristic
type of stimulus capable of provoking different responses.
In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are involved in
the science and engineering of materials—namely, “processing” and “performance.” With
regard to the relationships of these four components, the structure of a material will depend
on how it is processed. Furthermore, a material’s performance will be a function of its
properties. Thus, the interrelationship between processing, structure, properties, and
performance is as depicted in the schematic illustration shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 The four components of the discipline of materials science and
engineering and their interrelationship.

We now present an example of these processing-structure-properties- performance

principles with Figure 1.2, a photograph showing three thin disk specimens placed over some
printed matter. It is obvious that the optical properties ( the light transmittance) of each of
the three materials are different; the one on the left is transparent (virtually all of the
reflected light passes through it), whereas the disks in the center and on the right are,
respectively, translucent and opaque. All of these specimens are of the same material,
aluminum oxide, but the leftmost one is what we call a single crystal—that is, it is highly
perfect—which gives rise to its transparency. The center one is composed of numerous and
very small single crystals that are all connected; the boundaries between these small crystals
scatter a portion of the light reflected from the printed page, which makes this material
optically translucent. Finally, the specimen on the right is composed not only of many small,
interconnected crystals, but also of a large number of very small pores or void spaces. These
pores also effectively scatter the reflected light and render this material opaque.
Thus, the structures of these three specimens are different in terms of crystal boundaries
and pores, which affect the optical transmittance properties. Furthermore, each material
was produced using a different processing technique. And, of course, if optical transmittance
is an important parameter relative to the ultimate in-service application, the performance
of each material will be different.
 Figure 1.2 Photograph of three thin disk specimens of aluminum oxide that have been
placed over a printed page in order to demonstrate their differences in light-transmittance
characteristics.
1.3 WHY STUDY MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING?
Often as an applied scientist or engineer, whether mechanical, civil, chemical, or electrical,
will at one time or another be exposed to a design problem involving materials. Examples
might include a transmission gear, the superstructure for a building, an oil refinery
component, or an integrated circuit chip. Of course, materials scientists and engineers are
specialists who are totally involved in the investigation and design of materials.
Many times, a materials problem is one of selecting the right material from the many
thousands that are available. There are several criteria on which the final decision is normally
based. First of all, the in-service conditions must be characterized, for these will dictate the
properties required of the material. On only rare occasions does a material possess the
maximum or ideal combination of properties. Thus, it may be necessary to trade off one
characteristic for another. The classic example involves strength and ductility; normally, a
material having a high strength will have only a limited ductility. In such cases a reasonable
compromise between two or more properties may be necessary.
A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that may
occur during service operation. For example, significant reductions in mechanical strength
may result from exposure to elevated temperatures or corrosive environments.
Finally, probably the overriding consideration is that of economics: What will the finished
product cost? A material may be found that has the ideal set of properties but is
prohibitively expensive. Here again, some compromise is inevitable. The cost of a finished
piece also includes any expense incurred during fabrication to produce the desired shape.
The more familiar an engineer or scientist is with the various characteristics and
structure–property relationships, as well as processing techniques of materials, the more
proficient and confident he or she will be in making judicious materials choices based on these
criteria.
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications: metals,
ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic
structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, although there are
some intermediates. In addition, there are the composites, combinations of two or more of
the above three basic material classes. Another classification is advanced materials—those
used in high-technology applications— semiconductors, biomaterials, smart materials, and
nanoengineered materials; these are discussed in Section 1.5.
Metals
Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as iron,
aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (for
example, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts.
Atoms in metals and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner

Figure 1.3 Bar-chart of room-temperature density values for various metals, ceramics, polymers,
and composite materials
and in comparison to the ceramics and polymers, are relatively dense (Figure 1.3). With
regard to mechanical characteristics, these materials are relatively stiff (Figure 1.4) and strong
(Figure 1.5), yet are ductile and are resistant to fracture (Figure 1.6), which accounts for their
widespread use in structural applications. Metallic materials have large numbers of
nonlocalized electrons; that is, these electrons are not bound to particular atoms. Many
properties of metals are directly attributable to these electrons. For example, metals are
extremely good conductors of electricity (Figure 1.7) and heat, and are not transparent to
visible light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance. In addition, some of the
metals (viz., Fe, Co, and Ni) have desirable magnetic properties.
 Figure 1.8 is a photograph that shows several common and familiar objects that are made
of metallic materials.

Figure 1.4 Bar-chart of room-temperature stiffness (i.e., elastic modulus) values for various metals, ceramics,
polymers, and composite materials

Figure 1.5 Bar-chart of room-temperature strength (i.e., tensile strength) values for various
metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials

Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, some of the common ceramic materials
include aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2 O3 ), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2 ), silicon
carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3 N4 ), and, in addition, what some refer to as the traditional
ceramics—those composed of clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), as well as cement and glass.
With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramic materials are relatively stiff and strong—
stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to those of the metals (Figures 1.4 and 1.5). In
addition, ceramics are typically very hard. On the other hand, they are extremely brittle
(lack ductility) and are highly susceptible to fracture(figure 1.6)
These materials are typically insulative to the passage of heat and electricity (i.e., have
low electrical conductivities, Figure 1.7), and are more resistant to high temperatures and
harsh environments than metals and polymers. With regard to optical characteristics,
ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque (Figure 1.2), and some of the oxide
ceramics (e.g., Fe3 O4 ) exhibit magnetic behavior.

Polymers
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic
compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic
elements (viz. O, N, and Si). Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often
chain-like in nature with a backbone of carbon atoms. Some of the common

Figure 1.8 Familiar

objects that are
made of metals and
metal alloys (from left
to right): silverware
(fork and knife),
scissors,
coins, a gear, a
wedding ring, and a
nut and bolt.
(Photography by S.
Tanner.)
 Figure 1.9
and familiar polymers are polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC),
polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber. These materials typically have
low densities (Figure 1.3), whereas their mechanical characteristics are generally
dissimilar to the metallic and ceramic materials—they are not as stiff nor as strong as
these other material types (Figures 1.4 and 1.5). However, on the basis of their low
densities, many times their stiffnesses and strengths on a per-mass basis are comparable
to the metals and ceramics. In addition, many of the polymers are extremely ductile and
pliable (i.e., plastic), which means they are easily formed into complex shapes. In general,
they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large number of environments.
One major drawback of the polymers is their tendency to soften and/or decompose at
modest temperatures, which, in some instances, limits their use. Furthermore, they have
low electrical conductivities (Figure 1.7) and are nonmagnetic.
The photograph in Figure 1.10 shows several articles made of polymers that are
familiar to the reader. Chapters 4, 13, and 14 are devoted to discussions of the structures,
properties, applications, and processing of polymeric materials.
Composites
A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the
categories discussed above; metals, ceramics, and polymers. The design goal of a
composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by any single
material, and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component
materials. A large number of composite types exist that are represented by different
combinations of metals, ceramics, and polymers. Furthermore, some naturally-occurring
materials are also considered to be composites—for example, wood and bone. However,
most of those we consider in our discussions are synthetic (or man-made) composites.
 One of the most common and familiar composites is fiberglass, in which small glass
fibers are embedded within a polymeric material (normally an epoxy or polyester).4
The glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle), whereas

Figure 1.10 Common

objects that are made
of polymeric materials:
plastic tableware
(spoon, fork, and
knife), billiard balls,
a bicycle helmet, two
dice, a lawnmower
wheel (plastic hub and
rubber tire), and a
plastic milk carton.

the polymer is ductile (but also weak and flexible). Thus, the resulting fiberglass is relatively
stiff, strong, (Figures 1.4 and 1.5) flexible, and ductile. In addition, it has a low density (Figure
1.3).
Another of these technologically important materials is the “carbon fiber- reinforced
polymer” (or “CFRP”) composite—carbon fibers that are embedded within a polymer.
These materials are stiffer and stronger than the glass fiber- reinforced materials (Figures
1.4 and 1.5), yet they are more expensive. The CFRP composites are used in some aircraft
and aerospace applications, as well as high-tech sporting equipment (e.g., bicycles, golf
clubs, tennis rackets, and skis/snowboards). Chapter 15 is devoted to a discussion of these
interesting materials.

1.5 ADVANCED MATERIALS

Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are some- times
termed advanced materials. By high technology we mean a device or product that operates
or functions using relatively intricate and sophisticated principles; examples include
electronic equipment (camcorders, CD/DVD players, etc.), computers, fiber-optic systems,
spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry. These advanced materials are typically traditional
materials whose properties have been enhanced, and also newly developed, high-
performance materials. Furthermore, they may be of all material types (e.g., metals,
ceramics, polymers), and are normally expensive. Advanced materials include
semiconductors, biomaterials, and what we may term “materials of the future” (that is,
smart materials and nanoengineered materials), which we discuss below. The properties
and applications of a number of these advanced materials—for example, materials that are
used for lasers, integrated circuits, magnetic information storage, liquid crystal displays
(LCDs), and fiber optics—are also discussed in subsequent chapters.
Semiconductors
Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical
conductors (viz. metals and metal alloys) and insulators (viz. ceramics and polymers)—
Figure 1.7. Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of these materials are extremely
sensitive to the presence of minute concentrations of impurity atoms, for which the
concentrations may be controlled over very small spatial regions. Semiconductors have
made possible the advent of integrated circuitry that has totally revolutionized the
electronics and computer industries (not to mention our lives) over the past three decades.

Biomaterials
Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body for re- placement
of diseased or damaged body parts. These materials must not produce toxic substances
and must be compatible with body tissues (i.e., must not cause ad- verse biological
reactions). All of the above materials—metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and
semiconductors—may be used as biomaterials. For example, some of the biomaterials that
are utilized in artificial hip replacements are discussed in the online biomaterials module.

Materials of the Future

Smart Materials
Smart (or intelligent) materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials now being
developed that will have a significant influence on many of our technologies.

The adjective “smart” implies that these materials are able to sense changes in their
environments and then respond to these changes in predetermined manners—traits
that are also found in living organisms. In addition, this “smart” concept is being
extended to rather sophisticated systems that consist of both smart and traditional
materials.
Components of a smart material (or system) include some type of sensor (that detects
an input signal) and an actuator (that performs a responsive and adaptive function).
Actuators may be called upon to change shape, position, natural frequency, or mechanical
characteristics in response to changes in temperature, light intensity, electric fields, and/or
magnetic fields.
Four types of materials are commonly used for actuators: shape-memory alloys,
piezoelectric ceramics, magnetostrictive materials, and electrorheological/
magnetorheological fluids. Shape-memory alloys are metals that, after having been
deformed, revert back to their original shapes when temperature is changed. Piezoelectric
ceramics expand and contract in response to an applied electric field (or voltage); conversely,
they also generate an electric field when their dimensions are altered. The behavior of
magnetostrictive materials is analogous to that of the piezoelectrics, except that they are
responsive to magnetic fields. Also, electrorheological and magnetorheological fluids are
 liquids that experience dramatic changes in viscosity upon the application of electric and
magnetic fields, respectively.
Materials/devices employed as sensors include optical fibers, piezoelectric materials, and
microelectromechanical de- vices.
For example, one type of smart system is used in helicopters to reduce aerodynamic
cockpit noise that is created by the rotating rotor blades. Piezoelectric sensors inserted into
the blades monitor blade stresses and deformations; feedback signals from these sensors are
fed into a computer-controlled adaptive device that generates noise-canceling anti-noise.

Nanoengineered Materials
Until very recent times the general procedure utilized by scientists to understand the
chemistry and physics of materials has been to begin by studying large and complex structures,
and then to investigate the fundamental building blocks of these structures that are smaller
and simpler. This approach is sometimes termed “top-down” science. However, with the
advent of scanning probe microscopes, which permit observation of individual atoms and
molecules, it has become possible to manipulate and move atoms and molecules to form new
structures and, thus, design new materials that are built from simple atomic-level constituents
(i.e., “materials by design”). This ability to carefully arrange atoms provides opportunities
to develop mechanical, electrical, magnetic, and other properties that are not otherwise
possible. We call this the “bottom-up” approach, and the study of the properties of these
materials is termed “nanotechnology”; the “nano” prefix denotes that the dimensions of
these structural entities are on the order of a nanometer (10−9 m)—as a rule, less than 100
nanometers (equivalent to approximately 500 atom diameters).

1.6 MODERN MATERIALS’ NEEDS

In spite of the tremendous progress that has been made in the discipline of materials science
and engineering within the past few years, there still remain technological challenges,
including the development of even more sophisticated and specialized materials, as well
as consideration of the environmental impact of materials production.
Nuclear energy holds some promise, but the solutions to the many problems that
remain will necessarily involve materials, from fuels to containment structures to facilities
for the disposal of radioactive waste.
Significant quantities of energy are involved in transportation. Reducing the weight
of transportation vehicles (automobiles, aircraft, trains), as well as in- creasing engine
operating temperatures, will enhance fuel efficiency. New high- strength, low-density
structural materials remain to be developed, as well as materials that have higher-temperature
capabilities, for use in engine components.
Furthermore, there is a recognized need to find new, economical sources of energy
and to use present resources more efficiently. Materials will undoubtedly play a significant
role in these developments. For example, the direct conversion of solar into electrical energy
has been demonstrated. Solar cells employ some rather complex and expensive materials.
To ensure a viable technology, materials that are highly efficient in this conversion process
yet less costly must be developed.
The hydrogen fuel cell is another very attractive and feasible energy-conversion
technology that has the advantage of being nonpolluting. It is just beginning to be
implemented in batteries for electronic devices, and holds promise as the power plant for
automobiles. New materials still need to be developed for more efficient fuel cells, and also
for better catalysts to be used in the production of hydrogen.
Furthermore, environmental quality depends on our ability to control air and water
pollution. Pollution-control techniques employ various materials. In addition, materials
processing and refinement methods need to be improved so that they pro- duce less
environmental degradation—that is, less pollution and less spoilage of the landscape from
the mining of raw materials. Also, in some materials manufacturing processes, toxic
substances are produced, and the ecological impact of their disposal must be considered.
Many materials that we use are derived from resources that are nonrenewable— that is,
not capable of being regenerated. These include polymers, for which the prime raw material
is oil, and some metals. These nonrenewable resources are gradually be- coming depleted,
which necessitates: (1) the discovery of additional reserves, (2) the development of new
materials having comparable properties with less adverse environmental impact, and/or (3)
increased recycling efforts and the development of new recycling technologies. As a
consequence of the economics of not only production but also environmental impact and
ecological factors, it is becoming increasingly important to consider the “cradle-to-grave”
life cycle of materials relative to the overall manufacturing process.