CHAPTER 20 SUMMARY

Reversible and irreversible processes: A reversible process is one whose direction can be reversed Irreversible:
Ice at
40°C
Metal, Water,
by an infinitesimal change in the conditions of the process, and in which the system is always in or 70°C 0°C 40°C
very close to thermal equilibrium. All other thermodynamic processes are irreversible.
Reversible: 0°C
Metal, Ice at Water,
0°C 0°C 0°C

Heat engines: A heat engine takes heat Q H from a source, W QC QC QH Hot reservoir, TH
e= =1+ =1-` ` (20.4) Engine
converts part of it to work W, and discards the remainder QH QH QH
ƒ Q C ƒ at a lower temperature. The thermal efficiency e of a W W 5 QH 1 QC
!QC! 5 !QH! 2 !QC!
heat engine measures how much of the absorbed heat is
Cold reservoir, TC
converted to work. (See Example 20.1.)

The Otto cycle: A gasoline engine operating on the Otto 1 p

c
e = 1 - (20.6) QH
cycle has a theoretical maximum thermal efficiency e r g-1 Otto cycle
that depends on the compression ratio r and the ratio of b
W d
heat capacities g of the working substance. !Q !
a C
O V
V rV

Refrigerators: A refrigerator takes heat Q C from a ƒ QC ƒ ƒ QC ƒ Outside air, TH

K = = !QH!
colder place, has a work input ƒ W ƒ , and discards heat (20.9) Refrigerator
ƒ Q H ƒ at a warmer place. The effectiveness of the refriger- ƒWƒ ƒ QH ƒ - ƒ QC ƒ !W!
ator is given by its coefficient of performance K.
QC Inside of refrigerator, TC

The second law of thermodynamics: The second law of thermodynamics describes the directionality TH
QH 2 !QC!
of natural thermodynamic processes. It can be stated in several equivalent forms. The engine state- 100%-efficient engine
ment is that no cyclic process can convert heat completely into work. The refrigerator statement is Impossible W
The Otto cycle: A gasoline engine operating on the Otto 1 p
c
e = 1 - (20.6) QH
cycle has a theoretical maximum thermal efficiency e r g-1 Otto cycle
that depends on the compression ratio r and the ratio of b
W d
heat capacities g of the working substance. !Q !
a C
O V
V rV

Refrigerators: A refrigerator takes heat Q C from a ƒ QC ƒ ƒ QC ƒ Outside air, TH

K = = !QH!
colder place, has a work input ƒ W ƒ , and discards heat (20.9) Refrigerator
ƒ Q H ƒ at a warmer place. The effectiveness of the refriger- ƒWƒ ƒ QH ƒ - ƒ QC ƒ !W!
ator is given by its coefficient of performance K.
QC Inside of refrigerator, TC

The second law of thermodynamics: The second law of thermodynamics describes the directionality TH
QH 2 !QC!
of natural thermodynamic processes. It can be stated in several equivalent forms. The engine state- 100%-efficient engine
ment is that no cyclic process can convert heat completely into work. The refrigerator statement is Impossible W
that no cyclic process can transfer heat from a colder place to a hotter place with no input of
TC
mechanical work.

The Carnot cycle: The Carnot cycle operates between TC TH - TC p

two heat reservoirs at temperatures TH and TC and uses eCarnot = 1 - = (20.14) a

Carnot cycle
TH TH
only reversible processes. Its thermal efficiency depends QH

only on TH and TC . An additional equivalent statement W b

TH
of the second law is that no engine operating between d
TC
!QC! c
the same two temperatures can be more efficient than a O
V
Carnot engine. (See Examples 20.2 and 20.3.)
A Carnot engine run backward is a Carnot refrigera- TC
tor. Its coefficient of performance depends only on TH K Carnot = (20.15)
TH - TC
and TC . Another form of the second law states that no
refrigerator operating between the same two tempera-
tures can have a larger coefficient of performance than a
Carnot refrigerator. (See Example 20.4.)

Entropy: Entropy is a quantitative measure of the disor- 2

dQ
L1 T
der of a system. The entropy change in any reversible ¢S = (20.19)
process depends on the amount of heat flow and the
(reversible process)
absolute temperature T. Entropy depends only on the
 O
Carnot engine. (See Examples 20.2 and 20.3.)
A Carnot engine run backward is a Carnot refrigera- TC
tor. Its coefficient of performance depends only on TH K Carnot = (20.15)
TH - TC
and TC . Another form of the second law states that no
refrigerator operating between the same two tempera-
tures can have a larger coefficient of performance than a
Carnot refrigerator. (See Example 20.4.)

Entropy: Entropy is a quantitative measure of the disor- 2

dQ
L1 T
der of a system. The entropy change in any reversible ¢S = (20.19)
process depends on the amount of heat flow and the
(reversible process)
absolute temperature T. Entropy depends only on the
state of the system, and the change in entropy between Discussion Questions
Summary 679
given initial and final states is the same for all processes
leading from one state to the other. This fact can be used
to find the entropy change in an irreversible process. (path-independent!)
(See Examples 20.5–20.10.)
678 An important statement of the second law of thermo-
dynamics is that the entropy of an isolated system may
increase but can never decrease. When a system interacts
with its surroundings, the total entropy change of system Entropy change of Ideal gas
and surroundings can never decrease. When the interac-
tion involves only reversible processes, the total entropy
is constant and ¢S = 0; when there is any irreversible
process, the total entropy increases and ¢S 7 0.

Entropy and microscopic states: When a system is in a S = k ln w (20.22) V

particular macroscopic state, the particles that make up N gas 2V
molecules
the system may be in any of w possible microscopic V
states. The greater the number w, the greater the
entropy. (See Example 20.11.) w microstates 2Nw microstates

BRIDGING PROBLEM Entropy Changes: Cold Ice in Hot Water

 4 Q = 0,
Work done by the gas piVi p fVf nRTi nRT f 1 8.314(900 580)
W 3,991 J,
32 1.013 10 5 10 3
4.5948 1.013 10 4 10 5 3
1 1 5 / 3 1
3,449 J. (answer)
7/5 1 (see the solution to Problem 3 for derivation of this formula)
Eint = – W = –3,991 J. (answers)
Process 3 1:
4. One mole of an ideal monatomic gas traverses the cycle shown in Fig. 3.
Process 1 → 2 takes place at constant volume, process 2Q→= 3nisCadiabatic,
P T = 1 and 2.5 8.314(300 – 580) = –5,820 J.
(Vf heat
W = pithe
process 3 → 1 takes place at constant pressure. (a) Compute – Vi)Q,= nR(T
the f – Ti) = 1 8.314(300 – 580) = –2,328 J.
change in internal energy ∆Eint, and the work done W, for = Q of
Einteach –W the=three
–3,492 J. (answers)
processes and for the cycle as a whole. (b) If the initialThe
pressure at
cycle: point 1 is
1.00 atm, find the pressure and the volume at points 2 andQ =3.7,483
Use 1.00
+ 0 –atm = = 1,663 J.
5,820
5
1.013 x 10 Pa and R = 8.314 J/mol∙K.
Eint = 7,483 – 3,991 – 3,492 = 0 J.
W = 0 + 3,991 – 2,328 = 1,663 J. (answers)

5. An insulated cylinder with a piston contains 4 g of helium and 16 g of oxygen,

as shown in Fig. 4. The temperature is 0°C and the pressure is 105 Pa. If the
piston is pressed to make the pressure increase to 2 105 Pa, find the
temperature and the volume of the gases in the cylinder.
3
Helium: CVh = 12.3 J/mol∙K, CPh = 20.5 J/mol∙K
(to be determined) Oxygen: CVO = 20.5 J/mol∙K, CPO = 28.7 J/mol∙K

Fig. 3
4
point 1, the pressure, volume and temperature are p1, V1 and T1
y.
nt 2, the pressure, volume and temperature are p1T2/T1, V1 and T2
y.
t point 3, the pressure, volume and temperature are p1, V1T3/T1 and
ely.
Fig. 4
ss 2 3 is adiabatic, we have
(V1T3/T1) –1 T2/T1 = (T3/T1) . There are 1 mol of helium and 0.5 mol of oxygen. Hence the average molar
mic gases, CV = 3R/2, CP = 5R/2, = CP/CV = 5/3. specific heat at constant volume is
2 1
T3 = T1(T2/T1)1/ = 300(900/300)3/5 = 580.0 K. 3
12.3
3
20.5 15.033 J mol -1K -1 ,
and the average molar specific heat at constant pressure is
le ciency
as long of the same
as the engine? units, such as watts, are used for both quanti- 20.0°C room, what is its theoretical maximum performance coeffi-
ss ties. . process
20.2However,An aircraft 3 S 1 is at a constant
it is common enginepractice
takes to 9000P20.40
in Figure
express JHofin heatBtu> hand and discards
leaves the gas each cycle? (b) How much work does the engine do
P cient? (c) What is the theoretical maximum amount of ice this
pressure of 1.00 atm. The each cycle, and what is its efficiency? (c) Compare this engine’s
r- in
6400watts. When
J each these
cycle. mixed
(a)
value of g for this gas is 1.40.Whatunits is are
the used, the
mechanical pratio workH>P is called
output of the
freezer
efficiencycouldwith maketheinmaximum
an hour, possible
starting with waterattainable
efficiency at 20.0°C? with
ly the energy
engine efficiency
during one rating
cycle?
(a) Find the pressure and vol- (EER).
(b) WhatIf a room
is the air
thermal
2 T 5 600 K
conditioner
2 has
efficiency a of the
20.19 ..
the hot and cold reservoirs
A Carnot used by
heat engine hasthis
a cycle.
thermal efficiency of 0.600,
an coefficient of performance
engine?ume at points 1, 2, and 3. (b) K = 3.0 , what is its EER? and 20.44 . CP As a budding
the temperature of its hotmechanical
reservoir engineer,
is 800 K.you are called
If 3000 J of heat
20.9 .. ACalculate
refrigerator Q, W,has a
and coefficient
¢U for of performance of 2.10. In upon to design a Carnot engine that has 2.00 mol of a monatomic
20.3 A Gasoline Engine.4 A gasoline engine takes in 1.61is*rejected to the cold reservoir in one cycle, what is the work out-
each cycleeach it absorbs
of the three 3.40 * 10 (c)
processes. J of heat from the cold reservoir. putideal gasengine
as its during
working onesubstance
cycle? and operates from a high-
ng 10 4 J ofFind heat and delivers 3700 J of work per cycle. The
3 heat is of the
TH
(a) How muchthemechanical
obtained by
net work done
burning
by the
energy
gasoline
is required
with
1.00 atm
a heat
T
1
each cycle to operate 20.20
5 of
300 Kcombustion
T 5 492 K of .. A Carnot
temperature reservoir at 500°C. The engine is to lift a 15.0-kg weight
heat engine uses a hot reservoir consisting of a
gas in the cycle.
the refrigerator? (b) (d) Findeach
During the netcycle, how much 1 heat is
3 dis- 2.00 m per cycle, using 500 J of heat input. The gas in the engine
4.60 *toheat 10 4
flow (a)
J>g. intoWhat the isengine
the thermal efficiency?
O (b) HowVmuch large amount of boiling water and a cold reservoir consisting of a
chamber can have a minimum volume of 5.00 L during the cycle.
carded the high-temperature reservoir?
ys heat is. discarded
20.10 inA one
room airinconditioner
cycle. each
(e) Whatcycle? the(c)a What
is has fuel is burnedlarge
massofofperformance
coefficient
tub of
in(a) Draw ice and water.
a pV-diagram for thisIncycle.
5 minutes
Show inof operation,
your the heat
diagram where
each thermal efficiency of the goes
engine? How does thiscycles
compare the rejected
tosecond, heat enters by the and engine
leaves themelts 0.0400
gas. (b) Whatkg mustofbeice.
theDuring this of
temperature time,
ts of 2.9cycle?
on a hot (d)day If theand engine
uses 850 W of through
electrical 60.0 power. (a)perHow
efficiency of a Carnot-cycle engine operating between the same how themuch cold work W is (c)
reservoir? performed
What isbythe thethermal
engine?efficiency of the
m- what is
many its
joules power
of heat output
does thein kilowatts?
air conditioner
minimum and maximum temperatures T1 and T2 ?
In horsepower?
remove from the room 20.21
engine? .. You(d) Howdesignmuchan engine that takes
heat energy in 1.50
does this engine* 10 4
waste J of
perheat
es 20.4
in one. minute?
A
20.41 ..
gasoline (b) Howengine
CALC You buildmany has joules
a of
power heat does
output the
of air
180 condi-
kW (about
at cycle?
650 K(e) in What
each iscycle
the maximum
and rejects pressure that
heat at a the gas chamber
temperature of will
350 K.
ot tioner deliver
241 hp).a Its to the
heat thermal hot
engine that outside
efficiency
takes air Figure
in one P20.41
minute? (c) Explain why have to withstand?
The engine completes 240 cycles in 1 minute. What is the theoreti-
your answers
1.00 to
mol parts
is 28.0%. (a) How much heat Figureof (a) and
an (b)
ideal are not the same.
p (Pa)E20.5 20.45 ...
cal maximumAnpower experimental
output ofpower plant at in
your engine, thehorsepower?
Natural Energy
20.11 .. A refrigerator hasengine
a the
coefficient of performance of 2.25,
he must bediatomic
supplied gastothrough
the b c
Laboratory of Hawaii generates electricity from the temperature
runs on an cycle inputshown of 95 Winof electrical
Fig. 4.0 3power, 10p5 1 atmand2 keeps its inside Section gradient 20.7 of the ocean.
Entropy The surface and deep-water temperatures are
n- per second?P20.41. (b) How much heat 27°C.and 6°C, respectively. (a) What is the maximum theoretical
compartment at (a) 5°C.Show that seg-
If you put a dozen 1.0-L plastic bottles of 20.22 A 4.50-kg block of ice at 0.00°C falls into the ocean and
is discarded
water at ment
31°C ab by the
intoisthis engine
an refrigerator, per
isothermal how long will it take for them efficiency of this power plant? (b) If the power plant is to produce
5
rk second? compression. (b) During 2.0 3 10
a leaves the plastic.) a melts.
210 kW Theofaveragepower, temperature
at what rate mustof theheat
ocean is 3.50°C,
be extracted fromincluding
the
to be cooled down to 5°C? (Ignore any heat that
r. 20.5 ..
20.12 ..which
The
A freezer
segment(s)
pV-diagram of thein
has a coefficient of performance of 2.40. The 3 change
all warm water? At what rate must heat be absorbed by the cold ice
the deep water. By how much does the melting of this
cycle is heat absorbed by V (m ) water?the entropy
Assume theofmaximum
the world? Does it make
theoretical it larger
efficiency. or smaller?
(c) The cold
a- Fig. E20.5
freezer shows1.80
is to convert a kgcycle
of waterof at 25.0°C O to0.005
1.80 kg of ice at (Hint: Do you think that the ocean will change temperature appre-
0.010
the gas? During which seg- water that enters the plant leaves it at a temperature of 10°C. What
a- 5.0°C
heat in engine
one hour. that (a)
ment(s) is heat rejected? uses
What 0.250
amount of heat
1.5 c must be removed from
b ciably
mustas bethe the ice
flowmelts?)
rate of cold water through the system? Give your
m- the water
mole ofHow at 25.0°C
andoideal to
you know? convert
gas having it to ice at - 5.0°C? (b) How
(c) Calculate the temperature at points a, b,1 20.23 much
V m 3answer
2 . A in kg>h and in L>h.
sophomore with nothing better to do adds heat to
ld electrical
g = 1.40. energy
and c. The is consumed
curved part
(d) Calculate by the
the netab freezer during
heat exchanged
O 0.0020 this hour? (c)
with the surroundings
0.0090 How 20.46
0.350 ..
kg of What is the until
ice at 0.0°C thermal
it is allFigure
melted. (a) What is the change
P20.46
much wasted heat is delivered to the room in which the freezer
and the net work done by the engine in one cycle. (e) Calculate the in efficiency sits? of an engine that oper-
entropy of the water? (b) The source of heat is a very massive
thermal efficiency of the engine. ates by taking n moles of diatomic
. body at a temperature of 25.0°C. Whatp is the change 2 in entropy
3 of
20.42 Heat Pump. A heat pump is a heat engine run in reverse. ideal gas through the cycle 2p0
Section 20.6 The Carnot Cycle this body? (c) What is the total change in entropy of the water and
In winter it pumps heat from the cold air outside into the warmer air 1 S 2 S 3 S 4 S 1 shown in
20.13 . inside
A Carnot engine maintaining
the building, whose high-temperature
the building at areservoir comfortable is at
tem- theFig. heatP20.46?
source?
620 K takes in 550
perature. J of heatit atpumps
In summer this temperature
heat from theincooler each cycle andthe 20.24
air inside
.
20.47 .CALC CALC You decide tocon-
A cylinder take a nice hot bath but discover that
gives upbuilding
335 J to to the low-temperature
the warmer air outside,reservoir.
acting as (a) an How much your
air conditioner. tains thoughtless
oxygen atroommate
a pressurehas ofusedp0up most of1 the hot water. You
4
mechanical (a) Ifwork does the
the outside engine in
temperature perform
winter isduring- 5.0°Ceach cycle?
and the inside fill2.00the atm.
tub with 270 kg is
The volume of4.00
30.0°CL, water and attempt to warm it fur-
 collision.
d) Find the ratio of the masses M/m in the situation. The collisions are perfectly elastic.
Fig. 5
m for as long as linear density is constant. P # O

µ
l
is the maximal M ω
Initial pressure = P0 + gh.
ssible to push in v m When the tube is falling freely, the pressure due to the mercury column

v
mal velocity of a O
4. (10 points) If a man blowing a whistle of frequency 500 Hz moves away from a stationary vanishes. Hence final pressure = P0.
friction between
PEP
observer 2017-2018
towards Phase
a fixed wall, 1 Test
in a direction 1
perpendicular to the wall at 2.00m/s, determine the beat ϕ Using the ideal gas law, pV = constant.

r
frequency heard by the stationary observer if the speed of sound in air is c=330m/s.
Hence the length of the column = L(P0 + gh)/P0
A
3
(30 points) A cylinder with a piston contains 0.25 mol of oxygen at 2.4×10 Pa and 335K initially The difference of the mercury level between the two sides
d with5. length l is PROB below.77. A ball mayfalls down from height
at point A in the figure The oxygen be treated as a diatomic ideal gas with 4 = 1.4. The = h + 2[L(P0 + gh)/P0 – L] =PROB h + 2L82.gh/PA flat board is inclined at an
0. (answer)
s thread (whose
gas first h, initially
expands isothermally thetemperature)
(constant ball’s horizontal
to point B with velocity
2 times the original volume. It angle α to the vertical. One of its ends is in
ling at point
is then cooledA. was vvolume
at constant
0 and it wasn’t rotating. a). Find the
to point C, and finally it is compressed adiabatically to its original
the water,internal
the other one is outside
volume and pressure. (The universal gas constant 5 = 8.314J/mol K) PROB 80. A block 7. Thewith mass m =
compression 10 gofisa four-cycle
ratio combustion enginethe is εwa-
= 9.5.
od rests on the velocity and the angular velocity of the ter. The board is moving with velocity
put on a board that Thehastemperatures
been made of the
suchgaseous fuel and the exhausted gas are both 27v°C.
whicha) isCompute
exactly ball
pressure after
PB after the the following
isothermal expansion collision
at B. against
heat absorbedthat, when sliding Thetovolume
the left,underthe coef- with
atmospheric respect
pressure (1 to
atmits=normal.
100 kPa)What
is V0. is
Asthe ve- in
shown
gth ofb) AB is H,
Calculate the change in the internal
the floor: theenergy,
ball’sthedeformation
work done and the against by the gas
locity of the water stream directed up the
during the isothermal expansion A®B. ficient of friction Fig. µ1 6,= 1 0,3,
→ 2while
is an adiabatic
when compression process; 2 → 3 is the combustion of
ns toc)slide from the floor
PC andwas absolutely
TC at C so elastic,
that the gasyet there board?
Compute the pressure temperature can be sliding to the right it is µ2 = 0,5. gases
compressed adiabatically the mixture of the The with doubled pressure; 3 → 4 is an adiabatic
celeration to itsof its volume
original was andfriction
pressure atat A.the contact surface such
expansion process with the volume expanded to 9.5 V0; 4 → 1 is the process of
motion.d) Compute the change that inthe
the internal energy,
thetheballworkthat
done and the heat absorbedboard
by the gasis repeatedly moved left-right ac-

u
part of was in con- opening
during the cooling process B®C. cording to the graph v(t)the(see
exhaust
fig.).valve
Theand the pressure returns to the initial value of 1 atm.
tact with the floor stopped. b) Answer
is periodic (The
with compression
period T = ratio is the ratio of the largest volume to the smallest
e) Compute the change in the internal energy, the work done and the heat absorbedgraph by the gas v
0,01 s;
the compression
during the adiabatic same question C®A. with the assumption volume of the cylinder in the engine. γ is the specific heat ratio, and since the
that the
f) What is the efficiency heat engine?of the surfaces in contact the velocity v of the board is considered
velocities
of this
v mixture of air and fuel is mainly air, you can effectively consider it as a
never homogenized and that throughout diatomic gas.)
P 1 m/s PROB 83. A motor-driven wagon is used
the collision there was friction with coeffi-
cient µ. A to transport a load horizontally by a dis-
tance L. The load is attached to the side of
uniform density isothermal the wagon by a cable of length l. Half of
expansion T/2 T t the time the wagon is uniformly acceler-
the ground and B
wall. Initially it PROB 78. Aadiabatic cooling
ated, the other half — uniformly deceler-
ball is rolling down an in- ated. Find the values of the acceleration a
liding from rest clined plane. compression C
Find the ball’s acceleration.
sequent motion The planeVis inclined at 2V V such that, upon reaching the destination,
an angle α, the
t is perpendicu- coefficient of friction between the ball and positive when directed to the right. Using the load will be hanging down motion-
of the floor and the plane is µ. lessly. You can assume that a ≪ g.
the graph, find the average velocity that
ngle between the the block will move with.
oment when the Fig. 6 A shockwave could be con-
PROB 84.
e wall? Ignore (a) Find the pressures sidered asata states
discontinuous
1, 2, 3 andjump of the air
PROB 81. A water turbine consistsandoftemperatures
pressure from value p 0 to
4.
p 1 , propagat-
(b) Find the efficiency of this cycle.
PROB 79. A hoop of mass M and radius a large number of paddles that could be ing with speed cs . Find the speed which
ass M is sliding r stands on a slippery horizontal surface. considered as light flat boards with length will be obtained, when influenced by the
(a) For diatomic gases, γ = 1.4.
ng. The velocity There is a thin slippery tunnel inside the l, that are at one end attached to a rotat- shockwave, (a) a wedge-shaped block: a
s is v, its angu- hoop, along which a tiny block of mass ing axis. The paddles’ free ends are po- prism whose height is c, whose base is a
moment when m can slide. Initially all the bodies are at sitioned on the surface of an imaginary right triangle 6 with legs a and b and which
More on Mechanics

1
N/ = PQ ( − O!Q
2
where Q is the distance bending by her knee. Since the deceleration is not more than 10!, we have
O! − PQ = −10O! ⇒ PQ = 11O!
And the conservation of energy gives
1 1
O(3)( = Q (11O!) − O!Q = 4.5O!Q
2 2
9
⇒Q= = 0.1 O
9!

2. (15 points) One of the brightest comets of the 20th century was Comet Hyakutake, which passed close
to the sun in early 1996. The orbital period of this comet is estimated to be about 30,000 years.

(a) [5] Find the semi-major axis of this comet’s orbit. Express your answer in term of the average Earth-
Sun distance S0 . You can assume the Earth is in a circular orbit around the Sun.

(b) [10] It is given that the eccentricity of the Comet Hyakutake is I ≈ 0.9999. Estimate its closest
distance to the Sun. Express your answer in term of the average Earth-Sun distance S0 .

Solution:
(a) Kepler’s 3rd law gives
U1( U0(
=