Thermodynamics

- A Course File

Prepared by the Special Academic Group

Silicon Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar.

Foreword

The idea of having course files as auxiliary material that complement classroom lectures has been
around for a few years. After lots of deliberations, conceiving, planning and organizing the idea was
translated in to action.

The completion of this work of course-file preparation was possible due to significant efforts of
several individuals. The Special Academic Group (SAG) was formed for the sole purpose of
preparing course files in the subjects of Thermodynamics, Mechanics, Fluid Mechanics & Machines,
Materials Science and Environmental Engineering & Safety. SAG comprised of faculty members
from the Department of Basic Sciences and Humanities, who had previously taught one or more of
these subjects. They were, in no particular order, Dr. Jayashree Das, Ms. Subhashree Prusty, Mr.
Manas Ranjan Singh, Mr. Subrat Kumar Sahu, Dr. Gitisudha Giri, Dr. Siba Sankar Nayak, Mr.
Manoranjan Behera, Mr. Himansu Bhushan Nanda, Mr. Bipin Bihari Tripathy, Mr. Prabhu Kalyan
Mohapatra and Mr. Bibhas Ranjan Sahu. I was asked to oversee their efforts and completion of the
task in a timely manner. The task was extensive, and the group worked diligently for one year to
successfully accomplish it. I take this opportunity to thank all the members of SAG for a job well
done. I would also like to thank Mr. Sujit Jena, Mr. Mahesh Behera and Mr. Bijay Kumar Sahoo, for
their arduous efforts in converting large portions of hand-written manuscripts to legible typed form.

I sincerely hope that these files come in handy, primarily for the students. It is a readily available
additional resource prepared in accordance with the BPUT syllabus, to complement textbooks and
classroom lectures. It can and should be utilized to the fullest extent. If there are any errors, I would
be grateful if they are brought to my notice so that we can correct them in subsequent versions.

Dr. Jaideep Talukdar

Silicon Institute of Technology
Bhubaneswar
July 2014
Q.1:- What is thermodynamics?

Ans:- Thermodynamics is the branch of science that deals with:

 Energy and its transformation

 Feasibility of a process, and

 Equilibrium processes

Q.2:-What do you understand by macroscopic and microscopic view points?

Ans:-

Macroscopic approach Microscopic approach

(classical thermodynamics) (statistical thermodynamics)
1. It is concerned with overall behaviour. 1. It is concerned directly with structure
of matter.
2. Only a few variables are used to 2. A large number of variables are
describe the state of the matter. required for a complete specification of
3. The values of the variables are easily the state of the matter.
measurable. 3. The values of the variables can’t be
4. The structure of the matter is not measured easily and precisely.
considered. 4. The knowledge of structure of the
matter is essential.

Q.3:- Define a system, surrounding and boundary. What are the different types of
systems?

Ans:- A system is a region under consideration. Anything external to the system is

called surrounding. The real or imaginary line which separates the system
from the surrounding is called boundary.
Types of systems

System

Open system Closed system Isolated system

both mass and energy only mass interaction
no interaction between
interaction between between system and
system and surrounding
system and surrounding surrounding

Closed system

Open system
Isolated system

Q.4:- Define property. What are intensive and extensive properties?

Ans:- A measurable quantity that defines the condition of a system is called property.
Examples are temperature, pressure, mass, volume, density, etc.

Properties are of two types:- intensive and extensive properties.

Extensive property(extrinsic) Intensive properties(intrinsic)

1. Changes with mass 1. Independent of mass
2. Its value for an overall system is sum of 2. Its value remains the same whether
its values for the parts into which the one considers the whole system or only a
system is divided part of it
3. Are additive in nature
4.Volume(V), internal energy(U), 3. Are non additive in nature
enthalpy(H),entropy(S), K.E(1/2 mv2), 4. temperature(T), pressure(P), density(ρ)
P.E(mgh), electric charge and all specific extensive properties like
specific volume(v), specific enthalpy(h),
specific entropy(s)and specific internal
energy(u).
Q.5:- Which type of differential equation do properties belong to? Write the
condition for exact differential equation?

Ans:- Properties are exact differential equation.

If z = z(x,y), then dz  Mdx  Ndy

 M   N 
dz is an exact differential equation if     
 y  x  x  y

Q.6:- Define state, path, process and cycle.

Ans:- If the properties of a system have a definite value, the system is said to exist in
a definite state.

Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called
a process.
The series of states through which a system passes during a process is called a path.

If a system undergoes a series of processes and the initial and final states are
identical, the system is said to undergo a cyclic process.

Q.7:- What do you mean by homogeneous and heterogeneous systems?

Ans:- Every system can exist in any one of the three phases , viz. solid, liquid and gas.
A system consisting of a single phase is called a homogeneous system, while a system
consisting of more than one phase is known as heterogeneous system.

Q.8:- What do you understand by thermodynamic equilibrium?

Ans:- Thermodynamic equilibrium: No unbalance exists in the system, and values of

properties (T, P etc.) remain the same when it is isolated from the surroundings.

Thermal equilibrium: temperature of system does not change when it is isolated from
surroundings

Mechanical equilibrium: pressure of system does not change when it is isolated from
surroundings

Chemical equilibrium: chemical composition does not change when it is isolated from
surroundings

Q.9:- What is quasi-static process? What is its characteristic feature?

Ans:- The system is very near to equilibrium in all successive states during a quasi-
static process. Infinite slowness is the characteristic feature of this process. It is an
idealized process but many processes closely approximate it with negligible error.
Quasi-equilibrium work producing devices deliver the most work (it is the standard to
which other processes can be compared).
Q.10:- What is the concept of continuum?

Ans:-

 The concept of continuum assumes a continuous distribution of mass within

the system with no empty space.

 In this approach, properties of a system can be expressed as continuous

functions of space and time.

 The concept of continuum usually holds good when Knudsen number(K n)

<0.01


Kn 
L

Where,  = mean free path which is statistical average distance the molecules
travel between two successive collisions.

L = characteristic length in flow domain

Q.11:- What is the relationship between gauge pressure, absolute pressure and
atmospheric pressure?

Ans:-
In thermodynamics we use absolute pressure (P) ,devices or instruments measure
gauge pressure (Pg) which is the pressure above or below the atmospheric pressure
(Patm or P0).

P  Patm  Pg where Patm  P0  101.325 kPa above sea level.

Q.12:- Classify the following properties of a system into extensive, intensive and non
thermal properties: volume, specific volume, pressure, temperature, density, internal
energy, time, length, enthalpy, specific enthalpy, entropy, specific entropy

Ans:-

Extensive properties Intensive properties Non thermal properties

Volume, internal energy, Pressure, temperature, Time, length
length, enthalpy, entropy density, specific volume,
specific enthalpy, specific
entropy

Q.13:- An equation of state gives one of the following expressions for the differential
of pressure. Identify the correct expression.

2v  b  v  b  dT
2
dP  dv 
RT RT 2
 RT R
dP   dv  dT
v  b  2
vb

Ans:- hint -(test the exactness of P)

Q.14:- Differentiate between reversible process and irreversible process.

Ans:-

Reversible process Irreversible process

1. Both the system and surrounding are 1. The system cant return to the initial
returned to their initial states at the end state by the same path.
of the process. 2. System passes through a series of non-
2. System passes through a continuous equilibrium states.
series of equilibrium states.

Q.15:- What are the causes of irreversibility?

Ans:- Irreversibility is due to the following :

1. Lack of equilibrium, due to

 Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference

 Lack of pressure equilibrium within the interior of the system or

between the system and the surroundings

 Free expansion

2. Involvement of dissipative effects

 Friction

 Paddle wheel work transfer

 Transfer of electricity through a resistor

Q.16:- What is hydrostatic pressure?

Ans:- The pressure exerted by a water column is called hydrostatic pressure. It is
equal to the force due to the weight of the fluid column per unit area.

Mg Vg Azg
P    gz
A A A

P  gz

Where, A  cross-sectional area of the water column

z  height of column

  density of the fluid

Centigrade and Fahrenheit Scales

On both these scales, the ice point (equilibrium temperature of ice and air saturated
pure water) and the steam point (equilibrium temperature of pure water and water
vapour) at one standard atmospheric pressure are used as fixed points.

Let these temperatures be represented by t i and ts and the corresponding thermometric

properties be xi and xs; the suffix I and s refer to ice point and steam point respectively.
Considering linear correlation, t = ax + b , between the temperature t and thermometric
property x, we obtain

ti  axi  b and ts  axs  b

t s  ti t t
Or a  and b  ti  s i xi
xs  xi xs  xi

t s  ti t t
t  x  ti  s i xi
xs  xi xs  xi

x  xi
 ti  (ts  ti )  ……..(2.1)
xs  xi

The centigrade scale, abbreviated 0C to ice point and 1000C to steam point and the
interval between these points is divided into 100 equal parts. Thus in centigrade scale
ti  00 C and (ts  ti )  1000 C and accordingly equation 2.1 takes the form;

x  xi
tC  100 ……(2.2)
xs  xi

The corresponding values on Fahrenheit scale, abbreviated 0F, are 320F and 2120F with
the interval divided into 180 equal parts. That gives;

x  xi
t F  32  180 ………(2.3)
xs  xi

From equations 2.2. and 2.3. the following correlation can be established between
temperatures measured on Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales;

tC t  32 5
 F or tC  (t F  32) ………(2.4)
100 180 9

The use of ice point and steam point as fixed points is considered unsatisfactory
because;
(i)it is difficult to achieve and maintain equilibrium between pure ice and ice and air
saturated water,

(ii)the steam point is extremely sensitive to changes in pressure.

Kelvin and Rankine Absolute Scales

Thermodynamically there is a condition of no molecular activity and hence no heat

content in a body. The temperature at this condition is the lowest temperature possible
and is referred to as absolute zero. On Kelvin and Rankine scales the absolute
temperature is hypothetically placed at –273.160C and –459.67 0F.

Thermodynamic Scale

The efficiency of an ideal engine operating on the Carnot cycle between any two
temperature is given by

Ti  T2 Q1  Q2
  ……. (2.6)
T1 Q1

Where Q1 represents the heat absorbed at temperature T 1 and Q2 represents the heat
rejected at temperature T2. This identity may be rewritten as

T1 Q1
 ………(2.6a)
T2 Q2

The above expression forms the basis of a thermodynamic temperature scale devised
by Lord Kelvin. This expression states that “ the ratio of any two temperatures on the
Kelvin or thermodynamic scale is equal to the ratio of the heat absorbed to the heat
rejected by a Carnot engine operating between those temperature.”

The Kelvin temperature scale is completely defined if a number is selected to describe

the temperature of a chosen fixed point. At the tenth conference of weights and
Measures held in 1954, the fixed point was chosen as the triple point of water. The triple
point refers to the state at which all the three phases

Temperature And Zeroth Law Of Thermodynamics - The Ideal Gas Thermometer

The Ideal Gas Thermometer

The ideal gas thermometer includes an extrapolation of answers to zero pressure at which all gases behave as
ideal gases. The figure shown below illustrates a gas thermometer. It consists necessarily of a glass bulb
associated to a U-tube having liquid like, for illustration, mercury. A “permanent” gas (example, nitrogen,
oxygen, hydrogen) is surrounded within the bulb and the joining flexible tube by the mercury, the other limb of
the U-tube being open to the environment. Throughout the experiments, the bulb is located in contact with
systems at various temperatures, and the level of the mercury can be accustomed to deep either the volume or
the pressure of the gas constant

Figure: Constant-Volume Gas Thermometers

Let consider operation as constant-volume gas thermometer. In order to set up the temperature scale, we note
down the difference in the right-hand meniscus level (i.e., indicative of the gas pressure) at the two set points,
keeping the mercury level in the left-hand limb, therefore the gas volume, constant in each situation. A gas
thermometer Celsius scale is stated by assigning 0 and 100 to the ice and steam points, with 100 equivalent
sub-divisions among them. Such linear scale in gas pressure p may be stated as follows:

pS = pi (1 + α t)

Here:
pi = The gas pressure at the ice point, 0oC,
t = The “gas thermometer” Celsius temperature,
α = A constant, equivalent to (ps - pi)/ 100 pi, and
ps = The gas pressure at the steam point, 100oC.

A sequence of values of α is acquired by performing the experiments using equivalent volumes of the same
gas at gradually lower gas pressures (that is, smaller masses of gas).By plotting such values of α against pi in
each experiment, and extrapolating the curve to zero pressure, a value of α equivalent to zero pressure might
be established. In practice, α differs little with pressure.

In a similar manner, by the use of a number of various gases, a value of α equivalent to zero pressure is
acquired for each gas. The significant experimental outcome is that such values of α confirm to be similar for
every gas. The behavior of gases at very low extrapolation states the ideal-gas and the value of α so acquired
by extrapolation states the ideal gas temperature scale. The ideal gas Celsius scale is specified by :

It can be observed from the above, the extrapolated value of α equivalent to zero pressure is 1/273.15. A
corresponding equation, with similar value of α, though with volume substituting pressure, is acquired by using
the constant-pressure gas thermometer.
It can be observed from the equation that whenever the pressure p is zero, t = − 273.15 oC on the ideal gas
Celsius scale.

In addition to give us with a more acceptable idea of temperature, the Kelvin (and Rankine) scales point out a
very significant feature: only positive absolute temperatures are stated. Negative Kelvin (or Rankine)
temperatures do not survive. It is for this purpose that such scales are termed as absolute. As a matter of fact
the zero point on such scales is termed as the absolute zero to differentiate it from the zero points on the
Fahrenheit (and Celsius) scales.
Q- 1 Write short notes on reversible and irreversible process.
Ans: A process whose direction can be changed by an infinitesimal change in the external
conditions is called reversible process. Consider an example as shown in figure. Any change
in the system is due to the motion of the piston. For any initial point on the P-V diagram, if
the application of an infinitesimal force causes the piston to move slowly to an adjacent
position still on the curve, then the process is reversible since energy has not been dissipated.
The removal of the infinitesimal force will cause the system to return to its original state.
On the other hand, if there is friction during the motion of the piston, then deviations occur
from the P-V diagram as shown in figure by a cycle. An infinitesimal force cannot move
the piston because energy is dissipated due to friction (as given by the area within the cycle).
Such a process, which involves the dissipation of energy, is known as irreversible process.

(Fig. 1: The curve represents the variation in pressure within the cylinder as
the volume of the ideal gas is altered by positioning the frictionless piston.
The cycle represents the dissipation of energy when the motion of the piston
causes friction.)

A reversible process is one which is performed in such a way that at the end of the process,
both the system and surroundings may be restored to their initial states, without producing
any changes in the rest of the universe.

Examples of reversible processes are:

1) Frictionless isothermal and frictionless adiabatic process.

2) Elastic stretching of a solid.

A reversible process is always a quasi-equilibrium process but the converse is not true. A
quasi-equilibrium process without friction is a reversible process. A reversible process is
possible only if the net heat and net work exchange between the system and surroundings is
zero for the combined forward and reverse process. It is carried out infinitely slowly with an
infinitesimal gradient, so that every state passed through by the system is an equilibrium
state. A reversible process which consists of a succession of equilibrium states is an idealized
hypothetical process. It is said to be an asymptote to reality.

Reasons for studying reversible process:-

  They are easy to analyse, since a system passes through a series of equilibrium states
during a reversible process.

 They serve as idealized process to which actual process can be compared.

 Reversible processes are taken for consideration because work producing devices
such as car engines, gas or steam turbines deliver the most workand work consuming
devices like compressors, fans and pumps consume the least work.

Irreversibility is due to the following :

1. Lack of equilibrium, due to

 Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference

 Lack of pressure equilibrium within the interior of the system or between the
system and the surroundings

 Free expansion

2. Involvement of dissipative effects

 Friction

 Paddle wheel work transfer

 Transfer of electricity through a resistor.

Q.2 :- Define density, specific volume, specific weight and specific gravity.

Ans:

Density : it is the ratio of mass and volume.

m 1
 
V v

Specific volume:

V
v  lim ;
V V ' M

Where, V is the small volume and V ' is the smallest volume on which we can apply
continuum model or methods.

Specific gravity= density of fluid /density of ideal fluid

Q.3 Write short notes on temperature scale.

Centigrade and Fahrenheit Scales

On both these scales, the ice point (equilibrium temperature of ice and air saturated pure
water) and the steam point (equilibrium temperature of pure water and water vapour) at one
standard atmospheric pressure are used as fixed points.

Let these temperatures be represented by ti and ts and the corresponding thermometric

properties be xi and xs; the suffix ‘i’ and ‘s’ refer to ice point and steam point respectively.
Considering linear correlation, t = ax + b , between the temperature t and thermometric
property x, we obtain

ti  axi  b and ts  axs  b

t s  ti t t
Or a  and b  ti  s i xi
xs  xi xs  xi

t s  ti t t
t  x  ti  s i xi
xs  xi xs  xi

x  xi
 ti  (ts  ti )  ……..(1.1)
xs  xi

The centigrade scale, abbreviated 0C to ice point and 1000C to steam point and the interval
between these points is divided into 100 equal parts. Thus in centigrade scale ti  00 C and
(ts  ti )  1000 C and accordingly equation 1.1 takes the form;

x  xi
tC  100 ……(1.2)
xs  xi

The corresponding values on Fahrenheit scale, abbreviated 0F, are 320F and 2120F with the
interval divided into 180 equal parts. That gives;

x  xi
t F  32  180 ………(1.3)
xs  xi

From equations 1.2 and 1.3 the following correlation can be established between
temperatures measured on Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales;

tC t  32 5
 F or tC  (t F  32) ………(1.4)
100 180 9

The use of ice point and steam point as fixed points is considered unsatisfactory because;

(i) It is difficult to achieve and maintain equilibrium between pure ice and ice and air
saturated water,

(ii) The steam point is extremely sensitive to changes in pressure.

Kelvin and Rankine Absolute Scales

Thermodynamically there is a condition of no molecular activity and hence no heat content in

a body. The temperature at this condition is the lowest temperature possible and is referred to
as absolute zero. On Kelvin and Rankine scales the absolute temperature is hypothetically
placed at –273.160C and –459.67 0F.

Thermodynamic Scale

The efficiency of an ideal engine operating on the Carnot cycle between any two temperature
is given by

Ti  T2 Q1  Q2
  ……. (1.5)
T1 Q1

Where Q1 represents the heat absorbed at temperature T1 and Q2 represents the heat rejected
at temperature T2. This identity may be rewritten as

T1 Q1
 ………(1.6)
T2 Q2

The above expression forms the basis of a thermodynamic temperature scale devised by Lord
Kelvin. This expression states that “the ratio of any two temperatures on the Kelvin or
thermodynamic scale is equal to the ratio of the heat absorbed to the heat rejected by a Carnot
engine operating between those temperatures.”

The Kelvin temperature scale is completely defined if a number is selected to describe the
temperature of a chosen fixed point. At the tenth conference of weights and Measures held in
1954, the fixed point was chosen as the triple point of water. The triple point refers to the
state at which all the three phases (solid, liquid and gas) co exists. Triple point was
arbitrarily assigned a value of 273.16. It was the single fixed point. by taking directly
T x
proportional unit t  ax we can have the expression for expansion  XXtp  T  Ttp
Ttp xtp

Where Ttp the triple is point of water on absolute scale and X tp is the value of the
thermometric property at this point.

Q-4: Write short note on Constant volume gas thermometer.

The figure shown below illustrates a gas thermometer. It consists necessarily of a glass bulb
associated to a U-tube having liquid like mercury. A “permanent” gas (example, nitrogen,
oxygen, hydrogen) is surrounded within the bulb and the joining flexible tube by the mercury,
the other limb of the U-tube being open to the environment. Throughout the experiments, the
bulb is adjusted to get either the volume or the pressure of the gas constant.
 In order to set up the temperature scale, we note down the difference in the right-hand
meniscus level (i.e., indicative of the gas pressure) at the two set points, keeping the mercury level
in the left-hand limb, therefore the gas volume constant in each situation.

Let initial pressure was ‘ P1 ’

After thermal equilibrium with the system the temperature of the gas in the bulb increases so
the gas expands and the mercury column moves down below the meniscus level in left side,
then the flexible tube can be adjusted so that the mercury column moves back to the meniscus
level and the new pressure reading can be taken from the difference in the right-hand
meniscus level. By knowing the change in pressure P the change in temperature T can be
calculated by following

V
T  P
R

Q-5 Write short notes on ideal gas temperature scale

An iId Consider a constant volume thermometer as shown in figure

The bulb is placed in the system whose temperature is to be measured. The mercury
column is so adjusted that the level of mercury stands at the reference mark S. This ensures
that the volume of the gas is held at a constant value. Let the pressure of the gas be read
as P. Let a similar measurement be made when the gas bulb is maintained at the triple
point of water, Ptp
Th triple point of water has been assigned a value of 273.16 K. Since for an ideal
gas T varies as P ,

or,

where Ttp is the triple point temperature of water.

Suppose a series of measurements with different amounts of gas in the bulb are made. The
measured pressures at the triple point as well as at the system temperature change
depending on the amount of gas in the bulb. A plot of the temperature Tcal, calculated from
the expression T = 273.16 ( P/ P tp ) as a function of the pressure at the triple point, results
in a curve as shown in figure 5.5.
When these curves are extrapolated to zero pressure, all of them yield the same intercept.
This behavior can be expected since all gases behave like ideal gas when their pressure
approaches zero. The correct temperature of the system can be obtained only when the gas
behaves like an ideal gas, and hence the value is to be calculated in limit Ptp 0.
Therefore

  P 
T  lim Ptp  0273.16 
  P 
 tp 

Constant pressure thermometer also can be used to measure the temperature. In that case,

  V 
T  lim Ptp  0273.16 
 V 
  tp 

Here Vtp is the volume of the gas at the triple point of water and V is the volume of the gas
at the system temperature.

Q-6 Write the working principle of thermocouple.

A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metal wires. They are joined together at one
end. This junction is called sensing or hot junction. The two wires are terminated at the
other end. This junction is called reference or cold junction. The cold junction is
maintained at a known constant temperature called as reference temperature.

The scientist Thomson sees back discovered that, when a temperature difference
exists between the sensing and reference function, an emf is produced. This emf causes a
current in the circuit. When a meter or recorder is connected to the reference junction, the
meter indication will be proportional to the temperature difference between the hot
junction and reference junction. This thermo-electric effect caused by contact potential at
the junction is known as the “See back effect”.
 QUESTIONS ON MANOMETER
1) Write the standard atmospheric pressure in kN/m2, bar, mm of Hg and mm
of H2O.
2) A manometer attached to a vessel containing a fluid gives a reading of 5 cm
of mercury (f = 13600 kg/m3). What will be the manometer reading if water
(f = 1000 kg/m3) is used as the manometric fluid?
3) A gas flows in a pipe fitted with a U– tube manometer with water as the
manometric fluid. The manometer shows a reading of 5cm, while the
atmospheric pressure is 1 bar. If density of water is taken as 1000 kg/m3,
what are the gage and absolute pressure of the flowing gas?
4) A manometer using mercury (density = 13600 kg/m3 as the manometric
fluid gives a reading of 2 cm when attached to a vessel containing a gas. If
the local atmospheric pressure is 1 bar, what are the gage and absolute
pressure of the gas in the vessel?
5) What is the standard atmosphere (in meter) when measured by ammonia
column. (Density of ammonia=600 kg/m3).
6) A U tube manometer filled with water shows a height difference of 25 cm.
What is the gage pressure? If the right branch is tilted to make an angle of
30o with the horizontal. What should be the length of the column in the
tilted tube relative to the U-tube.
7) The absolute pressure of the gas in the container is 110kPa. The local
atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa. The manometric fluid is mercury whose
density is 13600 kg/m3. What reading will the manometer will show in cm
of Hg?
8) Convert the following readings of pressure to kPa when barometer reads
760mm of Hg.
(i) 90 cm of Hg gauge
(ii) 40 cm Hg Vacuum
(iii) 1.2 m of water gauge
9) A vacuum gauge mounted on a condenser reads 0.66 m of Hg. What is the
absolute pressure in the condenser in kPa when the atmospheric pressure is
101.3 kPa?
10) Convert 40 cm Hg Vacuum to absolute pressure in kPa when barometer
reading is 760 mm of Hg.
11) A turbine is supplied with steam at a gauge pressure of 1.4 MPa. After
expansion in the turbine the steam flows into condenser which is
maintained at a vacuum of 710mm of Hg. The barometric pressure is 772
mm of Hg. Express the inlet and exhaust steam pressures in Pascals
(absolute).
 Pure Substance

Q. 1 Define pure substance with Examples. Mixture of ice and water can be treated as a pure substance or
not?

Ans.- A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a pure substance such as
water, air, and nitrogen. Yes mixture of ice and water can be treated as a pure substance as chemical
composition throughout is same H2O.
Q.2 Define Phase. What are the principal phases of a pure substance?
A phase is defined as having a distinct molecular arrangement that is homogenous throughout and
separated from others by easily identifiable boundary surfaces. Solid, liquid and gas.
Q.3 Explain the phase change process of Water.
Consider a process that a pure substance starts as solid and is heated up at constant pressure until it all
becomes as gas. Depending on the pressure and temperature, the matter will pass through various phase
transformations.
1. Solid
2. Mixed phase of liquid and solid
3. Sub-cooled or compressed liquid (means it is not about to vaporize)
4. Saturated Liquid (about to vaporize)
5. Wet vapor or saturated liquid-vapor mixture, the temperature will stop rising until the liquid is
completely vaporized.
5. Saturated vapor (about to condense)
6. Superheated vapor (a vapor that is not about to condense).
T-V diagram for the heating process of a pure substance
- At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance starts boiling is called the saturation
temperature, Tsat.
- Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance starts boiling is called the
saturation pressure, Psat.
-During a phase-change process, pressure and temperature are dependent properties, T sat = f (Psat).
-The critical point is the point at which the liquid and vapor phases are not distinguishable
-The “triple point” is the point at which the liquid, solid, and vapor phases can exist together. On P-v or
T-v diagrams, these triple-phases states form a line called the triple line.
For water like substance (which expands on freezing) saturated solid line comes after sat rated liquid
line (fusion line) with respect to solidification.

Critical and triple point for water and oxygen

The general shape of a P-v diagram for a pure substance is very similar to that of a T-v diagram.

The P-T or Phase Change Diagram

This is called phase diagram since all three phases are separated from each other by three lines. Most of
pure substances exhibit the same behavior.
-One exception is water. Water expands upon freezing.

There are two ways that a substance can pass from solid phase to vapor phase i)it melts first into a liquid
and subsequently evaporates, ii) it evaporates directly without melting (sublimation).
-the sublimation line separates the solid and the vapor.
- the vaporization line separates the liquid and vapor regions
-the melting or fusion line separates the solid and liquid.
-these three lines meet at the triple point.
- if P<PTP , the solid phase can change directly to a vapor phase
-at P<PTP the pure substance cannot exist in the liquid phase. Normally (P>PTP ) the substance melts into
a liquid and then evaporates.
-matter (like CO2) which has a triple point above 1 atm sublimate under atmospheric conditions (dry ice)
-for water (as the most common working fluid) we are mainly interested in the liquid and vapor regions.
Hence, we are mostly interested in boiling and condensation

Q-4 What is the use steam table and what assumption has been taken while designing it?
In steam table relationships among thermodynamic properties of water is given in tabular form. Properties
of saturated liquid, vapor and superheated vapor are given in steam table. The internal energy of saturated
water at triple point is arbitral chosen to be zero, entropy is zero and enthalpy is slightly positive.

The subscript “f” is used to denote properties of a saturated liquid and “g” for saturated vapor. Another
subscript, “fg”, denotes the difference between the saturated vapor and saturated liquid values of the same
property.
For example:
vf = specific volume of saturated liquid
vg = specific volume of saturated vapor
vfg = difference between vg and vf ( vfg = vg – vf)

Enthalpy of vaporization (or latent heat): represents the amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit
mass of saturated liquid at a given temperature or pressure. It decreases as the temperature or pressure
increase, and becomes zero at the critical point.

Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture

During vaporization, a mixture of part liquid part vapor exists. To analyze this mixture, we need to know
the proportions of the liquid and vapor in the mixture. The ratio of the mass of vapor to the mass of the
total mixture is called quality, x:
Saturated liquid-vapor mixture is treated as a combination of two sub-systems (two phases). The
properties of the “mixture” are the average properties of the saturated liquid-vapor mixture.

As Vf is very small in comparison to Vg so V of the mixture can be also calculated as

Vave= xVg

Similarly

save= sf + xsfg
For a mixture of saturated vapor and saturated liquid
vf<vave<vg
hf<have<hg
sf<save<sg
uf<uave<ug
Superheated Vapor
Superheated region is a single phase region (vapor only), temperature andpressure are no longer
dependent.
If T>> Tcritical or P<<Pcritical, then the vapor can be approximated as an “ideal gas”.
v>vg
h>hg
s>sg
u>ug
Compressed (or Sub-cooled) Liquid
The properties liquid are relatively independent of pressure (incompressible). A general approximation is
to treat compressed liquid as saturated liquid at the given temperature.
v<vf
h<hf
s<sf
u<ug
 Ideal-Gas
Q-1 Define Ideal gas, what are the assumptions made for it, what is ideal-gas equation?
An ideal gas is an imaginary substance that obeys the relation Pv = RT. It is experimentally observed that
the ideal gas closely approximate the P-v-T behavior of real gases at low densities.

The assumption of ideal gas relation implies that:

- the gas particles take up negligible volume
- the intermolecular potential energy between particles is small
-particles act independent of one another

Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and specific volume of a substance is called an
equation of state.
The simplest and best known equation of state for substances in the gas phase is the ideal-gas equation of
state.
All gas behaves as ideal gas at high temperature and low pressure.(when the temperature is greater than
the critical temperature and pressure is less than the critical pressure) .

Pv = RT

Where R is the gas constant. The above equation is called the ideal-gas equation of state (ideal gas
relation). Since R is a constant, one can write for a closed mass system.

The constant R is different for each gas. Ru = 8.314 kJ / (kmol. K) is the universal gas constant, R =
Ru /µ.
The Molar mass, µ : is defined as the mass of one mole of a substance (in gmole or kgmol). The mass of a
system is equal to the product of its molar mass µ and the mole number n :
m= µn
Q-2 Define compressibility factor.

The real gases deviate from ideal gas behavior. This deviation at given temperature and pressure can be
accurately accounted for by introduction of a correction factor called the compressibility factor Z.
Z= Pv/RT or Pv= ZRT
Z = vactual / videal. Obviously, Z=1 for ideal gases
 IDEAL GAS

1) Calculate the density of air at 1 bar and at 27oC.

2) Take the molecular weight of nitrogen as 28. If the universal gas constant is

8.314 kJ/kmol-K, calculate the specific gas constant for nitrogen gas.

3) A 1m3 rigid tank contains air at 1 MPa, 400K. What is the mass of the air in
the tank? Additional air is now pumped into the tank such that the pressure
and temperature become 5 MPa and 450K. What mass of air is pumped into
the tank? If the air finally in the tank is cooled to 300K, what pressure is
attained?

4) Two tanks A and B are connected through a valve which is initially closed.
Tank A contains 3 kg of air at 2 bars and 30o C. Tank B has a volume of 1
m3and has air at 5 bars, 40oC. Now the valve has opened and remains open
until the air in both tank comes to a uniform state. Heat transfer to the
surroundings brings the final temperature to 27oC. What is the final uniform
pressure if the volume of the connecting pipes is neglected?

5) A vessel is connected to a compressed air pipe through a valve.

The volume of the vessel is 1 m3 and it initially contained air at 5 bar,

30oC. Compressed air at 10 bar flows through the pipe. Now, the valve was
opened and it remained opened until the pressure inside the vessel reached
10 bar. However, the air temperature in the vessel remained fixed at 30 oC
due to heat exchange with the surroundings. Calculate the mass of air that
entered the vessel from the pipe.

6) A vertical cylinder, fitted with a frictionless piston and a set of stops,

contains air, as shown in figure below. Cross sectional area of the piston is
0.3 m2 and the air is initially at 250kPa, 550oC. The air is then cooled as a
result of heat transfer to the ambient.

AIR
7) A cylinder/piston arrangement contains 0.5 m3 of air at 200 kPa, 250oC.
Heat transfer to the atmosphere cools the air and the piston carrying block
(as shown) comes down until it reaches the stops. The volume at the stops is
0.3 m3. What is the temperature of air when the piston just reaches the stops?
The air gets cooled further until it attains thermal equilibrium with the
atmosphere whose temperature is 25 oC. What is the final pressure of air in
the cylinder? Show the entire cooling process on a p-V diagram.

AIR

8) Two tanks, A and B having volumes as shown, are rigid and are connected
by a pipe with a valve which is initially closed. The air in A is at 2 bar, 40 oC
and the air in B is at 4 bar, 80oC. The valve is now opened and remains open
until the two tanks come to a uniform state in thermal equilibrium with the
surroundings at 30oC. Calculate the initial and final masses in A and B
assuming air to be an ideal gas.

A 4m3 B 6 m3

Valve

9) A 1m3 rigid tank with air at 1MPa, 400K is connected to an air line as shown
in fig. The valve is opened and air flows into the tank until the pressure
reaches 5MPa, at which point the valve is closed and the temperature inside
is 450K.

a) What is the mass of air in the tank before and after the process?
 b) The tank eventually cools to room temperature, 300K. What is the
pressure inside the tank then?

Air line
Tank

10) A piston/cylinder, shown in fig, contains air at 250kPa, 300 oC. The 50kg
piston has a diameter of 0.1m and initially pushes against the stops. The
atmosphere is at 100kPa and 20oC. The cylinder now cools as heat is
transferred to the ambient.

a) At what temperature does the piston begin to move down?

b) How far has the piston dropped when the temperature reaches ambient?

g
Air 25 cm

11) A rigid tank contains 9 kg of air at 140kPa and 20oC. More air is added to
the tank until the pressure and temperature rise to 250kPa and 30 oC,
respectively. Determine the amount of air added to the tank.

12) What is the mass of air contained in a room 6m x 9m x 4m if the pressure is

101kPa and temperature is 25 oC? Consider air as an ideal gas with a
molecular weight of 29.
 AIR- STEAM MIXTURE

1) A container is filled with a mixture of air and wet steam at a temperature of

39oC and pressure of 100kPa. The temperature is then raised to 120.23oC,
steam remaining wet. Determine

a) Initial partial pressure of steam and air.

b) Final partial pressure of steam and air.

c) Total pressure in the container after heating.

2) A cylinder contains a mixture of air and wet steam at a pressure of 130

kN/m2 (kPa) and temperature of 76oC with a dryness fraction of 0.92. The
air-steam mixture is then compressed to one-fifth of its original volume,
final temperature being 120.23o. Determine the final pressure in the cylinder.

a) Final pressure in the cylinder.

b) Final dryness fraction of the steam.

3) A vacuum gauge on a condenser reads 660mm of mercury and barometer

reading is 765 mm of mercury. Steam enters the condenser with a dryness
fraction of 0.8 and has a temperature of 41.5 oC. Determine the partial
pressure of air and steam in the condenser. If the steam is condensed at a rate
of 1500kg/hr; determine the mass of air which will be associated with this
steam.

4) A vessel of 0.3 m3 capacity contains a mixture of air and steam which is 0.75
dry. If the pressure is 7bar and temperature is 116.9oC. Calculate the mass of

a) Water present

b) Mass of dry saturated vapor.

c) Mass of air.

5) A condenser deals with 900kg of steam per hour with dryness fraction 0.9
and temperature 45.8oC. Air associated with this steam in the condenser is
225kg/hr. Barometric height is 760 mm of mercury. Determine vacuum
gauge reading in mm of mercury.
6) A closed vessel of volume 3m3 contains air saturated with water vapor at
38oC and vacuum pressure of 660 mm of mercury. Vacuum falls to 560
mm of mercury and temperature falls to 26.7oC. Calculate the mass of air
that has leaked in and quantity of vapor that has condensed.

Patm = 760 mm of Hg.

7) The air in the cylinder fitted with a piston is saturated with water vapor. The
volume is 0.3m3 and pressure is 3.5 bar and temperature is 60.1oC. Mixture
is compressed to 5.5 bar, temperature remaining constant. Calculate

a) Mass of air and vapor present initially.

b) Mass of vapor condensed on compression.

 THERMODYNAMICS ASSIGNMENT
PURE SUBSTANCE AND IDEAL GAS

Q.1. Determine the temperature and quality (if defined) for water at a
pressure of 300 kPa and at each of these specific volumes.

a. 0.5 m3/kg.

b. 1.0 m3/kg.

Q.2. Fill out the following table for substance water.

P[kPa] T[0C] v[m3/kg] x

a. 500 20

b. 500 0.2

c. 1400 200

d. 300 0.8

3. For water at 100 kPa with a quality of 10%. Find the volume fraction of
vapor. Ans. 0.9945

4. Water at 1200C with a quality of 25% has its temperature raised 200C in a
constant volume process. What is the new quality and pressure?
Ans: 0.4385, 361.3 kPa

5. Water at 1200C , 200 kPa with a quality of 25% has its temperature
raised 200 C in a constant pressure process. What is the new quality and
volume? Ans: Undefined 0.9427 m3/kg.

6. A sealed rigid vessel has volume of 1m3 and contains 2kg of water at
1000 C. The vessel is now heated. If a safety pressure valve is installed at
what pressure should the valve be set to have a maximum temperature
of 2000C? Ans: 431.3 kPa

7. A 1.8 m3 rigid tank contains steam at 2200C. One third of the volume is in
the liquid phase and the rest is in the vapor form. Determine (a) the
pressure of the steam, (b) the quality of the saturated mixture and (c)
the density of the mixture. Ans : (a) 2320 kPa (b) 0.0269 (c) 287.8
8. Water is being heated in a vertical piston-cylinder device. The piston has
a mass of 20 kg and and a cross-sectional area of 100 cm2. If the local
atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. Determine the temperature at which
the water starts boiling. Ans : 104.70C

9. A rigid tank with a volume of 2.5 m 3 contains 15 kg of saturated liquid-

vapour mixture of water at 750C. Now the water is slowly heated.
Determine the temperature at which the liquid in the tank is completely
vaporized. Also show the process on a T-v diagram with respect to
saturation lines. Ans: 1870C.

10. A 0.15 m3 rigid tank contains 2 kg of water at 150 kPa. Determine (a) the
temperature (b) the mass of each phase of water.

11. Saturated liquid water at 600C is put under pressure to decrease the
volume by 1% keeping the temperature constant. To what pressure
should it be compressed? Ans: 23.8 MPa

12. Saturated water vapor at 200 kPa is in a constant pressure piston

cylinder. At this state the piston is 0.1 m from the cylinder bottom. How
much is this distance if the temperature is changed to (a) 200 0C and (b)
1000C. Ans: 0.12 m. (b) 0.00011 m

13. You want a pot of water to boil at 1050C. How heavy a lid should you put
on the 15 cm-diameter pot when Patm = 101 kPa? Ans: 35.7 kg.

14. A water storage tank contains liquid and vapor in equilibrium at 1100C.
The distance from the bottom of the tank to the liquid level is 8 m. What
is the absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank? Ans: 217.88 kPa.

15. Two tanks are connected as shown in Fig. both containing water. Tank A
is at 200 kPa. V = 0.5 m3/kg. VA = 1 m3 and tank B contains 3.5 kg at 0.5
MPa. 4000C. The valve is now opened and the two come to a uniform
state. Find the final specific volume. Ans: 0.5746

16. Saturated water vapor at 600C has its pressure decreased to increase the
volume by 10% keeping the temperature constant. To what pressure
should it be expanded? Ans: 18.9 kPa

17. A piston – cylinder device contains 0.1 m3 of liquid water and 0.9 m3 of
water vapour in equilibrium at 800 kPa. Heat is transferred at constant
pressure unitl the temperature reaches 3500C.
 (a) What is the initial temperature of the water? 170.410C

(b) Determine the total mass of the water. 93.45 kg

(c) Calculate the final volume. 33.12 m3

(d) Show the process on a p-v diagram with respect to saturation

lines.

18. A piston-cylinder device contains 0.8 kg of steam at 3000C and 1 MPa.

Steam is cooled at constant pressure until one-half of the mass
condenses.

(a) Show the process on a T-v diagram.

(b) Find the final temperature. 179.880 C

(c) Determine the volume change. –0.1282 m3

19. Superheated water vapor at 1.4 MPa and 2500 C is allowed to cool at
constant volume until the temperature drops to 120 0C. At the final state.
Determine (a) the pressure (b) quality: Show the process on a T-v
diagram with respect to saturation lines.

20. A 0.3 –m3 rigid vessel initially contains saturated liquid – vapour mixture
of water at 1500 C. The water is now heated until it reaches the critical
state. Determine the mass of the liquid water and the volume occupied
by the liquid at the initial state. Ans: 96.10 kg, 0.105 m3

21. A piston – cylinder device initially contains steam at 3.5 MPa,

superheated by 50 C, Now, steam loses heat to the surroundings and the
piston moves down hitting a set of stops at which point the cylinder
contains saturated liquid water. The cooling continues until the cylinder
contains water at 2000 C. Determine (a) the initial temperature, (b) the
enthalpy change per unit mass of the steam by the time the piston first
hits the stops and (c) the final pressure and the quality (if mixture).
Ans : 247.60 C, – 1771 kj/kg, 1555 kPa, 0.0006.

22. A pressure cooker (closed tank ) contains water at 1000 C with the liquid
volume being 1/10 of the vapor volume . It is heated until the pressure
reaches 2.0 MPa. Find the final temperature. Has the final state more or
less vapor than the initial state? Ans: 212.40 C.
23. A 4 – L rigid tank contains 2 kg of saturated liquid – vapor mixture of
water at 500 C. The water is now slowly heated until it exists in a single
phase. At the final state, will the water be in the liquid phase or the
vapor phase? What would your answer be if the volume of the tank
were 400 L instead of 4 L? Ans:Liquid , Vapor

24. A rigid tank of 1 m3 contains nitrogen gas at 600 kPa, 400 K. By mistake
someone lets 0.5 kg flow out. If the final temperature is 375 K what is
the final pressure? Ans: 506. 9 kPa

25. A 1 m3 rigid tank has air at 1500 kPa and ambient 300 K connected by a
valve to a piston cylinder. The piston of area 0.1 m2 requires 250 kPa
below it to float. The valve is opened and the piston moves slowly 2m up
and the valve is closed. During the process air temperature remans at
300 K. What is the final pressure in the tank? Ans: 1450 kPa

26. A 1 –m3 rigid tank with air at 1 MPa, 400 K is connected to an air line as
shown in fig. The valve is opened and air flows into the tank until the
pressure reaches 5 MPa, at which point the valve is closed and the
temperature inside is 450 K.

(a) What is the mass of air in the tank before and after the process?

(b) The tank eventually cools to room temperature, 300 K, What is the
pressure inside the tank then?

27. A piston / cylinder arrangement, shown in fig,. contains air at 250 kPa,
3000 C. The 50 –kg piston has a diameter of 0.1 m and initially pushes
against the stops. The atmosphere is at 100 kPa and 200 C. The cylinder
now cools as heat is transferred to the ambiet.

(a) At what temperature does the piston begin to move down?

Ans: 372.5 K

(b) How far has the piston dropped when the temperature reaches
ambient? Ans : 0.053 m

28. Air in a tank is at 1 MPa and room temperature of 20 0 C. It is used to fill

an initially empty balloon to a pressure of 200 kPa, at which point the
radius is 2 m and the the temperature is 200 C. Assume the pressure in
the balloon is linearly proportional to its radius and that the air in the
tank also remains at 200 C throughout the process. Find the mass of air
 in the balloon and the minimum required volume of the tank.
Ans : 79.66 kg, 8.377 m3

29. The pressure gage on a 2.5 m3 oxygen tank reads 500 kPa. Determine
the amount of oxygen in the tank if the temperature is 28 0 C and the
atmospheric pressure is 97 kPa.

30. A 1 –m3 tank containing air at 250 C and 500 kPa is connected through a
valve to another tank containing 5 kg of air at 350 C and 200 kPa. Now
the valve is opened and the entire system is allowed to reach thermal
equilibrium with the the surroundings, wich are at 200 C. Determine the
volume of the second tank and the final equilibrium pressure of air.

31. A rigid tank contains 9 kg of air at 140 kPa and 20 0 C. More air is added
to the tank until the pressure and temperature rise to 250 kPa and 300 C,
respectively. Determine the amount of air added to the tank. Ans: 6.54
kg.

Previous Year Questions

1. A sample of steam is at 5 bar, 0.7 quality and occupies a volume of 4 m 3 .

Calculate the mass of this sample of steam. [ Y-2003] [2]

2. Dry and saturated steam at 10 bar is cooled at constant volume until the
pressure becomes 1 bar. What is the quality of steam after cooling?
What are the initial and final temp. of the steam. [Y – 03] [10]

3. A liquid – vapor mixture of water is initially at a pressure of 10 bars.

When this fluid is heated at a constant volume, the process passes
through the critical point. Determine the quality at the initial state.
[Y- 04 ] [10]

4. 10 kg of water (Liquid + vapor) with a quality of 40% is contained in a

tank at 0.8 mPa.

(i) What is the temp. of this water.

(ii) What is the volume of the tank. [Y – 04] [10]

5. A container contains steam at 5 bar, 75% quality. If the volume of the

container is 1.5 m3 , what is the mass of steam in the container and what
is its temperature. [Y – 04] [4]
6. Dry and saturated steam at 10 bar is heated at constant pressure until
it’s temp becomes 2500 C . What is the change in specific entropy of
steam. [Y- 05 ] [02]

7. A rigid vessel of volume 0.03 m3 contains a mixture of water & vapor.

Upon heating the mixture passes through the critical state. Find out the
mass of the mixture. [Y – 05] [02]

8. Saturated steam at 10 bar is cooled at constant pressure until it’s

dryness fraction becomes 50% . What are the change in temp. and
specific vol. [Y-06] [02]

9. A vessel having a volume of 0.6 m3 contains 4 kg of liquid water and

vapour mixture in equilibrium at a pressure of 0.8 Mpa. Calculate.

(i) volume and mass of liquid.

(ii) volume and mass of vapour. [Y – 06 ] [04]

 WORK AND HEAT TRANSFER

Q-1. How a closed system interact with its surroundings?

system and its surroundings. Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in the form of
heat or
work. If the energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not heat, it must be work.
Q-2 Define Work.
Work is the energy transfer associated with force acting through a distance. A rising piston, a
rotating
shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system boundaries are all associated with work
interactions.
Q-3 writes the sign convention for heat and work transfer.
Sign convention: heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive; heat transfer
from a
system and work done on a system are negative.
Q-4Why heat transfer or work transfer is known as boundary phenomena?
Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system and its surroundings. Both are
recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross them. Both heat and work are boundary
phenomena.
Systems possess energy, but not heat and work.
Q-5 Heat and work are point function or path function
Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike thermodynamic properties, heat or work
has
no meaning at a state. Both are path functions (i.e. their magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the end states).
Q-5 Define work and power.
Work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance Work done per
unit mass of a system is denoted by w and is expressed as (kJ /kg).Work done per unit time is
called power and is denoted .The unit of power is kJ/s or kW
Q-6 Define heat and work transfer.
-Heat and work are the form of energy transfer.
-Heat transfer is the energy transfer due to temperature difference.
-Work is done by the system if the total effects on the surrounding can be reduced to the raising
of the weight.
-Heat and work are directional quantities; requires the specification of both the magnitude and
direction; sign convention.
-Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive; heat transfer from a system
and work done on a system are negative
Q-7 Describe various form of work
Mechanical forms of work
The work done by a constant force F on a body displaced a distance ‘s’in the direction of the
force is given by
W = F s (kJ)
If the force F is not constant i.e. it is a function of distance, s ,then
2
W   Fds
1

Gravitational work
The work done by throwing up or down a body under gravity
2
W   mgdz
1

pdv-work
There must be force acting on the boundary and displacement of the boundary must be there.
V2

W   PdV
V1

Q-8 What are the required condition to calculate pdv-work .

-There must be force acting on the boundary.
-Displacement of the boundary must be there.
-Process must be quasi-static.
-relation between ‘p’ & ‘V’ must be known.
Q-9 Define moving boundary work and p-v digram.
- Moving boundary work is the primary form of work involved in automobile engines
- We analyze the moving boundary work for a quasi-equilibrium process, a process during
which the system remains in equilibrium at all times
- Consider the gas enclosed in the piston-cylinder device shown in Fig. The initial pressure of
the gas is ‘P’, the total volume is ‘V’ and the cross sectional area of the piston is ‘A’. If the
piston is allowed to move distance ‘dx’, the differential work done during this process is
W  force  displacement  PA  dx  P  dV
V2

W   PdV
V1

Note P is the absolute pressure, which is always positive. However, the volume change dV is
positive during an expansion process (volume increasing) and negative during a compression
process (volume decreasing).
Thus, the boundary work is positive during an expansion process and negative during a
compression process.
- Moving boundary work is also called the P dV work
P-V diagram
The total area under the process curve 1-2 ( to go from state 1 to state 2) gives the pdV work.
Q-10 Prove that work done is a path function.
A gas can follow several different paths as it (say) expands from state 1 to state 2. In
general, each path will have a different area underneath it, and since this area represents the
magnitude of work, the work done will be different for each process (i.e., it depends on
the path followed as well as the end states).

Q-11 Write the expressions for the work done is isobaric, isochoric , isothermal and adiabatic
process.

Vf

• Isobaric Process W =  PdV  P(V

Vi
f  Vi )

• Isochoric Process W = 0 as dv=0

• Isothermal Process
Vf Vf
mRT Vf
W=  PdV 
Vi
 V
Vi
dV  mRT ln
Vi
 Adiabatic process ( Q  0, PV   CONSTANT  K )
Vf Vf
K P1V1  P2V2
 PdV   V 
Vi Vi
dV 
 1
 Polytropic process PV n  CONSTANT  K
Vf Vf
K P1V1  P2V2
 PdV   V
Vi Vi
n
dV 
n 1
 THERMODYNAMICS
ASSIGNMENTS ON WORK AND HEAT

1- A constant pressure piston cylinder contains 0.2 kg water as saturated vapor at 400 kPa. It is now cooled so
the water occupies half the original volume. Find the work in the process. Ans:-18.5 kJ
2- A 400-L tank A contains argon gas at 250 kPa, 30oC. Cylinder B, having a frictionless piston of such mass that a
pressure of 150 kPa will float it, is initially empty. The valve is opened and argon flows into B and eventually
reaches a uniform state of 150 kPa, 30oC throughout. What is the work done by the argon? Ans: 40 kJ

3- A piston cylinder contains air at 600 kPa, 290 K and a volume of 0.01 m3. A constant pressure process gives 54
kJ of work out. Find the final volume and temperature of the air. Ans: 2900 K
4- Saturated water vapor at 200 kPa is in a constant pressure piston cylinder. At this state the piston is 0.1 m from
the cylinder bottom and cylinder area is 0.25 m2. The temperature is then changed to 200oC. Find the work in
the process. Ans: 1.1 kJ
5- A piston/cylinder has 5 m of liquid 20 C water on top of the piston (m = 0) with cross-sectional area of 0.1 m2.
o

Air is let in under the piston that rises and pushes the water out over the top edge. Find the necessary work to
push all the water out and plot the process in a P-V diagram. Ans: 62.88 kJ
6- A piston cylinder contains 3 kg of air at 20oC and 300 kPa. It is now heated up in a constant pressure process to
600 K.
a) Find the final volume. Ans: 1.722 m3
b) Plot the process path in a P-v diagram
c) Find the work in the process. Ans: 264.2 kJ
7- A piston cylinder contains 0.5 kg air at 500 kPa, 500 K. The air expands in a process so P is linearly decreasing
with volume to a final state of 100 kPa, 300 K. Find the work in the process. 86.1 kJ
8- A cylinder has a thick piston initially held by a pin as shown in Fig. The cylinder contains carbon dioxide at 200
kPa and ambient temperature of 290 K. The metal piston has a density of 8000 kg/m3 and the atmospheric
pressure is 101 kPa. The pin is now removed, allowing the piston to move and after a while the gas returns to
ambient temperature. Is the piston against the stops? Determine the work done by the carbon dioxide in the
cylinder during the process. Ans: 0.0427 kJ
9- Consider a mass going through a polytropic process where pressure is directly proportional to volume (n = −
1). The process start with P = 0, V = 0 and ends with P = 600 kPa, V = 0.01 m3. Find the boundary work done
by the mass. Ans: 3kJ
3
10- Helium gas expands from 125 kPa, 350 K and 0.25 m to 100 kPa in a polytropic process with n = 1.667. How
much work does it give out? Ans:4.09 kJ
11- Air goes through a polytropic process from 125 kPa, 325 K to 300 kPa and 500 K. Find the polytropic exponent
n and the specific work in the process. Ans: 1.969, -51.8 kJ/kg
12- A piston cylinder contains 0.1 kg air at 100 kPa, 400 K which goes through a polytropic compression process
with n = 1.3 to a pressure of 300 kPa. How much work has the air done in the process?
Ans: -477 kJ
13- A balloon behaves so the pressure is P = C2 V1/3 , C2 = 100 kPa/m. The balloon is blown up with air from a
starting volume of 1 m3 to a volume of 3 m3. Find the final mass of air assuming it is at 25 oC and the work done
by the air. Ans: 5.056 kg, 249.5 kJ
14- A piston/cylinder contains water at 500°C, 3 MPa. It is cooled in a polytropic process to 200°C, 1 MPa. Find
the polytropic exponent and the specific work in the process. Ans: 1.919, 155.2 kJ
15- Consider a two-part process with an expansion from 0.1 to 0.2 m3 at a constant pressure of 150 kPa followed by
an expansion from 0.2 to 0.4 m3 with a linearly rising pressure from 150 kPa ending at 300 kPa. Show the
process in a P-V diagram and find the boundary work. Ans: 60 kJ

16- A piston/cylinder arrangement shown in Fig. initially contains air at 150 kPa, 400°C. The setup is allowed to
cool to the ambient temperature of 20°C.
(a)Is the piston resting on the stops in the final state? What is the final pressure in the cylinder? 130.7kPa
(b) What is the specific work done by the air during this process? Ans: -96.6 kJ/kg
17- A piston cylinder has 1.5 kg of air at 300 K and 150 kPa. It is now heated up in a two step process. First
constant volume to 1000 K (state 2) then followed by a constant pressure process to 1500 K, state 3. Find the
final volume and the work in the process. Ans: 215.3 kJ
3
18- A piston/cylinder contains 50 kg of water at 200 kPa with a volume of 0.1 m . Stops in the cylinder restrict the
enclosed volume to 0.5 m3. The water is now heated to 200°C. Find the final pressure, volume and the work
done by the water. Ans: 1.554 MPa, 0.5 m3, 80 kJ
19- 10 kg of water in a piston cylinder arrangement exists as saturated liquid/vapor at 100 kPa, with a quality of
50%. It is now heated so the volume triples. The mass of the piston is such that a cylinder pressure of 200 kPa
will float it.
a) Find the final temperature and volume of the water. Ans: 829°C, 25.425 m3
b) Find the work given out by the water. Ans: 3390 kJ
20- A piston cylinder setup contains 0.1 kg saturated liquid and vapor water at 100 kPa with quality 25%. The mass
of the piston is such that a pressure of 500 kPa will float it. The water is heated to 300°C. Find the final
pressure, volume and the work, 1W2. Ans: 0.05226 m3, 4.91 kJ
21- A battery is well insulated while being charged by 12.3 V at a current of 6 A. Take the battery as a control mass
and find the instantaneous rate of work and the total work done over 4 hours. 1062.7 kJ
22- A current of 10 amp runs through a resistor with a resistance of 15 ohms. Find the rate of work that heats the
resistor up. Ans: 1500 W
23- Air at 200 kPa, 30°C is contained in a cylinder/piston arrangement with initial volume 0.1 m3. The inside
pressure balances ambient pressure of 100 kPa plus an externally imposed force that is proportional to V0.5.
Now heat is transferred to the system to a final pressure of 225 kPa. Find the final temperature and the work
done in the process. Ans: 258.9°C, 11.9 kJ
24- Calculate the work done for the process shown in the figure given below. [Y-03][02]

25- 5 Kg of air is compressed frictionlessly and polytropically with n = 1.3 from 1 bas, 27 0 C to 6 bar. Determine
(a) workdone [Y – 03][4]
26- A battery charge charges a 12 Volt battery by passing a current of 5 Amp through it. What is the workdone on
the battery in 1 minute? [Y-04][4].
27- Convert 9000 kj into KWh? [Y- 06] [02]
28- In a non Flow reversible process, pressure and volume relation is given by P = (V 2 + 10/V), Where ‘P’ is in bar
and ‘V’ is in m3. during the process volume changes from 2m3 to 4 m3. Determine the workdone in the process
[Y-06][5]
29- A piston cylinder assembly contains air at 200 Kpa and occupies a volume of 0.01 m3. As shown in the figure,
one end of a spring is attached to a fixed wall and other end remains initially at a distance of 2 mn from the
piston. The force exerted by the spring on the piston is proportional to the decrease in the length of the spring
from its natural length. The ambient atmospheric pressure is 100 Kpa. Now the air in the cylinder is heated till
the volume is three times to it’s initial value and at this instant the pressure of the air in the cylinder is 800 Kpa.
Calculate the workdone by the gas. Derive the formula used. [Y-07][10]
30- A 100 –kg mass drops 3m, resulting in an increased volume in the cylinder of 0.002 m3. The weight and the
piston maintain a constant gage pressure of 100 kPa. Determine the net work done by the gas on the
surroundings. Neglect all friction.

31- Six g of air is contained in the cylinder shown in Fig. The air is heated until the piston raises 50mm. The spring
just touches the piston initially. Calculate (a) the temperature when the piston leaves the stops and (b) the work
done by air on the piston.

32- Two kg of air experiences the three-process cycle shown in Fig. 3-14. Calculate the net work.

33- The force needed to compress a nonlinear spring is given by the expression F = 200x + 30x2 N, where x is the
displacement of the spring from its unstreched length measured in meters. Determine the work needed to
compress the spring a distance of 60 cm.
34- A mass of 5 kg of saturated water vapour at 300 kPa is heated at constant pressure until the temperature reaches
2000C. Calculate the work done by the steam during this process. Ans:- 165.9J
35- A piston-cylinder device contains 50 kg of water at 250 kPa and 250C. The cross-sectional area of the piston is
0.1 m2. Heat is now transferred to the water, causing part of it to evaporate and expand. When the volume
reaches 0.2 m3, the piston reaches a linear spring whose spring constant is 100 kN/m. More heat is transferred to
the water until the piston rises 20 cm more. Determine (a)the final pressure and temperature and (b) the work
done during this process. Also show the process on a P – V diagram. Ans:- (a) 450 kPa, 147.90C, (b) 44.5
Kj.

36- A piston-cylinder device contains 0.15 kg of air initially at 2 Mpa and 350 0C. The air is first expanded
isothermally to 500 kPa, then compressed polytropically with a polytropic exponent of 1.2 to the initial
pressure, and finally compressed at the constant pressure to the initial state. Determine the boundary work
for each process and the net work of the cycle.
 First Law of Thermodynamics
Q-1 State First law of Thermodynamics for a closed system undergoing a cycle.

Consider a closed system. Let it be brought to state 2 by adding some work to it by rotating the
paddle wheel, and returned to state 1 again by transferring heat to the surrounding. It has been
found that the amount of this work transferred is always proportional to heat transferred. If the
cycle involves many heat and work quantities, same result will be found. So,

Where, J is called Joule’s equivalent.

When heat and work both are measured in SI unit, value of J = 1.

This is the first law of thermodynamics for a closed system undergoing a cycle.
Q-2 Write First law of Thermodynamics for a closed system undergoing a process.

Or

Prove that Energy is a property of the system.

Consider a closed system undergoing a cycle as shown in figure.

Now for a cycle, we have

For a cycle made up of two process A and B,

Now consider another cycle using process C and B, then

similarly,

Now subtracting the second from the first equation, we get

On rearranging,

Since, A and C represents arbitrary process between states 1 and 2, the quantity is
same for all processes between states 1 and 2. Therefore, depends upon only initial
and final states, and not on the path followed, so it is a point function and differential of the
property of the mass. This property is the Energy of the mass, E.

On integration we get,

1Q2 = E2-E1 + 1W2.

This is the general expression of first law for a process.

Q-3 What are the different forms of energy?

The property E represents all the energy contained by the system at given state. It consists of
macroscopic and microscopic form of energy. Macroscopic energy includes Kinetic and
potential Energy Where as microscopic includes energy in the molecular label.

If we separate the bulk kinetic energy and potential energy for the property E, remaining all
the energy is called the internal energy U,

So, E = U + KE + PE

Q-4 Write the differential form of first law of thermodynamics.

dE = dU + d (KE) + d(PE)

So, first law for change of state may be written as

dQ = dU + d(KE) + d(PE) + dW

In absence of Kinetic and potential energy it can be written as

dQ = dU + dW

Q-4 Prove that internal energy of an ideal gas is function of temperature only.

In the setup in the fig. The valve is opened after thermal equilibrium is attained, and the gas in
the flask expands against the vacuum in flask B finally filling the both flasks. No, change in the
temperature of the bath was detected during or after the process, hence there was no heat
transfer in the process, also any work transfer.

So, from first law it can be concluded that the change in internal energy is zero.

Since there was change in pressure and volume of the system, internal energy is not the function
of these properties.

Q-5 Define enthalpy.

Or

Prove that for a constant pressure process heat transfer is equal to change in enthalpy.

Consider a control mass undergoing a Quasi-static constant- pressure process. Neglecting

change in KE and PE, we have,

For a constant pressure process

For, this very restricted case, heat transfer is given by change in the quantity U+PV between
initial and final states. Since, this combination is also a property and is defined as Enthalpy

H = U + PV

For, per unit mass,

h = u + Pv

so, for constant pressure process, heat transfer is equal to change in enthalpy.

Q-6 Prove that Enthalpy of an ideal gas is function of temperature only.

From definition of enthalpy and the equation of state for ideal gas, we can write

h = u + Pv

or, h = u + RT

Since, R is a constant and u is a function of temperature only, we have,

h = f(T)

Q-7 Define Cp and Cv in differential form of two properties.

The specific heat is defined as amount of heat required to rise the temperature of a unit mass body
through unit degree .

For constant volume process.

Since, internal energy of an ideal gas is not a function of volume, for ideal gas

du
Cv   du  CV dT
dT
u   C v dT
For constant pressure process, specific heat,

Since,enthalpy of an ideal gas is not a function of volume, for ideal gas

dh
Cp   du  C p dT
dT
h   C p dT

Q-8 Derive First law for control volume or flow process

Or

Derive SFEE.

First law analysis for a control volume

A control volume is a volume in space in which one has interest for a particular study or analysis.

Mass, heat and work can cross the control surface and the mass and its properties can change with
time in the control volume.

Conservation of mass in control volume

The rate of change of mass inside a control volume can be different from zero if we add or take a
flow of mass out as

Rate of change = +in – out

For several possible flows,

This equation is termed as continuity equation.

First law of thermodynamics for control volume

For control mass, we have the first law as,

as rate equation, we have,

Consider a control volume that involves rate of heat transfer, rates of work transfer and mass flows.
Since we cannot create or destroy energy, so any rate of change of energy must be caused by rates
of energy in or out of the control volume.

The fluid flowing across the control surface (which envelops the control volume) enters or leaves
with an amount of energy per unit mass as,

Whenever a fluid mass enters a control volume at state ‘i’, or exits at state ‘e’ , there is a boundary
movement work associated with that process. Fluid mass enters the control volume as it is pushed
by the surrounding against the local pressure with a velocity, giving the control volume a rate of
work in the process.

So, the flow work,

So, the flow work per unit mass is Pv and total energy associated with the flow of mass is,

So, first law of thermodynamics for control volume becomes,

For, general control volume we may have several (n) entering or (m) leaving mass flow rates so, for
that case, the final form or the first law becomes,

Steady state steady flow process

Here we establish the first law for control volume for the long-term steady operation of devices like
turbines, compressors, nozzles, boilers and condensers.

SSSF Assumptions

1. The control volume doesn’t move relative to the co-ordinate frame. (No work associated
with the acceleration of the control volume.)

2. The state of mass at each point in the control volume doesn’t vary with time. (This

implies,

3. The mass flux and its state remain constant with time at the inlets and outlets.

4. The rate of heat and work transfer across the system boundary remains constant.

So, according to the assumptions the first law of SSSF devices will be,

For models having only one inlet and outlet, the continuity equation becomes,
And the first law will be,

SFEE w.r.t time

SFEE w.r.t mass.

Q-9 Write SFEE for heat exchanger.

It is a Device in which heat from one flowing fluid is transferred to another flowing fluid inside a
control volume.

In the ideal heat exchanger

1. The fluids flowing will have very low pressure drop

2. There is no means of doing any shaft, electrical etc work through the control volume.

3. Change in K.E. and P.E. of the fluids is very small.

4. No heat transfer to or from the surrounding.

So, for the heat exchanger the continuity equation will be,

And the energy equation will be,

 Q-10 Derive SFEE for the nozzle.

In an ideal nozzle,

1. The fluid pressure will be dropped and velocity increases significantly.

2. Neither Work nor Heat crosses the system boundary.

3. No change in P.E. of the fluid takes place.

4. K.E. at the inlet is usually small and can be neglected.

So, the continuity equation will be,

And the energy equation will be,

Ve  2(hi  h j )
By neglecting inlet KE (Vi<<Ve) then

Q- 11. Write SFEE for heat exchanger Diffuser:

Diffuser:
It is a device constructed to decelerate a high velocity fluid in a manner that results in a increase in
pressure of the fluid (opposite to Nozzle). So, its continuity equation and the energy equation will
be same as of the Nozzle.
Q-12 Prove that throttling process is isenthalpic process.

It is a device in which a fluid flowing in a line suddenly encounters a restriction in the flow passage
(may be plate with a hole, capillary tube).

In an ideal throttling device,

1. Abrupt pressure drop in the fluid occurs

2. Some increase in velocity will be there but can be neglected because of its very low value.

3. No work, no change in P.E. no heat transfer to or from the surrounding.

So, the first law reduces to

hi= he

So, throttling is a constant enthalpy process.

Q-1. Write SFEE for turbine.

It is a rotary SSSF Machine whose purpose is the production of shaft work in expense of pressure
of the working fluid.

In an ideal turbine

1. Change in P.E. and K.E. of the flow are negligible.

2. Heat rejection form the turbine is negligibly small and is undesirable

3. The turbine process is assumed to be adiabatic

Hence, the first law reduces to

6. Write SFEE for Compressor/ Pump .

It can be a reciprocating or a rotary device whose purpose it to increase the pressure of the fluid by
putting in some shaft work through external means. Devices fulfilling this purpose for liquid are
termed Pumps and those for gases are termed Compressors. Theoretically, these devices work
exactly in opposite to that of turbine. So,

1. Change in P.E. and K.E. of the flow are negligible.

2. Heat rejection form the turbine is negligibly small and is undesirable

3. The turbine process is assumed to be adiabatic

Hence, the first law reduces to

 Previous Year Question Paper –1st Law of
Thermodynamics

Q.1. 5 kg of air is compressed frictionlessly and polytropically with n =

1.3 from 1 bar, 270 C to 6 bar. Determine: (a) work done (b) Change in
the internal energy (c) Heat transferred. [Year – 2003]

Q.2. Show that the stored energy of an isolated system remains

constant. [Year – 2004]

Q.3. Two tanks A and B are connected through a valve which is initially
closed. Tank A contains 3 kg of air at 2 bars and 300 C. Tank B has a
volume of 1 m3 and has air at 5 bars, 400 C. Now the valve is opened
and remains open until the air in both tanks comes to a uniform state.
Heat transfer to 1 the surrounding brings the final temperature to 270C.
What is the final uniform pressure if the volume of the connecting pipes
is neglected? [Year – 2004]

Q.4. 10 kg of steam at 5 bar, X = 0.85 undergoes a constant pressure

until the temperature becomes 2000C. Determine: (a) The work done.
[Year – 2004]

Q.5. Prove that, for an adiabatic process, dh = vdp. [Year – 2004]

Q.6. An insulated rigid container has 5 kg air at 300 C. A paddle wheel

fitted in the container agitates the air and transfers 100 kJ of work to this
air. What is the change in internal energy of the air? [J- Year – 2004]

Q.7. A closed system undergoes a reversible constant pressure

process as shown in the given figure.

If change in internal energy during the process is 100 kJ, what is the
heat transferred during the process? [Year – J- 2004]

Q.8. 5 kg of air is polytropically compressed from 100 kPa to 500 kPa

according to the process pv 1.23 = constant. The initial temperature of the
air may be taken as 300 C. calculate the work done, change in internal
energy and heat transferred during this process. [July – 2004]

Q.9. Steam at 0.5 MPa and 2000 C is cooled at constant volume until it
becomes dry and saturate. Determine the final pressure, temperature
and the heat transferred for 10 kg of steam. [Year – 2004]

Q.10. Two kg of air is contained in a rigid insulated vessel at 1 bar, 200

C. This air is agitated by a fan driven by an electric motor. After some
times it is noticed that the air temperature has increased to 300 C. What
is the work done by the fan on the air inside? [Year – D-2004]

Q.11. (a) 5 kg of saturated water at 6 bar is heated at constant pressure

until it becomes dry and saturated steam. Determine the work done, the
change in internal energy and the heat transferred.

(b) 2 kg of air is compressed polytropically with n = 1.25 from 1 bar, 250

C to 5 bar. Determine the work done, the change in internal energy and
heat transferred. [Year – D- 2004]

Q.12. An insulated rigid vessel is partitioned into two compartment, A

and B, by a breakable membrane. Compartment A has 3 kg of air at 5
bar, 1000 C and compartment B has 4 kg of air at 3 bar, 1200 C. The
membrane now breaks and the two masses of air mix together to
ultimately come to an equilibrium state. Find the pressure and
temperature at the final equilibrium state. [Year – 2004]

Q.13. Helium contained in a cylinder fitted with a piston expands

reversible according to the law pV1.5 = constant. The initial pressure,
temperature and volume are 5 bar, 222k and 0.055 m3. After the
expansion, the pressure is 2bar. Calculate the work done during the
process. [Year – April – 2005]

Q.14. A tank containing nitrogen is heated and stirred by a paddle wheel.

The work input to the paddle is 6000 kJ. Heat coming out from the tank
is 4000 kJ. Determine the change in internal energy of nitrogen in the
tank. [Year – April – 2005]

Q.15. (a) Starting with the statement of first law for a cyclic process,
show that the internal energy is a property of a system.[Year- April-
2005]
(b) A cylinder fitted with a piston has an initial volume of 0.1 m 3 and
contains nitrogen at 150 kPa, 250 C. The piston is moved, compressing
the nitrogen, and the work done on the nitrogen is 20 kJ. Determine the
amount and direction of heat transfer. Consider nitrogen as an ideal gas
and having a specific heat at constant volume. cv = 0.75 kJ/Kg0C.

Q.16. Define enthalpy of a system. Under what condition the change in

enthalpy in a process executed by a closed system equals to the heat
transfer in the process? [Year – April – 2005]

Q.17. A cylinder fitted with a piston has a volume of 0.1 m3 and contains
0.5 kg of steam at 0.4 MPa. Heat is transferred to the steam until the
temperature is 3000 C, while the pressure remains constant. Determine
the heat and work transfer for this process. [Year – April – 2005]

Q.18. (a) State the major assumptions/ restrictions under which following
equations are valid (symbols having usual notation)
(i )  w  pdv
(ii )  Q  du   W
(iii ) Tds  du   w
(iv) Tds  du  pdv

Q.19. Can an isothermal process be irreversible? Justify with reasons.

Q.20. (a) State the first law of thermodynamics for a cyclic process.

(b) Show that for any process undertaken by a closed system, difference
between differential of heat and work is an exact differential.

(c) A rigid tank contains a hot fluid, and is cooled while being stirred by a
paddle wheel. Initially, internal energy of the fluid is 900 kJ. During the
cooling process, the fluid loses 500 kJ of energy in form of heat, and the
paddle wheel does 100 kJ of ork on the fluid. Calculate the final internal
energy of the fluid.

Q.21. (a) For a ideal gas, prove that CP – CV = R.

Q.22. (a) Prove that the law followed by a reversible adiabatic process
for an ideal gas is PVy = Constant.
(b) Saturation water vapour at 200 kPa is in a constant pressure piston
cylinder. At this state the piston is 0.1 m from the cylinder bottom and
cylinder area is 0.25 m2. The temperature changed to 2000 C. Find the
position above eye bottom. Find the work done , heat supply.

Q.23. During an adiabatic process, a system does 50 kJ of work. What is

the change in internal energy of the system?

Q.24. 10 kg of saturated liquid water at 1 bar is heated at constant

pressure until the temperature becomes 2000 C. Calculate:

(a) The initial and final volumes.

(b) The work done.

(c) The heat transferred.

Q.25. 2 kg of air undergoes a cyclic process as shown in the p–v

diagram. The pressure and volume values are shown in the diagram. It
may be noted that there are two constant pressure process and two
constant volume processes.

(a) Calculate  W and  Q .

(b) Find the heat transferred during the process 1–2.

Q.26. Identify from the given list the partial derivatives that define CV and
CP.

 u   u   h   h 
(i)   (ii)   (iii)   (iv)  
 T V  P T  V T  T  P

Q.27. During an adiabatic process, an ideal gas receives 100 kJ of work.

The initial internal energy of the gas is 320 Kj. What is the final internal
energy?

Q.28. Determine the work done in the following cases:

(a) 2 kg of air is heated at constant pressure form 2 bar, 270C until the
volume is doubled.

(b) A 12 V battery is charged for 2 hours by passing a current of 5 A

through it.
(c) Work done during an adiabatic process if the change in internal
energy is 150 kJ.

Q.29. Calculate the work done, the change in internal energy and the
heat transferred when 4.5 kg of air is compressed from 1.01 bar, 250 C
to 0.54 Mpa. The compression occurs according to the process pV1.27=
constant.

Q.30. (i) Define CP and CV with the help of properties such as enthalpy,
internal energy and temperature.

(ii) Why it is not possible to determine the unknown properties for a pure
substance within evaporating zone when only temperature and pressure
are given.

(iii) Write the sign convention for heat and work transfer for the following
operations.

(a) Stirring of fluid present in a close container with the help of a paddle
wheel.

(b) Compression of gas in a piston – cylinder arrangement.

(iv) Define enthalpy and show that for a constant pressure change in
enthalpy is equal to net heat transfer.

Q.31. The temperature of 3.5 kg of gas in a rigid container is increased

from 250C to 450 C by heating it. The heat transferred during the process
is 38 kJ, the specific heat ratio and molar mass of the gas is 1.42 and 28
respectively. Calculate the change in internal energy and work done for
the gas treating the gas to be a perfect gas.

Q.32. A rigid and insulted tank of 1 m3 capacity is divided into two

compartments. The compartment of volume 0.05 m3 contains water at
1700 C and 1 MPa. The second compartment is evacuated. The partition
separting the compartment is punctured and water fills the whole tank.
Determine final temperature and pressure of the water in the tank.

Q.33. A certain mass of air of volume 125 cc at temperature 350 C and

pressure 1.013 bar absolute is compressed by the law PV1.35= constant
to a pressure of 8.5 bar. Then 200 J of heat is added at constant
pressure. Further, the hot air is expanded by the law PV1.35=
CONSTANT to a pressure of 2 bar. Finally, heat is rejected at constant
volume till the initial condition has reached . Find:

(i) The value of T.P

(ii) The net work transfer.

Also draw the P-V and T-s diagram of the processes executed by the
system.

Q.34. (a) Define specific heat at constant volume in terms of the ratio of
partial differentials of two properties. What is its value for air at standard
atmospheric conditions?

(c) “Heat transfer is always associated with change in temperature”. Is it

true or false? Justify your answer with example.

(f) A system initially at 370 C and 1 atmospheric pressure has

compressed to 1270C and 8.105 bar pressure. Write the general
expression of the process.

Q.35. A rigid enclosure , 50 cm on each side, contains a wet mixture of

water vapour at 900 C and 20 percent quality. Heat is added until the
pressure is raised to 500 kPa. Determine the final state and the quantity
of heat added.

Q.36. State first law of thermodynamics for a fixed mass system that
executes any process. Prove that internal energy of an idea gas is only a
function of Temperature.

Q.37. (a) Prove that internal energy is a point function.

(c) A mass of 8 kg gas expands within a flexible container so that the p–

v relationship is of the form pv1.2 = constant. The initial pressure is 1000
kPa and initial volume is 1 m3. The final pressure is 5 kPa. If the specific
internal energy of the gas decreases by 40 kJ/Kg, find the heat transfer
and its direction.

R
Q.38. (a) Show that for an ideal gas CP  CV  . Where
M

CP = Specific heat at constant pressure,

CV = Specific heat at constant volume

R = Universal gas constant.

M= Molecular mass.

(b) Show that energy is a property of a system.

Q.39. (a) 1.5 kg of liquid having a constant specific heat of 2.5 kJ/kgK is
strirred in a well insulated chamber. The temperature rises by 150C. Find
the change in internal energy and work done during the process.

Q.40. 0.5 kg of air is expanded reversible and adiabatically from 0.4 Mpa
and 527 K to 80 Kpa and then compressed at constant pressure to the
orginal volume. Sketch the process on the p-v and T-s planes. Computer
the heat transfer and work transfer for the whole path.

Q.41. A quantity of gas occupies a volume of 0.4 m3/kg at a pressure of

100 kN/m2, and then expanded adiabatically to its initial volume. For this
quantity of gas determine (a) the heat transferred during compression,
(b) the change of internal energy during the expansion, (c) the mass of
gas. Assume that for gas   1.4, CP  1.0 kJ / kg.K .

Q.42. A mass of air is initially at 2600C and 700 kPa and occupies of
0.025 m3. The air is expanded at constant pressure to 0.08 m3. A
polytropic process with n = 1.35 is then carried out, followed by a
constant temperature process which completes a cycle. All the
processes are reversible. Find the heat received and heat rejected in the
cycle and also calculate the efficiency of the cycle.

Q.43. Air initially at 1 bar and 270 C is compressed isothermally to one –

fifth of its initial volume of 0.9 m3. It is then heated at constant volume to
a condition such that isentropic expansion from that state will return the
system to the original state. Determine the pressure and temperature at
the end of constant volume process. Also find the change in entropy in
each process and net work done in the cycle.

Q.44. A piston – cylinder device initially contains 0.07 m3 of nitrogen gas

at 130 kPa and 1200C. The nitrogen is now expanded polytropically to a
state of 100 kPa and 1000C. Determine the boundary work done during
this process and heat transferred.
Q.45. A mass of 5 kg of saturated water vapour at 300 kPa is heated at
constant pressure until the temperature reaches 2000C. Calculate the
work done by the steam during this process and heat transferred.

Q.46. A mass of 2.4 kg of air at 150 kPa and 1200C is contained in a gas
tight, frictionless piston cylinder device. The air is now compressed to a
final pressure of 600 kPa. During the process, heat is transferred from
the air such that the temperature inside the cylinder remains constant.
Calculate the work input doing this process.

Q.47. During an expansion process, the pressure of a gas change from

100 to 700 kPa according to the relation P = aV+b, where a = 1220
kPa/m3 and b is a constant. If the initial volume of the gas is 0.2 m3,
calculate the work done during the process.

Q.48. Carbon dioxide contained in a piston – cylinder device is

compressed from 0.3 to 0.1 m3. During the process the pressure and
volume are related by P= aV–2, where a = 8 kPa. m3. Calculate the work
done on the carbon dioxide during this process.

Q.49. A piston – cylinder device initially contains 0.25 kg of nitrogen gas

at 130 kPa and 1200C. The nitrogen is now expanded isothermally to a
pressure of 100 kPa. Determine the boundary work done during this
process.

Q.50. A piston – cylinder device contains 0.15 kg of air initially at 2 MPa

and 3500C. The air is first expanded isothermally to 500 kPa, then
compressed polytropically with a polytropic exponent of 1.2 to the initial
pressure, and finally compressed at the constant pressure to the initial
state. Determine the boundary work for each process and the net work
of the cycle.

Q.51. Saturated water vapour at 2000C is isothermally condensed to a

saturated liquid in a piston cylinder device. Calculate the heat transfer
and the work done during this process in kJ/kg.

Q.52. A rigid container equipped with a stirring device contains 1.5 kg. of
motor oil. Determine the rate of specific energy increase when heat is
transferred to the oil at a rate of 1 W, and 1.5 W of power is applied to
the stirring device.
Q.53. A piston cylinder device contains 0.2 kg of water initially at 800
kPa and 0.06 m3. Now 200 kJ of heat is transferred to the water while its
pressure is held constant. Determine the final temperature of the water.
Also show the process on a T-v diagram with respect to saturation lines.

Q.54. An insulated piston- cylinder device contains 5 L of saturated liquid

water at a constant pressure of 175 kPa. Water is stirred by a paddle
wheel a current of 8 A flows for 45 min through a resistor placed in the
water. If one – half of the liquid is evaporated during this constant
pressure process and the paddle wheel work amounts to 400 kJ.
Determine the voltage of the source. Also show the process on a P-v
diagram with respect to saturation lines. [224V]

Q.55. 2-kg of saturated liquid water at 1500C is heated at constant

pressure in a piston – cylinder device until it is saturated vapor.
Determine the heat transfer required for this process.

Q.56. A rigid tank contains 10 kg of air at 350 kPa and 270C. The air is
now heated until its pressure doubles. Determine (a) the volume of the
tank and (b) the amount of heat transfer. [(a) 2.46 m3, (b) 2207 kJ]

Q.57. A piston – cylinder device, whose piston is resting on a set of

stops, initially contains 3 kg of air at 200 kPa and 270C. The mass of the
piston is such that a pressure of 400 kPa is required to move it. Heat is
now transferred to the air until its volume doubles. Determine the work
done by the air and the total heat transferred to the air during this
process. Also shows the process on a P-v diagram. [516 kJ]

Q.58. A mass of 15 kg of air in a piston-cylinder device is heated form 25

to 770 C by passing current through a resistance heater inside the
cylinder. The pressure inside the cylinder is held constant at 300 kPa
during the process, and a heat loss of 60kJ occurs. Determine the
electrical energy supplied. [0.235 kWh]

Q.59. A well – insulated rigid vessel contains 3 kg of saturated liquid

water at 400C. The vessel also contains an electrical resistor that draws
10 amperes when 50 Volts are applied. Determine the final temperature
in the vessel after the resistor has been operating for 30 minutes.
[1190C]
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
Q-1 Define thermal energy reservoir , source, sink and mechanical reservoir .

Thermal energy reservoir (TER) is a sufficiently large system of infinite heat capacity in to
which and from which an unlimited amount of heat can be transferred without any change in its
thermal coordinate.

A high temperature heat reservoir from which heat is transferred is called a heat source. A low
temperature heat reservoir to which heat is transferred is called a heat sink.

Mechanical energy reservoir (MER) is a large body bounded by adiabatic wall which can store
work in the form of kinetic or potential energy.

Q-2 Define heat engine and thermal efficency.

A heat engine is a thermodynamic system operating in a thermodynamic cycle to which net heat
is transferred and from which net work is obtained. The system, or working fluid, undergoes a
series of processes that constitute the heat engine cycle. The following figure illustrates a steam
power plant as a heat engine operating in a thermodynamic cycle.
Thermal Efficiency, ηth

The thermal efficiency is the index of performance of a heat engine and is defined by the ratio
of the net work output to the heat input .

work output Wnet Win  Wout Qin  Qout Q

 th      1  out
heat input Qin Qin Qin Qin

The thermal efficiency is always less than 1 or less than 100 percent.

Q-3 State Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law also define PMM2.

It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir
and produce a net amount of work. The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of
thermodynamics states that no heat engine can produce a net amount of work while exchanging
heat with a single reservoir only. In other words, the maximum possible efficiency is less than
100 percent. Heat engine that violates the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law is known
as PMM2

Q-4 State Clausius statement of the second law

The Clausius statement of the second law states that it is impossible to construct a device that
operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower
temperature body to a higher temperature body.

Q-5 Difference between heat pump and refrigerator.

 Refrigerator Heat Pump
1. Device which maintains the system 1. Device which maintains the system
temperature lower than the surrounding. temperature higher than the surrounding.
2. Here a refrigerator is a device that operates 2. The heat pump also operates on
on a thermodynamic cycle and extracts heat thermodynamic cycle but rejects heat to the
from a low-temperature medium. high-temperature medium.
Desire effect Q Desire effect Q
3. COPR   L 3. COPR   H
work input Win work input Win

Q-5 Prove that violation of either the Kelvin-Planck or Clausius statements of the second law
implies a violation of the other.

Assume that the heat engine shown below is violating the Kelvin-Planck statement by
absorbing heat from a single reservoir and producing an equal amount of work W. The output
of the engine drives a heat pump that transfers an amount of heat QL from the low-temperature
thermal reservoir and an amount of heat QH+ QL to the high-temperature thermal reservoir. The
combination of the heat engine and refrigerator in the left figure acts like a heat pump that
transfers heat QL from the low-temperature reservoir without any external energy input. This is
a violation of the Clausius statement of the second law.

Q-6 Prove the equivalence of the two statements of second law.

To prove that violation of the Kelvin-Planck Statement leads to a violation of the Clausius
Statement, let us assume that Kelvin-Planck statement is incorrect.

Consider a cyclically working device 1, which absorbs energy Q 1 as heat from a thermal
reservoir at TH. Equivalent amount of work W(W=Q1) is performed.

Consider another device 2 operating as a cycle, which absorbs energy Q L as heat from a low
temperature thermal reservoir at T L and rejects energy QH (QH=QL+W). Such a device does not
violate Clausius statement.

If the two devices are now combined, the combined device (enclosed by the dotted boundary)
transfers heat QL from the low temperature reservoir at TL to a high temperature reservoir at TH
without receiving any aid from an external agent, which is the violation of the Clausius
statement.

Likewise let us assume that the Clausius statement is incorrect. So we have a device 1,
cyclically working transferring heat Q from a low temperature reservoir at T L to a high
temperature thermal reservoir at TH . Consider another device 2, which absorbs heat Q 1 from a
high temperature reservoir at TH does work W and rejects energy Q as heat tot the low
temperature reservoir at TL as shown in figure.

If the two devices are combined (shown in figure by a dotted enclosure), then the combined
device receives energy (Q1-Q) as heat from a thermal reservoir and delivers equivalent work
(W=Q1-Q) in violation of the Kelvin-Planck statement.
Therefore violation of Clausius statement leads to the violation of the Kelvin-Planck statement.
Hence, these two statements are equivalent.

Q-6 Explain working principle of Carnot Cycle .

Carnot was the first to introduce the concept of cyclic operation and devised a reversible cycle
that is composed of four reversible processes, two isothermal and two adiabatic.

The Carnot Cycle

Process 1-2 Reversible isothermal heat addition at high temperature, TH> TL, to the working
fluid in a piston cylinder device that does some boundary work.

Process 2-3 Reversible adiabatic expansion during which the system does work as the working
fluid temperature decreases from TH to TL.

Process 3-4 The system is brought in contact with a heat reservoir at TL< TH and a reversible
isothermal heat exchange takes place while work of compression is done on the system.

Process 4-1 A reversible adiabatic compression process increases the working fluid temperature
from TL to TH

Q-7 State Carnot theorem and its corollary.

It state that, All heat engine working between a given temperature source or a given temperature
sink none has a higher efficiency than a reversible engine.

Corollary
The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two constant
temperature heat reservoirs have the same efficiency that implies efficiency of reversible engine
is function of temperature of source and sink only.

Q-8 Explain thermodynamic temperature scale.

Since the thermal efficiency in general is

Qout
 th  1 
Qin

For the Carnot engine, this can be written as

Considering engines A, B, and C

This looks like

One way to define the function is

The simplest form of θ is the absolute temperature itself.

The Carnot thermal efficiency becomes

This is the maximum possible efficiency of a heat engine operating between two heat reservoirs
at temperatures TH and TL. Note that the temperatures are absolute temperatures.

These statements form the basis for establishing an absolute temperature scale, also called the
Kelvin scale, related to the heat transfers between a reversible device and the high- and low
temperature heat reservoirs by
 Entropy
Q-1 State Clausius theorem.

Consider a Carnot engine as shown in fig.

T1 Q1 Q Q
As reversible engine.   1  2
T2 Q2 T1 T2
Q Q1  Q2 
then    0
T T1  T2 

One could also consider the small amount of reversible heat flow dQrev that flows at a
temperature T at each point in the cycle. The net heat flow is equal to the sum of the differential
flows

Qrev Q1  Q2 
then    0
T T1  T2 
Q
for a reversible cycle  rev  0
T

Q-2 State Clausius inequality.

Q
 T
0

Q
T  0....Reversible

Q
T  0...Irreversib le

Q
T  0...Impossible
Q.3 Prove that entropy is a property of the system.

Consider a system which undergoes a reversible process from state 1 to state 2 along path A,
and let cycle be completed along path B, which is also reversible. Since the cycle is reversible
we can write:
Qrev
 T
0

Now let cycle be completed along path C

Q
By equating the above two it can be seen
T 
is the same for both the path ‘ B’ and ‘C’ i.e
Q
for all reversible paths between states 1 and 2  is same.
T
Thus it must be independent of path and depend only on the end-states, i.e. it must be
a property. This property is called Entropy ‘S’.
2
Q Qrev
S 2  S1    dS 
1
T T

-Entropy is an extensive property

Q-4 Prove that reversible adiabatic process is an isentropic process.
Q
dS  rev
T
For adiabatic process Q  0  dS  0  S  Cons tan t

Q-5 Draw the T-s diagram of Carnot cycle and find out its efficiency.

W qin  qout Th S 2  S1   Tl S 2  S1  Th  Ti T
     1 l
qin qin Th S 2  S1  Th Th
Q-6The Increase of Entropy Principle
Q
dS  for any process.
T

For an isolated system (e.g Universe) Q=0.

dS  0
then S universe  0
S system  S surrounding  0

For irreversible process S universe is always positive i.e entropy of the universe .

The entropy of an isolated system during a process always increases, or in the limiting

case of a reversible process remains constant (it never decreases). This is known as the

increase of entropy principle

Q-7 Derive the expression for change in entropy of an ideal gas.

Tds  q  dh  vdP  du  Pdv

2
dT P
ds   c p  R ln 1
1
T P2

Q-8 What do you mean by entropy generation.

We know

The entropy generated during a process is called entropy generation, and is denoted by

Sgen, . The entropy change of a system or its surroundings can be negative; but entropy
generation cannot.
 Working of Air Compressors
• Pressurized air is produced by an air compressor. Air
compressors are used daily in automotive shops. They are used to
inflate tires. They are also used for tools, like impact wrenches.
• The air compressor consists of three major parts. The electric
motor, the air pump, and storage tank.
• The electric motor drives the air pump.
• The pump sends air to the storage tank where it is held for later
use.
• The pump turns on when the storage tank gets low, so the
compressor will keep a constant pressure of air.

Classification
compressors

•Positive-displacement
type- a given quantity of Positive Displacement Roto-dynamic
air or gas is trapped and
its volume get reduced Reciprocating Rotary
Turbo/Centrifugal

mechanically so the
pressure get raised.

•Dynamic compressors.
The kinetic energy is
changed into pressure
energy both by the
impellers and the
Scroll Screw roller-type vane-type rotary
diffusers.
 Introduction to Internal Combustion Engine

• =
Introduction :
• Heat engine : It can be defined as any engine that converts thermal energy
to mechanical work output. Examples of heat engines include: steam engine,
diesel engine, and gasoline (petrol) engine.

• On the basis of how thermal energy is being delivered to working fluid of

the heat engine, heat engine can be classified as an internal combustion
engine and external combustion engine.

• In an Internal combustion engine, combustion takes place within working

fluid of the engine, thus fluid gets come in contact with combustion products.
– Petrol engine is an example of internal combustion engine, where the
working fluid is a mixture of air and fuel .

• In an External combustion engine, working fluid gets energy using boilers by

burning fossil fuels or any other fuel, thus the working fluid does not come in
contact with combustion products.
– Steam engine is an example of external combustion engine, where
the working fluid is steam.
Internal combustion engines may be classified as :
– Spark Ignition engines.
– Compression Ignition engines.
• Spark ignition engine (SI engine): An engine in which the combustion
process in each cycle is started by use of an external spark.
• Compression ignition engine (CI engine): An engine in which the
combustion process starts when the air-fuel mixture self ignites due to
high temperature in the combustion chamber caused by high compression.
– Spark ignition and Compression Ignition engine operate on either
a four stroke cycle or a two stroke cycle.
• Four stroke cycle : It has four piston strokes over two revolutions for each
cycle.

• Two stroke cycle : It has two piston strokes over one revolution for each
cycle.

Figure1 : Engine components (four stroke)

Figure2 : Engine components (four stroke)

Figure3 : Engine components (Two stroke)

 Figure4: Engine components

Internal combustion Engine Components:

I.C. Engine components shown in figure1 and figure2
are defined as follows:
• Block : Body of the engine containing cylinders, made of cast iron or
aluminum.
• Cylinder : The circular cylinders in the engine block in which the
pistons reciprocate back and forth.
• Head : The piece which closes the end of the cylinders, usually
containing part of the clearance volume of the combustion
chamber.
• Combustion chamber: The end of the cylinder between the head
and the piston face where combustion occurs.
– The size of combustion chamber continuously changes
from minimum volume when the piston is at TDC to a
maximum volume when the piston at BDC.
 • Camshaft : Rotating shaft used to push open valves at the
proper time in the engine cycle, either directly or through
mechanical or hydraulic linkage (push rods, rocker arms,
tappets) .
• Push rods : The mechanical linkage between the camshaft and
valves on overhead valve engines with the camshaft in the
crankcase.
• Crankcase : Part of the engine block surrounding the
crankshaft.
– In many engines the oil pan makes up part of the
crankcase housing.
• Exhaust manifold : Piping system which carries exhaust gases
away from the engine cylinders, usually made of cast iron .

• Intake manifold :Piping system which delivers incoming air to the cylinders,
usually made of cast metal, plastic, or composite material.
– In most SI engines, fuel is added to the air in the intake manifold system
either by fuel injectors or with a carburetor.
– The individual pipe to a single cylinder is called runner.

• Carburetor : A device which mix the proper amount of fuel into the air flow by
means of pressure differential.
– For many decades it was the basic fuel metering system on all automobile
(and other) engines.

• Spark plug : Electrical device used to initiate combustion in an SI engine by

creating high voltage discharge across an electrode gap.
 I.C. Engine components apart from components shown in
the figure:
• Exhaust System: Flow system for removing exhaust gases from the cylinders,
treating them, and exhausting them to the surroundings.
– It consists of an exhaust manifold which carries the exhaust gases away
from the engine, a thermal or catalytic converter to reduce emissions, a
muffler to reduce engine noise, and a tailpipe to carry the exhaust gases
away from the passenger compartment.
• Flywheel : Rotating mass with a large moment of inertia connected to the crank
shaft of the engine.
– The purpose of the flywheel is to store energy and furnish large angular
momentum that keeps the engine rotating between power strokes and
smoothes out engine operation.

• Fuel injector : A pressurized nozzle that sprays fuel into the

incoming air (SI engines )or into the cylinder (CI engines).
• Fuel pump : Electrically or mechanically driven pump to supply
fuel from the fuel tank (reservoir) to the engine.
• Glow plug : Small electrical resistance heater mounted inside the
combustion chamber of many CI engines, used to preheat the
chamber enough so that combustion will occur when first starting
a cold engine.
– The glow plug is turn off after the engine is started.
• Starter : Several methods are used to start IC engines. Most are
started by use of an electric motor (starter) geared to the engine
flywheel. Energy is supplied from an electric battery.
 Figure5 : Engine Terminology

Engine Terminology :
Figure 5, shows the pressure volume diagram of ideal engine cycle along with
engine terminology as follows:

• Top Dead Center (TDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest point
away from the crankshaft.
– Top because this position is at the top of the engines (not always), and
dead because the piston stops as this point.
– When the piston is at TDC, the volume in the cylinder is a minimum
called the clearance volume.
• Bottom Dead Center (BDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the point
closest to the crankshaft. Volume of the cylinder is maximum

• Stroke : Distance traveled by the piston from one extreme position to the other
: TDC to BDC or BDC to TDC.

• Bore :It is defined as cylinder diameter or piston face diameter; piston face
diameter is same as cylinder diameter( minus small clearance).

• Swept volume/Displacement volume : Volume displaced by the piston as it

travels through one stroke.
– Swept volume is defined as stroke times bore.
– Displacement can be given for one cylinder or entire engine (one
cylinder times number of cylinders).

• Clearance volume : It is the minimum volume of the cylinder

available for the charge (air or air fuel mixture) when the piston
reaches at its outermost point (top dead center or outer dead
center) during compression stroke of the cycle.
– Minimum volume of combustion chamber with piston at
TDC.
• Compression ratio : The ratio of total volume to clearance
volume of the cylinder is the compression ratio of the engine.
– Typically compression ratio for SI engines varies form 8
to 12 and for CI engines it varies from 12 to 24
 SI Engine Ideal Otto Cycle

Intake Stroke

•Intake valve opens.

•Piston moves down, ½ turn
of crankshaft.
•A vacuum is created in the
cylinder.
•Atmospheric pressure pushes
the air/fuel mixture into the
cylinder.
 Compression Stroke

•Valves close.
•Piston moves up, ½
turn of crankshaft.
•Air/fuel mixture is
compressed.
•Fuel starts to
vaporize and heat
begins to build.

Power Stroke

•Valves remain
closed.
•Spark plug fires
igniting fuel mixture.
•Piston moves down,
½ turn of crankshaft.
•Heat is converted to
mechanical energy.
Exhaust Stroke

•Exhaust valve opens.

•Piston move up,
crankshaft makes ½
turn.
•Exhaust gases are
pushed out polluting
the atmosphere.
 Compression Ignition Engine :
• We will deal with Compression
Ignition engine.
• The ideal diesel cycle PV diagram is
shown in following figure 8.

Four strokes of CI Engine Cycle :

• Intake/Suction Stroke : The same as the intake stroke in an SI
engine with one major difference : no fuel is added to the
incoming air, refer figure 10.
• Compression Stroke : The same as in an SI engine except that
only air is compressed and compression is to higher pressures
and temperature, refer figure11.
– Late in the compression stroke fuel is injected directly
into the combustion chamber, where it mixes with very
hot air.
– This causes the fuel to evaporate and self ignite, causing
combustion to start.
» Combustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at about
constant pressure until fuel injection is complete and the
piston has started towards BDC, refer figure12.
 Why not diesel?
1. Diesel engines, because they have much higher compression ratios
(20:1 for a typical diesel vs. 8:1 for a typical gasoline engine), tend to
be heavier than an equivalent gasoline engine.
2. Diesel engines also tend to be more expensive.
3. Diesel engines, because of the weight and compression ratio, tend
to have lower maximum RPM ranges than gasoline engines . This
makes diesel engines high torque rather than high horsepower, and
that tends to make diesel cars slow in terms of acceleration.
4. Diesel engines must be fuel injected, and in the past fuel injection
was expensive and less reliable.
5. Diesel engines tend to produce more smoke.
6. Diesel engines are harder to start in cold weather.
7. Diesel engines are much noisier and tend to vibrate.
 Two-stroke engines have three important advantages
over four-stroke engines:

• 1.Two-stroke engines do not have valves, which simplifies their

construction and lowers their weight.

• 2.These advantages make two-stroke engines lighter, simpler and less

expensive to manufacture.

• 3.Two-stroke engines also have the potential to produce twice the power
into the same space because there are twice as many power strokes per
revolution.

Disadvantages

1. Two-stroke engines don't last nearly as long as four-stroke engines. As

there is no separate lubrication so parts of a two-stroke engine wear a lot
faster.
2. Two-stroke engines do not use fuel efficiently, so you would get fewer miles
per gallon.
3. Two-stroke engines produce a lot of pollution
 Intake & Compression stroke
Intake. The fuel/air mixture is first drawn into
the crankcase by the vacuum created during the
upward stroke of the piston through the reed valve.
he fuel/air mixture is first drawn into
the crankcase by the vacuum created during the
upward stroke of the piston through the reed valve.

Compression. The piston then rises, driven by

flywheel momentum, and compresses the fuel
mixture. (At the same time, another intake stroke
is happening beneath the piston).

Power & Exhaust/Transfer Stroke

Power. At the top of the stroke the
spark plug ignites the fuel mixture.
The burning fuel expands, driving
the piston downward.

Exhaust/Transfer: Toward the end of the stroke,

the piston exposes the intake port, allowing the
compressed fuel/air mixture in the crankcase to
escape around the piston into the main cylinder.
This expels the exhaust gasses out the exhaust
port, usually located on the opposite side of the
cylinder.
Simple Thermal Power Plant

2
• Process 1-2 Working Principle
Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is compressed
isentropically to the operating pressure of the boiler. The water temperature
increases somewhat during this isentropic compression process due to slight
decrease in the specific volume of the water. The vertical distance between
state 1 and 2 on the T-s diagram is greatly exaggerated for clarity.
• Process 2-3
Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves as a
superheated vapor at state 3. The boiler is basically a large heat exchanger
where the heat originating from combustion gases, is transferred to the
water essentially at constant pressure. The boiler together with the section
where the steam is superheated (the superheater), is often called the steam
generator.

• Process 3-4
The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine,
where it expands isentropically and produces work by
rotating the shaft connected to an electric generator.
The pressure and the temperature of the steam drops
during this process to the values at state 4, where
steam enters the condenser
• Process 4-1
At this state, the steam is usually a saturated liquid-vapor
mixture with a high quality. Steam is condensed at
constant pressure in the condenser which is basically a
large heat exchanger, by rejecting heat to a cooling
medium from a lake, or a river. Steam leaves the
condenser as saturated liquid and enters the pump,
completing the cycle.
 RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES
Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants. The ideal
Rankine cycle does not involve any internal irreversibility.

Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle

Steady-flow energy equation

The thermal efficiency can be interpreted

as the ratio of the area enclosed by the
cycle on a T-s diagram to the area under
the heat-addition process.
 Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

• There are four principal

control volumes involving
these components:
• Evaporator
• Compressor
• Condenser
• Expansion valve

The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle

•The processes of this cycle are
Process 4-1: two-phase liquid-vapor
mixture of refrigerant is evaporated
through heat transfer from the
refrigerated space.
Process 1-2: vapor refrigerant is
compressed to a relatively high
temperature and pressure requiring
work input. Two-phase
liquid-vapor mixture
Process 2-3: vapor refrigerant
condenses to liquid through heat
transfer to the cooler surroundings.
Process 3-4: liquid refrigerant
expands to the evaporator pressure.
The P-h diagram is another
convenient diagram often
used to illustrate the
refrigeration cycle.
 Refrigerant Types and Characteristics

Global Warming Potential (GWP) is a simplified index that estimates the potential
future influence on global warming associated with different gases when released
to the atmosphere.
 The performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed in terms of coefficient
of performance (COP), defined as
Desired output Cooling effect QL
COPR   
Required input Work input Wnet ,in
Desired output Heating effect Q
COPHP    H
Required input Work input Wnet ,in

Both COPR and COPHP can be larger than 1. Under the same operating conditions,
the COPs are related by

COPHP  COPR  1

Refrigeration systems are also rated in terms of tons of refrigeration. One ton of
refrigeration is equivalent to 12,000 Btu/hr or 211 kJ/min. It is defined as the amount
of cooling effect produced by cooling one ton of water at 0 0C to ice at 0 0C at 1
atmospheric pressure.
 Diagrams and figures used in this manuscript were taken from “Google
images”, “Fundamentals of Thermodynamics” by Van Wylen and
Sonntag”, “ Thermodynamics and Engineering Approach” by Cengel et
al. The material is prepared for the use of students in the Silicon
Institute of Technology as a preparatory material for BPUT
examinations and not for any commercial purpose.