Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024

CHAPTER 3: VARIATION
3.1 Introduction to Variation

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) Describe variation within populations.
b) Describe types of variation:
- continuous (quantitative) variation
- discontinuous (qualitative) variation.

MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES

⚫ All people are human. They belong to the same species.
Variation within Your friends and classmates may have different eye
populations color and hair color. Some will be tall and some will be
shorter. The presence of differences between living
organisms of the same species is called variation.

⚫ The individual of a species have differences in

characteristics. For example, humans have different
colored eyes and cats have different length tails. This
means that no two members of a species are identical.

⚫ In an asexually reproducing organism, variation is

limited because organisms create exact copies of
themselves.

⚫ Chances of variation are very high in a sexually

reproducing organism. At the time of formation of
gametes, meiosis occurs. Eventually, this creates a DNA
different from the parent cell due to crossing over.

⚫ Definition of variation:
Differences in morphology, physiology or behaviour
between individuals of same species
(Campbell; 9th edition)

• Importance of variation:
Increase ability of species to survive in changing
environment and species can inhabit wide range of
habitat

- The environment changes with the change in different

factors like climate and temperature. During the
environmental changes, if a particular species is not
able to adapt, it cannot survive in that habitat.

Biology Unit, KMPk | 1

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES
- Here comes the role of variation. For example,
thermophilic bacteria are variants that are resistant to
extreme temperature. They have a chance of survival
in high temperature zones while others die.
- Variation helps a species to survive by causing
individuals of a species to be genetically and
physically different. If all individuals of a species
were genetically identical, they would be vulnerable
to the same diseases. Results in, the case of a single
disease could wipe out an entire species.

Types of There are two types of variation:

variation ➢ Discontinuous variation
➢ Continuous variation

Human height is an example of continuous variation. It

ranges from that of the shortest person in the world to that of
the tallest person. Any height is possible between these
values. So, it is continuous variation. For any species, a
characteristic that changes gradually over a range of values
shows continuous variation.

A characteristic of any species with only a limited number of

possible values shows discontinuous variation. Human
blood group is an example of discontinuous variation. In
the ABO blood group, only four blood groups are possible
(A, B, AB and O). There are no values in between, so this is
discontinuous variation.

Comparison between continuous and discontinuous

variations

Similarities:

❖ Both variations show differences among individuals of

same species
❖ Both variations are caused by meiosis and sexual
reproduction
❖ Both variations exist in any population

Biology Unit, KMPk | 2

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES

Table showing the differences between continuous and discontinuous variations

CONTINUOUS VARIATION DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION

◼ Examples of continuous variation: ◆ Examples of discontinuous variation:
height, weight, skin color ABO blood group, ability of tongue rolling,
shape of garden pea, type of ear lobe

◼ Involve quantitative character which can be ◆ Involve qualitative character which cannot
measured / graded on a scale be measured / graded on a scale

◼ Individuals cannot be grouped into distinct ◆ Individuals can be grouped into distinct
phenotype phenotype

◼ Have individuals with intermediate ◆ Do not have individuals with intermediate

phenotypes phenotypes

◼ Phenotype / characteristic is controlled by ◆ Phenotype / characteristic is controlled by

polygenes / many genes / additive effects of one gene / single gene
two or more genes

◼ Trait / phenotype is affected by genetic and ◆ Trait / phenotype is affected only by genetic
environmental factors (e.g. nutrition affect factor
height, exposure to sun darkens skin)

◼ Show normal distribution curve ◆ Show discrete distribution curve

Biology Unit, KMPk | 3

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
CHAPTER 3: VARIATION
3.2 Sources of Variations

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) Explain factors which cause genetic variation:
i) genetic recombination
• crossing over
• independent assortment
• random fusion of gametes
ii) mutation
• gene mutation
• chromosomal mutation
b) Explain environmental variation: environmental factors that act to produce phenotypic differences
between individuals.

MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES

Some variation within a species is inherited. Children
Factors cause usually look a little like their father and a little like their
variation mother. This is because they get half of their DNA and
inherited features from each parent.

Variation in a characteristic that is a result of genetic

information from the parents is called genetic variation.

Gender is one example of genetic variation because whether

you are male or female, is a result of the genes you inherited
from your parents.

Some variation within a species is due to the environment.

Characteristics of animal and plant species can be affected
by factors such as climate, diet, culture and lifestyle. For
example, you will become heavier if you eat too much food
and a plant in the shade of a big tree will grow taller as it
tries to reach more light.

Variation caused by the surrounding (environmental

factors) is called environmental variation.

Some features vary because of an interaction between

genetic causes and environmental causes.

For example, the weight of a cat depends partly on its genes

(genetic) and partly on what it eats (environment). The
height of a sunflower depends partly on its genes (genetic)
and partly on how much light and water it gets
(environment).

Biology Unit, KMPk | 4

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES
Factors which The first factor of genetic variation is genetic
cause genetic recombination which include crossing over, independent
variation: assortment and random fusion of gametes.
Genetic
recombination Crossing over:
and Mutation ❖ Crossing over occur during prophase I.
❖ During the process, there is an exchange of genetic
material between non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes results in genetic recombination
❖ Crossing over creates new combinations of genes in the
gametes, contributing to genetic variation.

Biology Unit, KMPk | 5

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES
Factors which Independent assortment:
cause genetic ❖ During metaphase I, homologous chromosomes align
variation: randomly on metaphase plate
Genetic ❖ Independent assortment leads to genetic variation due to
recombination the shuffling of chromosomes into various gametes.
and Mutation

❖ The total number of combinations that can occur in

gametes is 2n (where n = haploid number of
chromosomes). Humans have 46 chromosomes (n=23)
and thus can produce 8 million (223) different gametes
by random orientation.

Biology Unit, KMPk | 6

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES
Factors which Random fusion of gametes:
cause genetic
variation: ❖ Means that any male gametes (sperm cells) are able to
Genetic fertilize with any female gametes.
recombination ❖ Together with random fertilization, more possibilities
and Mutation for genetic variation exist between any two people. In
humans, over 8 million (223) chromosome combinations
exist in the production of gametes in both male and
female.
❖ During random fertilization, a sperm cell with over
8 million possible chromosome combinations fertilizes
an ovum which also has over 8 million possible
chromosome combinations. So, each human couple has
the potential to produce more than 64 trillion genetically
unique children. No wonder we are all different.

Second factor of genetic variation is mutation which include

gene mutation and chromosomal mutation.
❖ Mutation leads to genetic variation by altering genes and
alleles of individuals in a population.
❖ Mutation may affect an individual gene (during gene
mutation) or an entire chromosome (during
chromosomal mutation)
❖ Gene mutation refers to change in structure of DNA or
nucleotide base sequence at a single locus
❖ Chromosomal mutation refers to change in number or
structure of chromosomes

Example of gene mutation is sickle cell anaemia

Biology Unit, KMPk | 7

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES

Example of chromosomal mutation is Down syndrome

Environmental Characteristics of animal and plant species can be affected

variation by environmental factors such as climate, diet and culture.

Example:
❖ A garden pea plant would reach a height of 6 ft. if
provided with adequate light, water and nutrients.
❖ An individual will become fat if eat too much or
become skinny if eat too little.
❖ Different culture may also lead to variation in physical
appearance.

Biology Unit, KMPk | 8

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
CHAPTER 3: VARIATION
3.3 Selection

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) Define selection
b) Describe two types of selection:
i) natural selection
ii) artificial selection

MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES

Definition of Selection is a process in which individuals that have
selection certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at
higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

Selection occur by means of natural or artificial controlling

factors.

In natural selection, species with useful adaptations to the

environment are more likely to survive and produce progeny
than are those with less useful adaptations. The limited
resources available in an environment promotes competition
in which organisms of the same or different species struggle
to survive. In the competition for food, space and mates that
occurs, the less well-adapted individuals die or fail to
reproduce, and those who are better adapted do survive and
reproduce.

Artificial selection (or selective breeding) differs from

natural selection in that heritable variations in a species are
manipulated by humans through controlled breeding. The
breeder attempts to isolate and propagate those genotypes
that are responsible for a plant or animal’s desired qualities.
These qualities are economically or aesthetically desirable to
humans.

Biology Unit, KMPk | 9

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES
Two types of When it comes to natural selection, there are three different
selection : types of selection that can occur. These types include the
natural following:
selection and
artificial ◆ Stabilizing selection
selection ◆ Disruptive selection
◆ Directional selection

To make explaining about natural selection easier, we will

consider the distribution of traits across a population in
graphical form. The distribution scales of phenotypic traits
typically show greater numbers of individuals with
intermediate phenotypes and fewer and fewer toward the
extremes. This is called normal distribution curve (bell-
shaped curve).
If we were talking about height as a trait, we would see that
without any selection pressure on this trait, the heights of
individuals in a population would vary, with most
individuals being of an average height and fewer being
extremely short or extremely tall. However, when selection
pressures act on a trait, this normal distribution curve can be
altered.

Stabilizing selection Directional selection Disruptive selection

Biology Unit, KMPk | 10

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES

Three types of 1. Stabilizing selection

natural selection: ❖ Favors the intermediate phenotype and
stabilizing, ❖ Act against / eliminate both extreme phenotypes.
disruptive and ❖ When stabilizing selection occurs, the population
directional stabilizes on a particular phenotype and genetic diversity
decreases

Example:- Birth mass of human baby

- - - - Original population

2. Disruptive selection
❖ Favors both extreme phenotypes and
❖ Act against / eliminate intermediate phenotype.
❖ This type of selection increase genetic variance as the
population becomes more diverse and often leads to
formation of new species (speciation).

Example:- Beak size of birds in Galapagos Island

In Galapagos Island, there are small and large size
seeds.
Bird with medium beak size cannot crack the large size
seeds and cannot reach small hole consisting of the
small size seeds.

Biology Unit, KMPk | 11

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES

Three types of
natural selection: - - - - Original population
stabilizing,
disruptive and
directional

3. Directional selection

◆ Favors one extreme phenotype.

◆ Act against / eliminate the other extreme and
intermediate phenotypes.
◆ When the environment changes, populations will often
undergo directional selection. The result of directional
selection is a shift in the population’s genetic variance
toward the new, fit phenotype.

Example:- Color of peppered moths (during 18th and

19th centuries in England)
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, the moths were
predominately light in color, which allowed them to
blend in with the light-colored trees and lichens in their
environment.
As soot began emitting from factories, the trees
darkened and the light-colored moths became easier for
predatory birds to spot.
Over time, frequency of the melanic form of the moth
increased because their darker coloration provided
camouflage against the sooty tree.
Biology Unit, KMPk | 12
Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES
The melanic moth had a higher survival rate in habitats
affected by air pollution.

The light-colored moth is

nearly invisible on this
pollution-free tree,
camouflaging it from
predators.

Biology Unit, KMPk | 13

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES
Artificial selection (also known as selective breeding) is
Two types of defined as a process in which human altering the genotype of
selection : an organism by choosing favored characteristics for breeding
natural thus producing new strain of organism for specific purpose.
selection and
artificial Dog breeding is a prime example of artificial selection.
selection Although all dogs are descendants of the wolf, the use of
artificial selection has allowed humans to drastically alter the
appearance of dogs.

For centuries, dogs have been bred for various desired

characteristics, leading to the creation of a wide range of
dogs, from the tiny Chihuahua to the massive Great Dane,
each breed originates from back to a common ancestor.

The common ancestor was artificially bred to produce

friendly, faster and more useful versions for the benefit of
the human.

Early artificial selection of dog breeds was primarily a move

towards a loyal animal which would protect its human
owner, increase chances of a successful hunt and when
agriculture began, guard stock.

One breed does not fill all human requirements. Each breeds
with particular tasks:- the speedy greyhound for the hunt, the
intelligent collie for herding, the aggressive but loyal mastiff
for protection, the bloodhound for tracking, and the small,
pretty lapdog for companionship.

Biology Unit, KMPk | 14

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES
In farming livestock, dairy cows are bred according to milk
yield. Brahman cattle is crossed with English shorthorn
cattle thus producing Santa Gertrudis cattle.

Artificial selection has long been used in agriculture to

produce crops with desirable traits. Many fruits and
vegetables have been improved or even created through
artificial selection. For example, broccoli, cauliflower, and
cabbage were all derived from the wild mustard plant
(Brassica oleracea) through selective breeding.

Biology Unit, KMPk | 15

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES
Artificial selection exerts a directional selection pressure
Two types of that leads to changes in allele and genotype frequencies
artificial within a population, gives rise to new breeds (strains /
selection: varieties / subspecies) and play important roles in evolution
inbreeding and of modern crop plants, farm animals and domestic pets.
outbreeding
Types of artificial selection or selective breeding:
◼ Inbreeding
◼ Outbreeding

Inbreeding is when the animals bred are very close relatives

(such as siblings). Continued inbreeding results in offspring
that are very genetically alike. After many generations of
inbreeding, the offspring will be almost genetically identical,
and will produce identical offspring. When this happens, the
organism is called purebred.

Disadvantages of inbreeding: Hybrid vigour

◼ Decrease in genetic variations. (heterosis) refers to
◼ Decrease of hybrid vigour e.g. poor growth, less fertile the increase in
◼ Individuals are less resistance to disease. characteristics such
as size, growth rate,
fertility and yield of a
hybrid organism over
those of its parents.

Outbreeding (crossbreeding) involves breeding two

unrelated individuals. This is often to produce offspring with
desirable characteristics from two different individuals.

Advantages of outbreeding:
❖Increase in genetic variations.
❖Increase of hybrid vigour
❖Hybrid has greater adaptation to environmental changes.

Disadvantages of outbreeding:
Hybrids are often sterile (cannot produce gametes) because
do not have sets of homologous chromosomes and will only
become fertile after chromosome doubling.

Biology Unit, KMPk | 16

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024

CHAPTER 3: VARIATION
3.4 Speciation

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) Define speciation.
b) Define biological species concept based on reproductive isolation.
c) State the factors involved in formation of new species:
i) reproductive isolation
ii) genetic drift
iii) hybridization
iv) adaptive radiation

MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES

Biological Definition of species:

species concept ❖ A population or group of populations whose members are
based on able to interbreed in nature producing viable, fertile
reproductive offspring and reproductively isolate from other
isolation populations.

Two populations are considered as distinct species if they

mate but producing sterile offspring.

Example: A horse and a donkey can mate producing a sterile

mule. So, horse and donkey are two populations of distinct
species i.e. horse and donkey are different species.

Biology Unit, KMPk | 17

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES

Two populations are considered as distinct species if they do

not interbreed in nature.
Courtship songs of
Example: Western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta) and the males of each
Eastern meadowlark (Sturnella magna) appear to be identical species are
but their distinct songs prevent interbreeding. distinctly different
and females of each
species respond to
the songs of the
males of their own
species, leading to
strong reproductive
isolation between
the two groups.

Biological species concept cannot be used to describe

organisms that reproduce asexually such as bacteria and fungi.

Definition of ◆ An evolutionary process in which one species splits into

speciation two or more species.
◆ Speciation is a process by which one or more species
arise from previously existing species through
evolution

There are two modes of speciation: allopatric and sympatric

Biology Unit, KMPk | 18

Biology Student’s Companion Resources DB024_2023/2024
MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES

Allopatric speciation:
◆ Formation of new species occurs when a population is
separated by geographical barriers (e.g. mountain
ranges, hills, oceans, seas)

Sympatric speciation:
❖ Formation of new species occurs when a population is
reproductively isolated within same geographical area.

Factors involved Four factors involved in speciation (formation of new

in formation of species):
new species
◆ Reproductive isolation
◆ Genetic drift
◆ Hybridization
◆ Adaptive radiation

Biology Unit, KMPk | 19