ORNAMENTAL AND TURF

PEST MANAGEMENT
Study Guide for Pesticide Application and Safety
Category 3

Utah Department of Agriculture and Food

Division of Plant Industry
350 North Redwood Road
Salt Lake City, Utah 84114-6500
Revised February 2011
 STUDY GUIDE FOR
ORNAMENTAL AND TURF
PEST MANAGEMENT

The educational material in this study guide is provided to assist pesticide applicators in
preparing for the Ornamental and Turf category examination. This guide does not include all
of the information needed for the examination. Other topics that are covered on the
examination include detailed information on understanding and following pesticide label
directions, emergency response, personal protective equipment (PPE), pesticide movement in
the environment, mixing and handling pesticides, and additional application methods and
equipment. Information on some of these and other topics can be found in the National
Pesticide Applicator Certification Core Manual, published by the National Association of
State Departments of Agriculture Research Foundation.

The National Pesticide Applicator Certification Core Manual and numerous other references
can be accessed on the Utah Department of Agriculture and Food (UDAF) web site. The
UDAF web site is located at <http://www.ag.state.ut.us/plantind/pest_app.html>.

The organizations involved in the preparation of this study guide were the Utah Department of
Agriculture and Food, and Utah State University Extension. Other contributors include the
U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region VIII.

The material and recommendations presented in this study guide are based on
information believed to be correct. No endorsement, guarantee, or warranty of any kind,
expressed or implied is made with respect to the information contained herein. When
working with pesticides, follow the directions provided on the product label and the
appropriate pesticide rules for Utah.

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The individuals in Utah State University Extension that contributed to the 2011 updates, revision, and
reformatting of this manual were F.R. Beard and H.M. Deer.

This manual was edited in 2000 by Larry Sagers and reformatted for UDAF printing in 2009.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1

II. PLANT AND SOIL TYPES .............................................................................. 7

III. ORNAMENTAL PEST MANAGEMENT .................................................... 11

IV. TURF PEST MANAGEMENT ....................................................................... 23

V. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT ....................................................... 29

VI. PROPER PESTICIDE USE ............................................................................ 33

VII. WORKER PROTECTION STANDARD ...................................................... 37

VIII. PROTECTING GROUNDWATER AND ENDANGERED SPECIES .... 39

IX. CALIBRATION INFORMATION ................................................................. 43

APPENDIX 1: UTAH NOXIOUS AND RESTRICTED WEEDS AND SEEDS ...... 47

GLOSSARY OF TERMS ............................................................................................ 48

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iv
 I. INTRODUCTION

TOPIC PAGE

STUDY GUIDE ...................................................................................................... 1

PEST PERSPECTIVE ........................................................................................... 1
PESTICIDES AND THE ENVIRONMENT ..................................................... 2
PESTICIDES AND PESTS ................................................................................... 5
PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENT ..................................................................... 6

management must evaluate the economics and

STUDY GUIDE efficacy of pesticide treatments and strictly
adhere to pesticide label directions. Applicators
The ornamental and turf study guide provides are ultimately responsible for any injuries or
basic information that applicators of pesticides damages that occur as a result of pesticide
need to meet the minimum federal and state treatments.
standards for certification, recertification, and
licensing. The standards are set by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and PEST PERSPECTIVE
the Utah Department of Agriculture and Food
(UDAF) in line with the Federal Insecticide, Humans depend on living things to provide the
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), as essentials for survival. Destructive pests make
amended and the Utah Pesticide Control Act. the efficient production of these necessities very
difficult. Other pest organisms constitute a
Utah pesticide applicators who are licensed to threat to the health and comfort of people. Such
apply restricted use pesticides in the ornamental pests must be managed to protect desirable
and turf category includes those using pesticides plants and animals.
to control pests in the maintenance and
production of ornamental trees, shrubs, flowers Plants or animals may be identified as a pest if
and turf. This includes controlling pests on they appear in unwanted places or their numbers
home foundations, sidewalks, driveways, and are too great. For example, a weed is a plant
other similar locations. growing where it is not wanted. In this context,
a corn plant in a lawn is a weed and a rose in a
Successful pest managers depend on several cornfield is a weed. Some animals have been
control strategies including prevention, early domesticated and provide humans with food and
detection, correct diagnosis, and the appropriate fiber. Other animals provide recreation through
selection and timing of pest treatments. Plant human interaction, but if these animals are
protection practices must include the destructive or carry diseases then they are pests.
implementation of cultural practices that
promote plant health and limit plant There are beneficial birds that eat destructive
susceptibility to injury from pests. Pest insects and many provide aesthetic enjoyment.

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Other birds, because of their population numbers Concern about the environment has added
and/or excessive noise, are regarded as public considerable stimulus to the development of pest
nuisances. Some insects destroy crops or management techniques that reduce the need for
transmit diseases, while others pollinate plants or pesticides. The challenge is to accomplish
serve as parasites or predators of undesirable pesticide use reduction without lowering yields
insects. In general, those plants or animals that or quality. This goal has been accomplished in a
conflict with the immediate or long term needs few instances and there is reason to believe that
and desires of humans are regarded as pests. further progress will be made.

Both the beneficial and harmful effects of

PESTICIDES AND pesticides are determined by how pesticides and
THE ENVIRONMENT the environment react to each other. To be
effective a pesticide must normally penetrate the
Chemical pesticides are commonly used to pest, move or be transported to the site of action,
control pests. The goal of a pesticide application and there disrupt or alter a vital function of the
is to effectively manage the pest without pest. The manner in which the pesticide affects
threatening the safety of humans and the the vital function is called its mode of action.
environment. Instances of inappropriate use or Penetration, transport, and mode of action
over application have resulted in the banning or involve interactions between the pesticide and
limited availability of some pesticides. In some the pest.
instances past mistakes have resulted in the
development of pesticides that are safer to use. Interactions are also involved in the metabolism,
accumulation, and elimination of pesticides by
Using pesticides often means the difference the pest, as well as in the biodegradation and
between profit and loss. The use of pesticides biological magnification of pesticides. In
has become almost indispensable to modern addition, the ability of pesticides to kill or
agriculture and to the consumers of agricultural otherwise alter one pest, while not affecting
products. Agricultural producers depend on another, and/or the pest’s ability to develop a
pesticides for large scale production and resistance to pesticides are dependent on
consumers depend on these products being differences in the interaction between pesticides
readily availability in the market. and pests.

There is no indication that pesticides will be Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane or DDT

eliminated and they continue to be the most as it is better known is one example of how
effective defense against pests. It is important pesticide perceptions have changed throughout
that researchers continue to investigate the the history of their use. DDT and other persistent
effects of pesticides on humans and the chlorinated hydrocarbons formed the basis for
environment. There are numerous well funded much of today's public awareness and the
groups concerned about environmental legislative action that controls current pesticide
protection that will continue to publicly resist the use.
use and misuse of pesticides.
DDT was the most well known organic
Where safety concerns occur relative to the use insecticide and most widely used chemical for
of a pesticide, the advantages must outweigh the the control of mosquitoes responsible for
disadvantages for a pesticide’s continued use. malaria, typhus, and other insect borne diseases.
Such decisions require objective evaluation. At Today it is banned from use in the US. It is still
present, the safest way to use a pesticide is to manufactured and continues to be used to battle
assure that applicators and handlers carefully mosquitoes in other parts of the world.
adhere to label instructions and apply pesticides
only when appropriate.

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Rachel Carson published the book Silent Spring extremely small amounts of some chemicals.
in 1962. In her writings it was alleged that DDT However, identification of these chemicals is by
harmed bird reproduction by thinning egg shells no means certain unless confirmatory techniques
and caused cancer in humans. Silent Spring are employed. This may be very hard and
caused a huge public outcry which eventually perhaps impossible at such low levels unless
resulted in DDT being banned for use in the US. large samples are used. Also, at these levels it
This was one of the most important events that may not be possible to rule out accidental
led to the environmental movement. contamination of the sample, either at the time of
collection, during storage, or in the analytical
DDT was subsequently banned from agricultural process.
use in many countries by the 1970s. DDT,
perhaps, more than any other pesticide in The importance of confirming the identity of
history, is responsible for saving hundreds of pesticides was illustrated recently when two
thousands of lives, but is perceived to be too chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, dieldrin
hazardous for use in the environment. The and heptachlor, were apparently discovered in
controversy surrounding DDT continues as soil that had been collected and sealed in jars
tissue analysis has found this pesticide to be between 1909 and 1911, long before these
present in humans from all parts of the world. chemicals had even been synthesized. Efforts to
confirm the identity of these chemicals proved
PESTICIDE MONITORING they were not pesticides but apparently naturally
Pesticides are monitored in the environment by occurring constituents of the soil.
the EPA, FDA, and USDA. The monitoring
program includes fish, shellfish, wildlife, water, There is also evidence that polychlorinated
soil, food, and humans. In addition to the federal biphenyls (PCBs) have been erroneously
program, considerable monitoring is also done reported as DDT in environmental samples.
by state agencies, scientists from universities, Apparently PCBs, which were used in a variety
and the chemical industry. of products ranging from plastics to industrial
coolants, are widespread in the environment and
Extensive monitoring indicates that only a can easily be mistaken for DDT if proper
limited number of pesticides are generally found analytical procedures are not followed.
in environmental samples such as soil, water, air,
and wildlife. However, articles written about PESTICIDES IN WATER
pesticides in the environment often generalize Pesticides may enter water in several ways,
about their occurrence, giving the false including fallout from the atmosphere, drift from
impression that all pesticides are involved. nearby applications, and movement from treated
land by means of soil particles or runoff water.
Careful reading of these articles will usually They may also be applied directly to water,
reveal that they are based on studies involving either purposely or accidentally. Although
DDT or another of the more persistent quantitative information on the importance of
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. The only these sources of contamination is limited, it
samples that commonly contain pesticides are seems likely that treated soil is the principal
food crops that have been treated with these factor involved.
materials. These generally occur at levels below
tolerance limits set by EPA. Pesticide Most pesticides found in the environment are
monitoring studies must be interpreted carefully, often bound tightly to soil particles or organic
especially when dealing with amounts in parts matter in the soil and are not readily soluble in
per million or parts per billion. water. These particles can move long distances
by wind and water, so it is not surprising that
The use of gas liquid chromatography and mass pesticides are sometimes found far removed
spectrometry has made possible the detection of from the site of application. Although

3
agricultural lands contribute to pesticide PESTICIDES IN WILDLIFE
contamination of water, some of this pollution It is not surprising to learn that pesticides found
originates from urban areas where pesticides are in wildlife are generally the same ones found in
used in the home and garden. soil and water. Wildlife consume the food
derived directly or indirectly from soil and water.
Some of the contamination of the Great Lakes In some instances, pesticides will accumulate in
with DDT has been traced to city sewers. wildlife at concentrations ranging up to
Pesticide contamination in the Red Cedar River thousands of times more than in soil and water.
in Michigan is reported to come mostly from This process is biomagnification and is known to
waste water treatment plants, even though the occur with persistent chemicals that are readily
river runs through areas of extensive agricultural soluble in fat. One of the best examples is DDT.
development.
Dieldrin and heptachlor have also been
The pesticides most often found in water were implicated in biomagnification as have some
some of the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides other chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides.
including dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, lindane, Some of the highest residues of the chlorinated
BHC, and chlordane. Herbicides such as hydrocarbon insecticides have been found in
atrazine, alachlor, prometon, and simazine are birds of prey such as hawks and eagles. Fish
now the most common pesticides found in water. eating birds are especially likely to contain
residues of these insecticides. As might be
PESTICIDES IN SOIL expected, the insecticides most commonly found
Soils are important in determining what happens are DDT and dieldrin. These chemicals have
to a pesticide after application. Even though been associated with lowered reproduction in
some pesticide volatilizes before reaching the several species of these birds. In fact, this is the
soil or is intercepted by plants, a large portion principal reason that the use of DDT and dieldrin
eventually reaches the soil. As previously were severely restricted in the United States and
discussed, soil can serve as a reservoir from other countries of the world.
which pesticides may move to other areas by
water or wind erosion. The presence of pesticides in seed eating birds is
generally much less than in birds of prey, and to
Pesticides may also escape by evaporation from date, there is little reason to believe there has
the soil surface into the atmosphere. Soil been any effect on their reproduction. Seed
organisms may serve to transport pesticides from eating birds have been killed by direct
one area to another, usually because they serve application of pesticides and by eating food
as a food source for animals or birds. contaminated with pesticides. This is not a
general occurrence and, so far as is known, has
The fact that soils and organisms in soils are not caused population declines that would
largely responsible for the breakdown or threaten the existence of a species of seed eating
inactivation of pesticides is of great importance. bird.
This neutralization of pesticides varies with soil
type and climate and is in part the determining PESTICIDES IN FOOD
factor as to whether a particular pesticide should Pesticides in food are monitored and controlled
be used in a given area. Aside from purely by three federal agencies, the EPA, FDA, and
environmental concerns, if a pesticide persists USDA. State agencies are also involved in these
too long in soil, it may also damage future crops. activities.
Most pesticides do not move readily in soil
because they are bound to soil particles, EPA has the responsibility of establishing
especially clay and organic matter. tolerances for pesticides in food. FDA monitors
Consequently, they are usually found in the top pesticides in foods that are prepared for the table.
few inches of soil. In rare instances some have This is commonly referred to as a "market-
been found at depths of several feet. basket" or "total-diet” studies.

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FDA determines the amount of pesticides in experience and current EPA testing requirements
foods shipped in interstate commerce. It has give considerable assurance that risks will be
authority to seize shipments that contain minimal. During the past ten years, the time
pesticide residues above tolerance levels and to required to meet federal testing requirements has
initiate legal proceedings against the shipper. nearly doubled. There has also been a notable
reduction in the appearance of new pesticides on
FDA examines foods for contaminants other the market and increased emphasis on finding
than pesticides, including such things as rodent ways to reduce the need for these chemicals.
hair, fecal pellets, and insect parts. Tolerances
are established for these contaminants in food as The concern about the effects of pesticides on
well as pesticides. While consumers might be the environment is an extremely controversial
surprised to learn that a certain number of fecal issue debated by scientists, politicians, and the
pellets or insect legs are permitted in foods, general public. One of the main reasons for this
perhaps they can take some comfort in knowing is that it’s very hard to prove that a chemical is
that current standards are much stricter than they or isn't harmful, especially when it is present in
were 20 or 30 years ago. small amounts and its effects cannot be clearly
demonstrated outside the laboratory.
Pesticides have been largely responsible for
these strict standards, and ironically, these
standards are now a serious obstacle to the
PESTICIDES AND
reduction of pesticide usage in certain situations. PESTS
To the farmer, the use of pesticides may mean
much more than simply increasing yield. If the Pesticides include a variety of chemical products
quality of his crop is lowered by pest damage, he designed for the management of pests. The term
may not be able to market it at any price. pesticide refers to products such as herbicides
and insecticides that are used to kill or control
Every year, FDA determines the amount of harmful organisms such as weeds or insects.
pesticide chemicals in processed and raw The following list includes numerous types of
agricultural products that are shipped interstate. pesticides and the pests they control.
This is a surveillance and regulatory program
designed for the enforcement of tolerances set by Acaricide: mites and ticks
EPA. Samples are collected throughout the year Adulticide: adult pests
at producing, shipping, and destination points. Algicide: algae
Aphicide: aphids
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS Attractant: insects and vertebrates
As we learn more about the behavior of Avicide: birds
pesticides in the environment, we find it Bactericide: bacteria
necessary to devise more sensitive and Defoliant: foliage removal
discerning techniques to determine what their Desiccant: water removal from plant foliage
total impact will be. Invariably, man's Disinfectant: microorganisms
innovations begin without a complete Fumigant: insects, rodents, and weeds
understanding of their consequences, such as the Fungicide: fungi and other plant pathogens
development of cars, airplanes, and the atomic Germicide: germs
bomb. Pesticides are no exception. The best we Growth regulator: insects and plants
can do is to use all available knowledge, make Herbicide: weeds
allowances for unknown factors, and carefully Hormone: insects and plants
estimate benefits and risks. Insecticide: insects
Larvicide: larval pests
We will probably never be able to prove that any Miticide: mites
pesticide can be used without risk; proving a Molluscicide: snails and slugs
negative is generally impossible. But past Nematicide: nematodes

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Ovicide: eggs
Pediculicide: lice
Pheromone: insects
Piscicide: fish
Predacide: predators
Repellent: insects and vertebrates
Rodenticide: rodents
Sanitizer: microorganisms
Silvicide: trees and woody vegetation
Slimicide: slime molds
Sterilant: microorganisms
Wood preservative: fungi and insects

PRECAUTIONARY
STATEMENT
Pesticides offer both benefits and risks. Benefits
can be maximized and risks minimized by
reading and following the labeling. Pay close
attention to the directions for use and the
precautionary statements. The information on
pesticide labels contains both instructions and
limitations. Pesticide labels are legal documents
and it is a violation of both federal and state
laws to use a pesticide inconsistent with its
labeling. The pesticide applicator is legally
responsible for proper use. Read and follow the
label instructions.

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 II. PLANT AND SOIL TYPES

TOPIC PAGE

PLANT TYPES BY LIFE CYCLE .................................................................... 7

PLANT TYPES BY FORM.................................................................................. 8
SOIL TYPES .......................................................................................................... 8

stores food reserves without flowering or

PLANT TYPES BY producing seeds. The second year, or second
LIFE CYCLE growing season, is when the plant develops
mature flowers and produces seeds. Musk
The key to effective herbicide applications is thistle and hounds tongue are examples of weedy
applying the right herbicide to the properly biennials.
identified target plant at the right time.
Therefore an understanding of the life cycle of PERENNIALS
plants is critically important. The following are Perennials are plants that live from year to year.
categories of plant life cycles. Some are short lived, while others can live for a
very long time. Perennials die back to the
ANNUALS ground each winter, but grow from the same
Annuals are plants that complete their life cycle roots the following year. Weedy perennial
in one growing season. The seed from an annual species generally have large underground root
plant germinates, grows into a mature plant, and systems for storing food reserves. This is one of
produces seeds in one growing season. Summer the reasons it is difficult to control perennial
annuals and winter annuals are the two basic species. Examples of weedy species that are
types of annuals. perennials are field bindweed, leafy spurge, and
Russian knapweed.
Summer annuals germinate in the spring and
complete their life by summer or fall. With Understanding the life cycle of a plant plays an
winter annuals, the seed germinates in the fall important role when applying herbicides. The
and over winters as a seedling, then grows to highest level of control for most annuals and
maturity and produces seeds the next spring or many biennials is obtained when they are in the
summer. Russian thistle and puncture vine are young seedling and rosette stages. For most
examples of summer annuals. Cheatgrass and perennial species the prebloom to bloom stage is
cereal rye are examples of winter annuals. the time when the plant is vulnerable to
herbicides because this is the period when
BIENNIALS perennials are putting most of their energy into
Biennials are plants that take two years, or two seed production.
growing seasons, to complete their life cycle. In
the first year, a biennial germinates, grows and

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 growing habits is very beneficial when
PLANT TYPES implementing a control method or selecting a
BY FORM herbicide.

There are many types of plants that grow on TREES

ornamental and turf landscapes. Grasses, Trees are plants that generally grow from a
broadleaf’s, shrubs and trees are some of the single trunk and are more than ten feet in height.
most common ones. It is important to properly There are many tree species found on ornamental
identify the plant and employ the appropriate and turf landscapes and there are many reasons
management strategy. The following are some to control tree growth. Russian olives and
of the common plant forms found on ornamental Siberian elms are very invasive trees that can
and turf landscapes. overtake and crowd out all other plants.
Although trees are one of the most loved plant
GRASSES species, they are also one of the biggest
Grasses are the most common plant species problems.
found on ornamental and turf landscapes.
Grasses are classified as monocots, which are
plants that have one seed leaf at germination.
SOIL TYPES
Grasses are an important plant for ornamental
An understanding of soil types and their
and turf landscapes erosion control. Knowing
interaction with herbicides is necessary for
that the problem plant is a grass is critical in
effective vegetation management. Some soil
selecting the appropriate herbicide for control.
types will decrease or increase herbicide
There are many species of grasses and most are
effectiveness. Soil types can influence how
very useful, but there are several species that are
much herbicide must be used and how long it
weeds. Two grasses that present special control
will last. Soil can affect the way that plant roots
problems are cheatgrass and medusahead rye.
absorb the herbicide and how it moves through
the soil.
BROADLEAFS
Broadleaf plants are generally dicots. These are
The classification of soils is a complex operation
plants that have two seed leaves at the time the
that can be difficult to correctly categorize. To
seed germinates. Broadleaf plants make up a
predict herbicide interactions several soil
large part of the plants known as weeds. They
characteristics are typically necessary. One of
also encompass many of the plants known as
the most important soil characteristics is soil
wildflowers. Ornamental and turf landscapes
texture. The three basic textures that soil can
managers must know the difference between
have are sand, silt, and/or clay. The textural
which species are weeds and which are not.
names given to soils are based on the amount of
Many weed species have very showy flowers.
each of the three soil parts. Soils highest in the
Dalmatian toadflax and purple loosestrife have
percent of sand are sandy soils. Soils highest in
attractive flowers, but they are a very invasive
the percent of silt are silts and those with the
weed species.
highest in clay are clay. Soil type identification
depends on properly determining the size of the
Shrubs individual soil particles. Sand ranges in size
Shrubs are woody plants with multiple stems and from 0.05 to 2 mm. Silt range in size from 0.002
grow to a height of less than ten feet. There are to 0.05 mm. Clay is less than 0.002 mm in size.
many shrub species found on ornamental and
turf landscapes. Most shrub species are not
Classification of Soil Texture by Feel
considered weeds. Some of the common shrub
• Sand, loamy sand: Feels gritty, but does not
species found on ornamental and turf landscapes
ribbon or smear on the hand.
in the western states are sagebrush and
• Sandy loam: Feels gritty and leaves a smear on
rabbitbrush. Knowing the shrub species and its
the hand, but does not ribbon.

8
• Silt loam: Feels smooth and flour like, but manager should have a working knowledge of
does not ribbon. the soil underlying and adjacent to ornamental
• Sandy clay loam: Feels gritty and forms a and turf landscapes.
ribbon that breaks into pieces.
• Sandy clay: Feels gritty and forms long
pliable ribbons.

Soil Structure
Soil structure depends on how the various
particles are grouped together into a stable
collection by organic substances. There are
several soil structure types such as granular,
blocky, and platy. Soil structure directly
influences the amount of water in the soil. Soil
structure influences how much water the soil will
hold and how fast water will move through the
soil. In the case of soils that are mostly clay,
water does not infiltrate the soil at all. In
contrast, water moves through sandy soils at a
very fast rate. Soil structure affects how quickly
a herbicide will move through the soil and can
influence how much herbicide is necessary for
an effective and safe application.

Organic Soil
Humus is the organic matter found in soil. It is
usually not used in the classification of soil type.
When organic matter is found in high levels in a
soil it can dominate the soil properties. Soils can
be classified as organic soils if they meet the
following criteria.

1. The mineral content of the soil has no clay

and the organic content is 20% or more.
2. The mineral content of the soil is between 0
and 50% clay and the organic content is
between 20% and 30%.
3. The mineral content of the soil is 50% or more
clay and the organic content is 30% or more.

Organic matter in the soil can hold water and

herbicides very tight because of the amount of
negative and positive charged ions. This can be
good as the herbicide will be held in the soil and
will not continue to move downward into the soil
profile. When some herbicides, such as diuron,
bind with the soil they will not move through the
soil at all. Soil type, structure, and makeup
impacts the effectiveness of herbicide
applications. A ornamental and turf landscapes

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10
 III. ORNAMENTAL PEST MANAGEMENT

TOPIC PAGE

ORNAMENTAL PLANT DISEASES ............................................................... 11

ORNAMENTAL PLANT INSECTS AND RELATED PESTS ................... 13
WOODY PLANT INSECTS AND RELATED PESTS ................................ 16
TYPES OF VEGETATION ................................................................................ 17
ORNAMENTAL PLANT WEEDS .................................................................... 18
HERBICIDE TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS ........................................ 19

ORNAMENTAL PLANT PATHOGENIC DISEASES

Once an infectious disease starts, the process
DISEASES continues until the causal agent or host plant is
removed or environmental conditions prevent its
A disease is anything that interferes with normal development. Pathogens that cause infectious
plant function. It can be biotic or pathogenic diseases grow in plant tissue and disrupt normal
(caused by living organisms) or it can be abiotic physiological functions. When pathogenic
or nonpathogenic (caused by physiological organisms grow, they produce billions of spores
disorders). Powdery mildew is a disease caused that spread to other plants, causing disease
by a living organism. Iron deficiency is a disease outbreaks. Disease management reduces or
caused by a physiological disorder. A disease is delays epidemics enough to let plants thrive.
not a condition, it is a process. Infectious Pesticides are designed to stop pathogen growth
organisms, unfavorable weather, mechanical on or within host plants and to protect healthy
injuries, or chemical injuries cause abnormal plants. For many pathogens there is no pesticide
plant growth. treatment currently available.

NONPATHOGENIC DISEASES INFECTIOUS DISEASE

Physiological disorders can be the result of DEVELOPMENT
unfavorable weather, mechanical damage, The three things an infectious diseases needs for
nutrient deficiencies, excess salts, or toxic development are the presence of parasite
chemicals and are not caused by pathogens. organism, an available susceptible host, and
Most plant diseases are nonpathogenic. These favorable environmental conditions. Pesticides
causes do not grow in or move from diseased to can stop pathogen development, inhibit pathogen
healthy plants. Pesticides are not appropriate development, and reduce host susceptibility
and will not cure noninfectious diseases. without changing the conditions that are
favorable to the host.

11
Favorable conditions for one infectious disease plants or small clusters and rarely affect large
may be unfavorable for another. For example, areas. Problems that occur suddenly and affect
white mold can damage some annuals under hot, different plants are more likely noninfectious
moist conditions, but is less damaging during diseases.
cool, dry periods. In contrast, botrytis or gray
mold occurs under moist conditions below 60 Diagnosing or distinguishing diseases by
degrees F. characteristic signs and symptoms is essential.
Signs and symptoms usually show together in
Moisture extremes affect disease development. diseased plants. Signs appear in the form of
Fungi and bacteria prefer wet conditions to identifiable pathogen structures that occur with
enhance spore production and release. Rose rust diseases. They include fungal spores, spore-
prefers high humidity while leaf spot in aspen or producing bodies, bacterial ooze, and parts of
fire blight in pears requires free moisture such as parasitic plants. A hand lens or microscope
dripping dews or splashing rains to spread. helps identify signs.
Light, wind, pH, fertility, and soil type influence
disease development. Symptoms appear in the form of plant disease
reactions. Common disease symptoms include
Environmental influences are very important for plant tissue that is dead, overdeveloped, or
disease development. For example, sudden underdeveloped. Tissue death or necrotic
temperature drops increase susceptibility to symptoms come from degeneration and death of
fungal cankers. Waterlogged soil increases root plant parts. Necrotic symptoms and their
rots and moist conditions increase scab and leaf definitions are as follows:
spot. Pathogens must complete developmental • Scorch or burn: Sudden death and browning
cycles with spore production, dispersal, infection of large areas
and resting. • Streaks and stripes: Elongated, narrow,
parallel necrotic lesions associated with leaf
Some diseases spread slowly to new hosts while veins
others spread rapidly in a single season. Slow • Net necrosis: Irregular interlocking necrotic
spreading diseases produce spores or other lines
inoculum during the growing season and • Blight: Foliage or blossoms suddenly killed
disperse them at the season’s end or the by pathogenic organisms
beginning of the next season. Diseases that
• Blast: Blighting or sudden death of buds,
spread rapidly disperse their inoculum almost
flowers or fruit
continuously. Pathogens on a few plants produce
large amounts of inoculum infecting many • Die back: Dying back from tips of twigs or
susceptible hosts. branches
• Spot: Circular, dead areas on foliage
Pathogenic diseases are caused by fungi, • Shot hole: Dropping out of necrotic tissue
bacteria, viruses, nematodes, parasitic seed from foliage, leaving circular holes
plants, mycoplasmas, and actinomycetes. Fungi, • Pitting: Depressions of dead fleshy tissue
(plural of fungus) are responsible for most plant under intact skin of fruits and tubers
diseases. Pathogens get there nutrients from • Mummification: Dried, wrinkled, rotted fruits
other organisms. The pathogens that get nutrients that stay on the plant
from dead plant materials are saprophytes and • Rot: Decomposing dead tissue
those who get nutrients from living plants are • Canker: Sunken necrotic lesions on stems,
parasites. Most pathogens penetrate plant tissue tubers or roots
mechanically or chemically. •Damping-off: Rot at the stem base so the
plant falls over
DIAGNOSING DISEASES • Leak: Soft rot in which juices leak out
Distribution of diseased plants within an area • Bleeding: Chronic flow of sap (often
provides valuable information for diagnosis. In
fermented) from wounds
early stages, infectious diseases attack scattered
12
• Scald: Blanching of surface tissues, giving a into leaves, roots, stems, seeds, and nuts. They
pale or dirty brown color can carry diseases and some suck the sap from
• Gummosis: Viscous gum which oozes from leaves, stems, roots, fruits and flowers. Some
wounds insects damage, weaken, or kill plants, leaving
• Resinosis: Abnormal exuding of resin unhealthy and/or unattractive ornamental plants.
Some insects will continue causing damage after
Tissue underdevelopment involves stunting, plants are harvested, stored, and processed.
lack of chlorophyll, or incomplete development
of plant parts. Their descriptions include: COMMON INSECT
• Chlorosis: Lack of chlorophyll or green color CHARACTERISTICS
as in yellows or mosaics Understanding insect classifications, growth,
• Etoliation: Spindly growth development, and life cycles is necessary to for
• Abortion or atrophy: Halt in development of effective pest control and allow for applicator
flowers and fruit intervention at the most effective time. Insect
control is most effective if they are treated during
• Growth Suppression: Complete prevention of
the most vulnerable point of their life cycle.
development of organs
• Dwarfing, rosetting, etc.: Stunting or tightly
Insect Classification
suppressed growth
All adult insects have three body segments that
include the head, thorax, and abdomen. Insects
Tissue overdevelopment involves galls, have six, jointed legs extending from their thorax
swellings, cell enlargement, or abnormal and insects are classified by mouth and wing
multiplication. Their descriptions include: structure.
• Abnormal organs: Development of
rudimentary or latent plant parts Insect Mouth Parts
• Premature growth: Development of shoots Insect mouths are adapted to perform piercing
from normally dormant buds and sucking, chewing, sponging, and siphoning
• Tissue transformation: Transformation of actions. A description of these actions and some
tissues or organs examples of the insects with this types of mouth
• Abnormal coloration: Atypical organ or parts are listed below:
tissue color development
• Gigantic growth: Tumor formation, callus, Piercing and sucking mouths have long slender
curl, scab, gall and root knots tubes to force into plant or animal tissue to suck
out fluids or blood. Stable flies, sucking lice,
bed bugs, mosquitoes, true bugs, and aphids are
ORNAMENTAL PLANT examples of insects that pierce and suck.
INSECTS AND
Chewing mouths have toothed jaws to bite and
RELATED PESTS tear. Beetles, caterpillars, grasshoppers, and ants
are examples of chewing insects.
Insects thrive in deserts, rain forests, hot springs,
snow, and caves. They are found in the air, soil, Sponging mouths have tubular tongue like
and water. Not all insects are pests and they are structures and spongy tips to soak up liquids or
important because they pollinate plants and feed soluble food. Insects may extrude digestive
on other pests. Most insects cause no harm and fluids onto the food before sponging.
relatively few eat human foods, destroy useful Houseflies, flesh flies, and blow flies are
plants, are a nuisance to humans, or negatively examples of sponging insects.
affect human health.
Siphoning mouths have a long tube for sucking
On the other hand there are many insects that are nectar. Insects coil the siphon tube when not in
pests and some of these insects damage use. Butterflies and moths are examples of
ornamental plants. Insects feed on and tunnel siphoning insects.
13
Insect Wings • Insect or mite remains: egg shells, shed skins,
Some adult insects have no wings, while others cocoons, frass, and trails of silk.
have two or four. Wings vary in shape, size, • Scale and aphid covering: most scales and
thickness, and structure. Beetles have hard, some aphids excrete a protective waxy
shell like wings while grasshopper wings are covering.
leathery. Flies have forewings that are • Honeydew: sticky liquid sugar excreted by
membranous and the wings of the true bug are insects. Black, sooty mold may grow on
part membranous and part hardened. Most honeydew.
insects have membranous hind wings. The wings • Sawdust, wood chips, and pitch balls:
of moths and butterflies are membranous but material on or below trunks from feeding by
covered with scales. bark beetles, wood borers and shoot borers.
Metamorphosis Natural Controls of Insects and Mites
Metamorphosis represents changes in shape, Natural controls for some pests in Utah are:
form, and size during life stages and can be
• Spider mites: predatory mites, minute pirate
either complete or incomplete. Insects that go
bugs, ladybird beetles, predatory thrips
through complete metamorphosis have four
developmental stages. Insects with incomplete • Aphids: wasps, ladybird beetles, syrphid
metamorphosis hatch from eggs and develop into flies, lacewings
wingless nymphs. • Scale: wasps, ladybird beetles, lacewings
• Leaf beetles: wasps, fungal diseases, spiders,
Eggs hatch into larvae (worms, caterpillars, stink-bugs
grubs or maggots). Because of feeding habits, • Bark beetles: fungal diseases, wasps
the insect larval stage is the most damaging to • Gall midges: wasps, predatory midges
plants. When larvae change into the resting or • Tussock moths: wasps, virus diseases,
pupae stage they do not eat. During the pupae tachinid flies, spiders
stage they undergo a major transformation and • Tip moths: wasps, tachinid flies
emerge as mature winged adults that can lay • Leafrollers: wasps, tachinid flies, spiders
eggs. Nymphs are smaller than and look like the • Leafminers: damsel bugs, stink bugs, wasps
adults, as they undergo small changes to develop
into winged, mature adults.
Biological Controls
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a bacterial disease
PEST MANAGEMENT organism manufactured and sold as a “microbial
STRATEGIES insecticide” under trade names such as Dipel,
Management or control of insects and related Thuricide, and Javelin. Bt is considered
pests is vital to growing plants in Utah, but many nontoxic to humans, pets and wildlife. It is
insects are beneficial and insecticide applications exempt from food crop tolerance standards and
often kill insects indiscriminately. Pesticides can be used up until harvest. Bt is highly
should be applied when pests damage is reaching specific and most formulations only affect leaf
aesthetic or economic thresholds and integrated and needle feeding caterpillars. It is a stomach
pest management (IPM) should be implemented poison and insects must eat it. Predators and
to maximize the pest management strategy. parasites and insect pollinators are not affected.

Signs of Insect and Mite Presence Thorough coverage is essential when using Bt.
Insect or mite pests may not be present or visible Insects may not die for two to three days, but
when damage is discovered. Signs of their they stop feeding within hours after eating
presence will include the following: treated foliage. Researchers are developing Bt
• Silk shelters: usually do not enclose foliage. strains effective against other pests such as elm
Caterpillars feed outside the shelter and use it leaf beetle.
for protection from predators, weather, etc.
• Web enclosed foliage: silk webs enclosing Parasitic nematodes are biological insect
foliage with caterpillars feeding inside. controls. They invade and kill susceptible
14
insects. They need moist conditions and are most Chemical Control
effective in controlling white grubs, billbugs, sod Using chemicals to reduce populations by
webworms, root weevils, and crown borers. poisoning, attracting, or repelling insects is the
most common pest management tool.
Mechanical Control Insecticides are highly effective, economical, and
Mechanical controls reduce pests using devices offer quick control. When insect populations
that affect them directly or alter their physical approach economic or aesthetic thresholds and
environment. They include hand picking, natural controls are inadequate, insecticide
trapping, and using screens, barriers, sticky applications are the best control option.
bands, and shading devices. Using mechanical
controls requires time and labor and typically is Insecticides can control multiple species of pests
impractical on a large scale. with a single application, which is both an
advantage and disadvantage in ornamental
Pheromone traps use pheromones that have been ecosystems. Insecticides should be applied
identified for insects and many are produced when pests are most vulnerable, usually when
synthetically as lures to trap insects. Insect they are young. For example, bagworms should
pheromones used in traps are those produced by be controlled in late spring just after they hatch
females to attract males. The traps monitor or scale insects should be controlled in the
insect flights that vary at different locations and crawler stage before they develop waxy
seasons. Trapped insects are correlated with egg coverings.
laying and provide information to determine the
proper timing of insecticide and other pest Insecticides should be applied in the locations
management strategies. Pheromone trapping is where pest spends most of its time. For
commonly used for lilac/ash borer, peach tree example, the underside of leaves should be
borer, codling moth, and gypsy moth. sprayed to control white flies.

Legal Control Many insect and mite species go through

Government entities can quarantine or restrict multiple generations in a season. Unless the
movement of potential pests into an area or use population is controlled in earlier generations,
public resources to eradicate, prevent, or control pests can increase to damaging levels as the
pests. For example, gypsy moth or Japanese season progresses. Most insecticides only last
beetle control projects use public funds to one to four weeks and must be reapplied to
prevent pest invasions and/or establishment. control later generations.

Cultural Control Oils for Insect and Mite Control

Growing practices reduce pest populations by Pest control oils are specialty sprays with
creating unfavorable environments. These impurities that can damage plants. Oils suffocate
include favorable planting locations, trap crops, insects and mites by clogging breathing spiracles
tillage, clean culture, timing and resistant or pores. Spray oils are often used as dormant
varieties. Knowing pest life cycles is essential oils to control scale, aphids, or mites that
for effective cultural controls. Cultural controls overwinter on woody plants.
change the environment during the vulnerable
parts of pests’ life cycle to kill them or slow their Dormant oils should be applied on warm spring
reproduction. Cultural methods are aimed more days before buds break and thorough coverage is
at prevention than cure. essential for effective control. Oils are safe and
easy for applicators to handle. They are effective
Reproductive Control on some hard to control pests such as scales and
Reproductive control reduces pests by physical leaf curling aphids and they do not adversely
treatments or substances that cause sterility, affect predators and parasites.
alter sexual behavior or otherwise disrupt
normal reproduction. Oils should be used cautiously because they can
injure sensitive ornamental plants such as the
15
black walnut, some maples, Russian olive, are smaller and lighter colored but resemble the
junipers and redbud. Blue spruce will tolerate adults. Slugs can be controlled with sanitation
oil treatment, but these trees lose the waxy and molluscicides. Weeds and hiding places
bloom which gives them their distinctive color. should be eliminated and irrigation modified to
make conditions less favorable for slugs.
Soaps for Insect and Mite Control
Soaps are used as insecticides or miticides to WOODY PLANT INSECTS
control most small, soft bodied insects and mites
like aphids, thrips, psyllids, and spider mites as AND RELATED PESTS
well as larger insects like honey locust plant
bugs and pear slugs. Insecticidal soaps have Many different insects and mites feed on woody
several advantages. They are safe and easy for plants. The greater the variety of plants in a
applicators to mix and apply. The insecticidal landscape the more insect and mite species are
activity of soaps is specific so most beneficial present. This is not always a problem because
insects, parasites, and predators are not adversely having a wide variety of plants in a landscape
affected. Likewise, birds, pets, and wildlife are will limits the number of plants damaged by
not injured by treatments. insects that attack single or specific plant
species. Landscape managers should know how
There are limitations to the effectiveness of of to common insect and mite pests. Correct
insecticidal soaps. Some plants are injured by identification of a pest is the first step in a pest
soaps and because most soaps are not labeled for management program.
insecticide treatment, the safety of soap for
specific plants may not be known. Also, soaps Some ornamental plants require frequent
act as contact insecticides and have no residual controls while others have few pest problems.
activity. Soaps must be applied thoroughly over The present of some insects and/or mites does
the entire area being treated. Soaps do not not necessarily indicate that insecticide or
control pests like caterpillars and leaf beetles. miticides must be applied. In Utah, some pests
thrive and cause trouble every year while other
Also, pesticides used in agricultural applications appears infrequently. Prior to selecting a
such as farms and greenhouses must be labeled insecticide treatment make sure that alternatives
with the guidelines for agricultural use such as sanitation, pruning, and hand removal
requirements and/or worker protection standards. have been considered.

Slug and Snail Control LEAF FEEDERS

Slugs and snails are mollusks, not insects. They Deciduous plants tolerate some defoliation
are active at night and chew holes in leaves or without affecting tree vigor. Late season
stems. Slug and snail damage can be confused defoliation of deciduous trees and shrubs is less
with caterpillar injury. Caterpillars leave large damaging because trees have produced and
droppings on plant foliage. Slugs leave shiny stored food necessary for growth. Leaf feeding
streaks of dried slime on plants and soil. Slugs defoliators include butterfly, moth, beetle, and
chew completely through a leaf or stem. sawfly larvae. Late season defoliation of
Caterpillars may leave part of the leaf veins and evergreens is more damaging because evergreens
stems untouched. store food in needles and leaves. Insect
destruction of new annual growth is most
Slugs have both male and female organs in the damaging since it is responsible for the majority
same body and may act as males and/or females of plant growth. Many caterpillars feed on the
as adults. Self fertilization is also possible. Slugs foliage of trees and shrubs, but only a few are
lay eggs in moist locations in clusters of 20 to serious pests in Utah. Some form unsightly webs
100. Mulch, boards, or rocks provide cool, on branches, justifying their control. Most pest
moist conditions for hiding and egg laying. At caterpillars in Utah have one generation per year.
50 degrees F, eggs hatch in less than 10 days and Leaf beetles do most of their damage during the
mature in three months to a year. Slug offspring immature larval stage.
16
WOOD BORERS PLANT GALLS
Wood boring insects are among the most Galls are abnormal growths caused by insects,
damaging tree pests. Some wood borers attack mites, diseases, and hormones. The unusual
living plants and others attack dead or severely shapes and colors of galls cause concern but
stressed plants. There are three common groups serious damage is rare. Gall formation varies
of wood borers that cause damage. Long horned seasonally due to natural controls. The gall
beetles, known as round headed borers, in the making insects and mites produce galls during
larval stage, make deep tunnels and structurally feeding and egg laying. Since only new growth
weaken infested trees. Metallic wood borers, is susceptible, most galls form in late spring as
known as flat headed borers, in the larval stage, leaves develop. Most insecticide treatments are
tunnel under the bark and make galleries that done to improve appearance. Time insecticide
girdle trees. Clear winged borers are moths with treatments to coincide with egg hatch and
larvae that develop at the base of the tree. feeding. Treat insects that overwinter on plants
prior to bud break in the spring.
Controlling borers is difficult as they are
protected inside the tree. Trunk sprays may be
made as a preventative measure if made before
TYPES OF
borers deposit eggs on the bark. Pheromone VEGETATION
traps can be used to determine flight times of
clear winged moths like the ash/lilac borer and Grass and broadleaf weeds begin as seedlings,
peach tree borer. Since pheromone traps for develop vegetatively, produce buds and flower,
wood boring beetles are not available, managers and reach maturity. Seedlings are similar for
must carefully observe adults to time insecticide annual, biennial, and perennial weeds. While
treatments. Metallic wood borers lay eggs in small and tender, they are easiest to kill with
May, June, and July and long horned beetles lay either mechanical or chemical controls.
eggs in July, August, and September.
MANAGEMENT OF ANNUAL AND
An alternative to spraying is to locate and
BIENNIAL VEGETATIVE WEEDS
destroy borers with a sharp probe. This is a
During vegetative growth, plants produce stems,
labor intensive activity. Managers should avoid
leaves, and roots. During the mature stages of
making additional wounds. Heavily infested
life weeds are more difficult to control than
branches should be pruned out and destroyed
when they are seedlings. During vegetative
before adults emerge. Many borers enter trees
growth, annual and biennial weeds are managed
near wounds so pruning should be done to allow
by cultivation, mowing, and the application of
wounds to close rapidly. Healthy trees are less
postemergent herbicides.
attractive to borers and they tolerate borer
damage that does occur. Managers should use
Vegetative Annuals and Biennials
natural defenses and use cultural practices to
promote vigorous plant growth to prevent borer
infestations.

SHOOT BORERS
Tip moths and various beetles feed on the
surface or insides of conifer shoots, causing
abnormal growth and death. Treatments for
shoot borers should occur during egg laying and
hatching when the eggs or larvae are exposed on
the bark.
Grass Broadleaf

17
MANAGEMENT OF WEEDS WITH MANAGEMENT OF WOODY
BUDS AND FLOWERS PERENNIAL WEEDS
During the bud and flowering stage most of a Woody plants go through the same growth stages
plants energy is being used to produce flowers as other perennials. They do not die back to the
and seeds. Plants begin to store food in the roots ground during the winter, but deciduous trees
during these stages and continue through lose their foliage. Herbicide control of woody
maturity. Herbicide applications are more perennial weeds is most effective when the
effective during the bud stage on some weeds plants are young and exhibiting new growth.
and during the flowering stage on others. Woody perennials move nutrients from the
foliage to their roots in the fall and many can be
Flowering Perennials controlled with fall herbicide applications.
Herbicide applications are most effective if
treatments occur when leaves are still actively
growing and before the first frost.

Many woody plants will sprout from wherever

buds are found on the roots, trunks and limbs.
Seedling broadleaf weeds have an exposed
growing point at the top of the young plant and
in leaf axils. Herbicides applications and/or
cultivation control seedlings effectively.
Established perennial broadleaf plants are hard
to control because they have many buds on the
roots, stems, and crown.

MANAGEMENT OF PERENNIAL
WEEDS ORNAMENTAL PLANT
Perennial plants live three years or longer and WEEDS
the portion of the plant above the ground dies at
the end of the growing season. Underground
Most weeds can be placed into five convenient
roots and stems live through the winter and send
groups that include annual grasses, perennial
up new growth in the spring. The growing
grasses, annual broadleaf plants, perennial
points of perennial grass and creeping perennial
broadleaf plants, and woody plants. Woody
grass buds are protected below the soil surface.
plants are further divided into shrubs and trees.
When attempting to manage perennial weeds,
Shrubs have multiple stems and are less than ten
these plants will regrow if herbicides do not
feet tall, while trees are usually single stemmed
reach and/or cultivation does not remove the
and more than ten feet tall. Knowing the life
growing parts.
cycle and classification is important for weed
control.

Summer annuals grow from seeds that sprout in

the spring, mature, and reproduce before dying
in the winter. Common summer annuals are
barnyard grass, puncture vine, Russian thistle,
and pigweed.

Winter annuals germinate in fall or winter and

flower, produce seed and die in the spring.
Common winter annuals are annual bluegrass,
chickweed, mustard, and wild oats.

18
Biennials require two years to complete their life INORGANIC HERBICIDES
cycles. These plants grow vegetatively without Chemical compounds that do not contain carbon
flowering the first year. In the second year the are inorganic. Inorganic compounds include
plants flower, produce seed, and die. Common products such as salt, copper sulfate, sulfuric
biennials are musk thistle, mullein and hounds acid and sodium chlorate. Herbicides with these
tongue. compounds can be very persistent and can cause
serious soil pollution problems. Many inorganic
Perennials live three years or longer. These herbicides are registered as restricted use
plants flower and set seed without dying. Most pesticides.
die back in the winter but resume growth in the
spring. Common perennials are quack grass, ORGANIC HERBICIDES
field bindweed, dandelion and plantain. Organic herbicides include petroleum oils and
synthetic organic formulations. Petroleum oils
WEED CONTROL are refined from crude oil. Synthetic organic
Weed control does not always require herbicides herbicides are made of carbon, hydrogen, and
and in some locations, any plant cover is better other elements.
than bare ground.. Avoid using herbicides in
areas with sensitive plants. Herbicides should be SELECTIVE HERBICIDES
used with an understanding of the weeds, Selective herbicides injure some plants and do
knowledge of how to protect nontarget species not injure other plants. These herbicides are
and the environment, and label requirements. totally selective and may damage desirable plants
Applicators are required by law to follow label if misused or over applied. Broadleaf weed
directions and are responsible for the pesticides killers are commonly used on turf areas where
they apply. the grass will grow, but weeds will die.

BROADLEAF WEEDS NONSELECTIVE HERBICIDES

Postemergent herbicides selectively control Nonselective herbicides are toxic to all plants.
annual, biennial, and perennial broadleaf weeds. Nonselective herbicides are used to provide bare
Broadleaf herbicides are used alone or when ground areas that reduce fire or safety hazards,
mixed with other broadleaf herbicides. Spring protect structures from damage, eliminate pest
and/or fall applications are used to control weeds breeding areas, improve visibility, and improve
and reduce damage to desirable plants. Spot security. Nonselective herbicides can be soil,
treatments of herbicides are most effective for contact, or translocated products. Wind, water
control of scattered or small numbers of weeds. and soil erosion can move herbicides before they
fix in the soil. Off target movement of
GRASS WEEDS herbicides can do damage to adjacent, desirable
Pre-emergent herbicides are appropriate for plants.
treatments of annual grass infestations. Spot
treatments on grass weeds with postemergent CONTACT HERBICIDES
herbicides work well for local infestations. Contact herbicides cause localized injury to plant
tissues. They should be applied when plants
have leafed out. Complete herbicide coverage is
HERBICIDE TYPES necessary since only the treated parts of a plant
AND are affected. In general, contact herbicides are
nonselective and damage foliar parts of all
CHARACTERISTICS plants. Some contact herbicides will run off of
grasses with narrow vertical leaves, but easily
There are a large variety of herbicides and adhere to broadleaf plants.
because of the differences in their chemical
makeup they exhibit numerous modes of action.
Some of the most common herbicides are
described in this manual.
19
 plant to die. The effectiveness of translocated
When a contact herbicides on weed control depends on the
herbicide chemistry of the active ingredients, application
comes in rates, rainfall after or during application, soil
contact with type, growing activity of the weeds, and the
plant foliage presence of dust of other materials on plant
the killing foliage that may interfere with herbicide contact.
action starts.
PRE-EMERGENT HERBICIDES
Pre-emergent herbicides are applied to the soil
before weeds emerge and are there when weeds
Herbicide is emerge from seeds. These herbicides translocate
taken into the as new shoots emerge from seeds.
plant leaves
and interferes POSTEMERGENT HERBICIDES
with growth. Postemergent herbicides are applied after weeds
Plants curl, emerge from the soil. They are generally applied
wither, and to foliage as contact or translocated herbicides.
turn brown.
GROWTH REGULATORS
Growth regulators control or modify plant
processes without damaging the host or other
plants. They are generally foliar applied and
Some plants not persistent.
may regrow
from roots. HERBICIDE CHARACTERISTICS
New weeds Many herbicide particles have positive or
may also grow negative charges. Those without charges move
from seeds in through the soil quickly. Those with positive
the soil. charges tend to tie up with negative charged soil
particles.

Contact herbicides are most effective when they Leaching is the movement of herbicides in water
are applied to actively growing foliage. Leaves through soil due to chemical characteristics and
absorb contact herbicides and most plants soil factors. Herbicides vary from insoluble to
dieback very quickly. Plant growth is stopped at completely soluble in water. The persistence of
that point, but some plants will regrow from the herbicides in the environment depends on
roots which are not killed by contact herbicides. chemical characteristics, application rates, soil
Also, weeds may grow from seeds in the soils. texture, organic matter present, precipitation,
temperature, and surface flow. Herbicides can
TRANSLOCATED HERBICIDES remain concentrated at the surface, partially
Translocated herbicides move within a plant leach, or run off of the soil surface, allowing
from the point of contact to the site of action. weeds to grow.
Some translocated herbicides are applied to plant
foliage and others are applied to the soil and Plant Foliage Coatings
move from the soil into emerging plant shoots or The species and physical characteristics of plant
roots of existing plants. foliage affect herbicide absorption. Wax and
cuticle formation affect the way herbicides
The selectivity of translocated herbicides penetrate leaf surfaces. Herbicide sprays can
depends on differences in plant species easily penetrate thin leaf cuticles, but these
biochemistry. Herbicides are translocated to the sprays will stand up in droplets on leaves with
actively growing sites of a plant, causing the
20
thick waxy surfaces. Fine hair like structures on
leaf surfaces will reduce spray absorption
because the herbicide droplets will remain
suspended above a leaf’s surface. Herbicides
provide more effective control when applied to
young weeds because the foliage wax and leaf
cuticles are thinner. Seedling weeds have fewer
and shorter hairs and are more easily managed
with herbicides.

Leaf Shape And Maturity

Leaf shape affects herbicide use. Herbicide
sprays run off plants with narrow, vertical leaves.
Broader leaves hold the spray. Use an adjuvant
to increase retention. Plant development is
another important consideration. Seedling weeds
are easier to control than larger weeds.

Environmental Factors Affecting

Herbicides
Soil applied herbicides require soil moisture in
the form of precipitation or irrigation for the
active ingredients to be taken up by plant roots.

Temperature directly effects plant growth rate

and how well weeds will absorb or take up
herbicides and translocate them within a weed.
At low temperatures plants are not actively
growing and do not readily take up herbicides.
At very high temperatures herbicides can
volatilize and move off target.

Foliar herbicides enter the leaf more easily and

rapidly under conditions of high humidity. High
humidity can make the leaf tender by thinning
the wax and/or cuticle layers.

Depending on the type of herbicide treatment,

precipitation can be beneficial or problematic.
Precipitation on weeds soon after or during a
foliar application can displace the herbicide and
reduce effectiveness. Precipitation following a
the application of a soil herbicide will activate
the herbicide and move it into weed roots. Too
much precipitation will move herbicides past the
root zone and/or move surface herbicide
applications down slope.

Hot, dry winds cause plant surface openings to

close, leaf surfaces to thicken, and wax layers
to harden. These changes to weed foliage will
result in a reduction of herbicide penetration.
21
Tree Shrub

22
 IV. TURF PEST MANAGEMENT

TOPIC PAGE

TURF MAINTENANCE ..................................................................................... 23

TURF PESTS ........................................................................................................ 24
TURF DISEASES ................................................................................................. 25
TURF INSECTS ................................................................................................... 25
TURF WEEDS ..................................................................................................... 27

turf problems are specific to the species and the

TURF MAINTENANCE wrong grass in the wrong location can create
problems that even superior management
Utah’s turf industry includes parks, home lawns, strategies will not overcome.
sod farms, institutional and industrial grounds,
golf courses, athletic fields, roadsides, and
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
cemeteries. Home lawns make up the largest
Grasses, like all plants, require optimal amounts
segment of the industry. Grass is used for beauty
of light, moisture, and nutrients. They are also
and recreation, erosion control, and utility
subject to pests. Not all lawns are affected by
purposes. Attractive turf needs proper
the same pests. Some areas of a lawn are more
management to provide good color and density
prone to damage and not all lawns need the same
and freedom from weeds, insects, and diseases.
cultural intensity. Turf care depends on grass
species, desired quality, intended use, time,
Proper turf management requires the appropriate
effort, and money available.
grass, mowing, watering, fertilizing, and thatch
control. Pesticides are not a substitutes for good
There are numerous cultural practices that help
cultural practices and will not correct for
to reduce or prevent pests and aid plant recovery.
problems with watering, fertilization, mowing
Examples of good cultural practices include:
height and frequency, thatch accumulation, poor
soil, or poor species choice.
• Select species or cultivars adapted to the site
and the intended use.
Utah’s harsh climate makes the growing of • Ensure there is good soil conditions, including
consistent high quality turf difficult. Extreme, adequate surface and subsurface drainage.
unpredictable moisture, humidity, soils, sun, and • Establish turf correctly.
wind stress turf. Utah’s variable climate allows • Water properly. The longer grass is wet, the
for the growing both cool and warm season greater the possibility for disease problems.
grasses in the state. This means that landscape Apply enough water at one time to provide
managers must be able to identify pests and adequate moisture for a week and wet the soil
properly care for a variety of turf grasses. Some six to eight inches deep.

23
• Remove thatch that is more than one-half inch from minor, temporary turf discoloration from
deep. Thatch is a tight layer of living and dead slime mold to death from billbugs. Golf courses,
stems and grass roots that develops between sod farms, parks, and recreational facilities face
the leaves and soil surface. Too much thatch significant repair and replacement costs and
keeps water from penetrating the soil, prevents potential income loss.
deep rooting and makes some pest problems
worse. Thatch is often an ailment of intensive Pesticides have traditionally been favored pest
turf care. Grasses differ in their inclination to control methods because of their long residual,
develop thatch. broad spectrum effects, and labor saving
• Mow upright grasses, such as bluegrass and features. Concern about the effects of pesticides
fescues to 2½ inches or higher in the summer. on man and the environment requires a re-
Creeping grasses such as bent, Bermuda and evaluation of this approach. The pest tolerance
zoysia can be mowed to one-half inch or less. level varies with the situation. Species, growth
• Mow often enough that no more than one- stage, use, environmental conditions, and
fourth to one-third of the leaf surface is management intensity dictate acceptable levels.
removed at a time. Mow the lawn in the fall
until grass stops growing. Homeowners may tolerate some weeds that a
• Aerate compacted areas using equipment with golf superintendent would not on a green or tee.
hollow tines to remove soil cores that leave a Vigorous, healthy turf can tolerate some pests
hole or cavity in the soil. where weak turf cannot. Good pest management
combines the best available methods of
• Fertilize according to recommendations based
prevention and care. The best methods for
on soil analysis. Recommendations vary with
protecting turf from pests are:
species and use. Do not over fertilize to
promote fast, lush growth. • Turf Selection: plant cultivars resistant to
pests.
• Implement pest management programs based
on local growing conditions and grass species.
• Cultural Practices: proper mowing, aeration,
watering and fertilizing practices.
• Pest Management: utilize integrated pest
TURF PESTS management techniques including proper use
of pesticides.
Common turf pests include weeds, insects, and
diseases. Rodents also damage turf, but less Proper management and regular evaluation are
frequently. When diagnosing turf pest problems important to prevent pests from reaching
there are several considerations. unacceptable levels. Some species and varieties
• Correctly identify the grass species involved. of resistant turf will reduce pest damage.
• Determine what is causing the problem.
• Determine if management practices, soil Chemical and cultural methods can be
modification, and/or pesticides will control preventive or curative. No grass does well in
the pest. every situation. Blending or mixing suitable
• Review cultural practices to help the turf grasses helps turf under various conditions. Use
recover. good cultural practices to produce turf that
• Review pesticide labels for appropriate species, tolerates pests and reduces or eliminates the need
sites, and pests. for chemical controls.

Poor management practices are a common cause When a turf pest is identified and the
and/or contribute to turf pest damage. Incorrect predetermined threshold is reached, all possible
watering, mowing, or fertilization weakens turf controls must be weighed to determine the
making it more prone to pests. Turf damage benefits and risks and cost effectiveness must be
varies, depending on species, developmental considered. Use the safest, most efficient and
stages, and cultural practices. Injuries range economical selective controls possible. Pesticide

24
controls require knowledge of the pests, Foliage applied insecticides kill these insects as
knowledge of the turf species, and an they crawl around or feed on the grass.
understanding of correct pesticide usage. Underground pests including white grubs and
billbugs that feed on grass roots. The insecticides
for these pests are applied to the grass and
TURF DISEASE watered into the soil where the insects live.
Poor quality turf is often caused by
PERIODIC INSPECTION
environmental and cultural conditions.
Periodic inspections are important to identify
Fertilizers and pesticides can injure turf if
pest infestations and to initate control measure
applied at a rate that is too high or too low.
in a timely manner. Grass blades and stems
Micronutrient deficiencies also cause poor turf
should be inspected for above ground insects by
growth and good quality soil is essential for a
sprinkling a mixture of one quart of water and
healthy lawn. Good soil that is properly
one tablespoon of powdered detergent over four
prepared will minimize future problems and
square feet of turf. A teaspoon of pyrethrum
allows water and air to penetrate and promote
insecticide can be mixed with the water in place
root growth. Soil should be aerated regularly to
of the detergent. This causes the above ground
allow air penetration.
insects to the surface within ten minutes. The
insects can then be collected and counted to
Lawns may also require maintenance due to the
determine the level of infestation. Several areas
impacts of animals such as pets and rodents. In
of a lawn should be sampled to get an average
Utah, turf diseases are best controlled by cultural
number of insects.
practices, not fungicides. Preventive fungicide
use is sometimes warranted when turf has a
To inspect for what appears to be subsurface
history of disease. Fungicide applications should
insect damage, pull up a handful of grass. If the
be timed according to the fungus life cycle and
turf pulls up easily, the roots are damaged. If the
weather conditions. Routine fungicide use to
grass will not come up or breaks off, look for
prevent disease outbreaks is expensive and
other causes. To check for root feeding insects,
potentially harmful.
cut a square section of sod on three sides, to a
depth of four inches. Roll the cut section of sod
A more detailed discussion of plant diseases
back and shake the soil off the roots to look for
appears in Chapter III of this manual under the
the pests. Turf damage can occur from problems
section titled Ornamental Plant Diseases. such as fertilizer burn, diseases, improper
mowing, drought, dog urine spots, and pesticide
TURF INSECTS damage which can also resemble insect damage.

Insects and related arthropods commonly inhabit IDENTIFICATION

lawns in large numbers but few cause serious The proper identification of insect pests is
damage. Good management is the best defense essential for proper control. Some insects
against harmful pests. Healthy, unstressed grass benefit turf by preying on pests or feeding on
can produce new roots and leaves, making it decaying organic matter. Others insects are
resistant to pests that feed on the plant. Grass temporary and are not harmful or beneficial.
that is weak or stressed is more easily damaged Leafhoppers and clover mites are examples of
by pest infestations. insects that occasionally inhabit lawns but cause
no damage.
Insects that damage lawns are classified as above
ground or below ground pests according to their PRESCRIPTION
feeding damage. Above ground pests feed on When insect pests are present the management
grass blades and stems. Included in this group options should be evaluated. If insecticides are
are sod webworms, armyworms and cutworms. needed, the active ingredients must be

25
appropriate for the insects, the turf, and the 2. Dark colored granulated skin....Black
location. Insecticide label directions provide cutworm
detailed information for application rates, timing, 3. Yellow lengthwise stripes on entire body
and use requirements. ....Bronze cutworm
4. Greenish color with distinct stripes on
APPLICATION side of body.....Armyworm
When insecticides are used, apply them at the 5. Greenish or black with stripes on side of
proper rate at the time when the pests are most body, head with a white inverted Y on
vulnerable. Some pests may require repeated frontal portion...... Fall armyworm
applications because the insects multiple 6. None of the above...Unidentified
generations during a single growing season. Do cutworm
not exceed the annual application rate when D. Small green or brown insects, 3/16" long,
making multiple applications. very active that jumps or flies when
molested ....Leafhopper
EVALUATION OF TREATMENT E. Small green soft bodied, nonmobile insects,
Did the insecticide work? It may take two to about 1/16" long found on leaves or
three days to control above ground insects and stems....Aphids
two to four weeks for soil insects. If the F. Small greenish gray insects about 3/16"
application did not work, determine why. long, very active, commonly found running
on ground in dry areas and usually occur in
IDENTIFICATION OF TURF large numbers....False chinchbugs
INSECTS
The following descriptions assist in identifying Arthropods (Usually Do Not Injure Turf)
the insect pests that are found in turf. A. Small, about 1/8" wide, spiral shells
......Snail
Insects Feeding On Roots or Crowns B. Dark brown, wormlike, hard shelled
A. Larvae white, usually C-shaped, with brown creatures that usually coil when molested,
heads, six short legs near head region have four legs on each
.....White grubs segment........Millipedes
B. Larvae white, usually C-shaped, with brown C. Gray colored, soft bodied arthropods having
heads, no legs, usually 3/8" long or less… 14 legs, usually in wet
Billbug grubs locations........Sowbugs
C. Larvae tan or orange, six legs on forward D. Description same as above, but usually roll
part of body, smooth, slender body, and into small balls when
usually hard and shiny....Wireworms molested..........Pillbug
E. Eight legs, various colors, usually brown,
Insects Feeding On Leaves and Stems very active, up to 1" body
A. Larvae up to 5/16" long, gray with definite length......Spiders
small spots from which hairs grow.....Sod F. Large black and yellow wasps, burrowing
webworms into soil......Cicada killers
B. Snout beetles, black and a body length of G. Small brown or red insects commonly
about 3/8".....Bluegrass billbug concentrated near small soil mounds, may
C. Caterpillars usually brown and about 1” in damage grass near mounds..... Ants
length with six true legs on forward part of
body, fleshy pro-legs on abdomen and A more detailed discussion of landscape insects
distinct head capsules .....Armyworms and appears in Chapter III of this manual under the
cutworms section titled Ornamental Plant Insects and
1. Row of small yellow or white dots down Related Pests.
center of back....Variegated cutworm

26
TURF WEEDS
Weeds in turf are prevented and controlled by
mechanical, cultural, and herbicide applications.
The best way to control weeds in turf is to have
healthy, dense, vigorously growing grass. The
best turf management practices are those that
produce thick turf and discourage weeds.
Killing weeds with herbicides is effective, but
good growing conditions for grass are necessary
for attractive turf.

Every cubic foot of topsoil has thousands of

weed seeds that geminate when air, light,
moisture, and temperature are favorable. This
creates enormous numbers of potential weed
problems in lawns. Many weeds cannot tolerate
mowing and competition from grass. Weed
numbers and density will decrease significantly
after a season of good lawn care practices.

Weeds will invade unhealthy lawns and/or

appear where grass stands are thin. Persistent
weeds are troublesome and make a lawn look
unattractive. The acceptable number of weeds in
turf varies with grass type, growth stages, use,
and environmental conditions. Pest managers
maintain turf to support the function and
environmental conditions for each particular
location. In many cases a few weeds are
acceptable, but most commercial turf and
lawncare operations need the appearance to be
that of a weed free landscape.

Few herbicides are safe on newly planted turf.

Some pre-emergent herbicides will adversely
affect grass germination later in the season.
Some grasses are prone to herbicide injury and
perennial grass weeds are hard to control in turf.
Soil fumigants and nonselective herbicides will
also kill desirable grasses.

A more detailed discussion of landscape weeds

appears in Chapter III of this manual under the
section titled Ornamental Plant Weeds.

Also in Chapter III of this manual is a detailed

descriptions of herbicides under the section titled
Herbicide Types and Characteristics.

27
 Utah State University
Plant Pest Diagnostic Laboratory
http://utahpests.usu.edu/uppdl/

28
 V. Integrated Pest Management

TOPIC PAGE

PEST CONTROL TECHNIQUES .................................................................... 29

PEST MANAGEMENT STEPS ........................................................................ 30

• Use sanitation, cultural controls and pesticides

PEST CONTROL coordinated with natural plant healing or
TECHNIQUES biological controls.
• Monitor pest problems to make sound
Integrated pest management (IPM) recognizes a management decisions. This detects pest
variety of pest control techniques. IPM considers population increases or declines allowing
social, environmental, and monetary costs. treatments to target needed areas. Monitoring
Interest in IPM methods is often based on a gives proper pest control timing.
desire to limit pesticide uses. However, • IPM techniques manage pests at acceptable
pesticides are commonly included in any levels rather than eliminate them. Pests are
organized plan that involves comprehensive IPM tolerable if injury levels remains below where
techniques. control costs exceed threatened damage. In
ornamentals, the pest damage level is often
Pests can develop damaging levels in the same obscured by aesthetic considerations.
areas year after year. Early treatment can • Help clients recognize that plant health
controls pests before they cause extensive requirements are separate from artificial
damage. In situations where pest problems occur aesthetic requirements. Injury levels are often
irregularly, applicators should schedule pesticide so low there is no reason to control pests.
treatments to coincide with economic and/or • Give priority to reducing environmental injury.
aesthetic thresholds are reached. These Environmental management costs are
thresholds are used to determine if controls are important considerations.
needed and when to use them. The economic • Avoid IPM incompatible “insurance”
threshold is the point when damage justifies the applications. Use preventive applications only
control costs. When pests cause damage, decide if pest injury is predictable and where options
whether to initiate control measures or accept do not exist after infestations occur (for
some loss. The aesthetic threshold is the point example, borers or bark beetles on high-risk
when pests cause unacceptable visible damage to trees).
ornamental plants.
PEST CONTROL SOLUTIONS
Most landscape IPM programs: Plant pest infestations are similar to human
• Stress plant health to reduce pest losses. illness. A successful pest management strategy
Healthy, vigorous plants tolerate or avoid pests. follows a set of established protocols. The steps
Never use pesticides to compensate for cultural are as follow:
problems.

29
1. Examine the site and organisms and check The significance of the damage caused by the
the for normal and/or healthy plants. If a plant pest must also be determined. Some pests cause
shows signs of poor health or appears abnormal, little or no damage, while others cause serious
look for possible causes. damage and they require immediate control.

2. Identify and assess potential problems, their The key to a successful IPM program is to
causes, and severity. All organisms found on monitor pest populations and the resulting
plants are not pests. Some are incidental, others damage or losses. The procedures for pest
are beneficial. Some pests cause little damage in monitoring vary with the pest and the situation.
the beginning, but can become serious problems.
An IPM program should keep pest damage at an
3. Determine a control prescription based on economically acceptable level. Pest prevention
examination identification and assessment. and suppression techniques are more common
Choose preventive, curative, or no action. Take that total eradication. Multiple control strategies
no action if infestations are not serious, when are integrated and where appropriate, pesticides
curative action causes more harm than the are used. Other, nonchemical methods may
infestation, or when curative timing is not provide longer and more permanent control of a
appropriate. Take action when pests are pest than pesticides and the costs and benefits of
vulnerable. all tactics must be considered.

Select the IPM methods that are the most

PEST MANAGEMENT effective at controlling pests and the least
harmful to people and the environment. When
STEPS possible, IPM programs rely on several strategies
to control pests and minimize pest damage.
Integrated pest management (IPM) relies on a
variety of chemical and nonchemical controls to It is important to evaluate the results of control
manage pests and minimize pest damage. The efforts. Consider how well all strategies worked
goal is to prevent pests from reaching and their impact on the environment before
economically or aesthetically damaging levels. implementing them again.
IPM offers an effective pest control strategy that
can reduce some of the negative effects of IPM STRATEGIES
pesticides. Many successful IPM programs Planting resistance varieties: Plant resistant
require less energy input and are site specific. plants that have been developed through
breeding, selection, and genetic engineering.
An IPM approach to pest management involves These plants are selected and planted, and
five steps. The steps are: although total immunity is rare, these resistant
varieties allow growth in spite of pests.
1. Identify the pest and understand its biology,
2. Monitor the pest to be managed, Sanitation: Pests are controlled by removing or
3. Develop a sound pest management goal, eliminating the food, shelter, and/or other
4. Implement an IPM program, and conditions that favor the pest’s development.
5. Record and evaluate results.
Mechanical or physical control: Use insect
A pest management program must begin with screens, machines, and/or other methods to
proper identification of the pest. If a problem is control pests, eliminate their access, and/or alter
improperly identified, the prescription for control their environment.
is likely to fail. Successful pest management
programs require an understanding of a pest’s Cultural Controls: Healthy plants tolerate
life cycle, behavior, and the environmental injuries better than stressed plants. Plant the
conditions or factors that favor its development. right plant in the right location, alter the

30
environment, modify plant conditions, or
influence pest behavior to suppress or prevent
infestations. This makes pests less likely to
survive, grow, or reproduce. Vary planting or
harvest times and use good irrigation and
fertilizing practices. Space plants and avoid
excessive watering to suppress crown and stem
rot. Use drip or surface irrigation to avoid
spreading diseases. Plant cool season crops early
to avoid root rot in warm soils.

Natural Controls: Pathogenic or nonpathogenic

controls eliminate most pest problems. In a
balanced ecosystem, natural enemies control
pests. Pest outbreaks occur when natural
controls fail. Typical nonpathogenic controls are
things such as high winds, rain, extreme heat, or
freezing temperatures. Cold, wet weather helps
control insects. Natural pest enemies are
effective in most ecosystems. Predators,
parasites and diseases are important pest
controls. Environmental factors that diminish
their effectiveness include dust, unfavorable
weather, biological competitors, drift of
pesticides from adjoining areas, or pesticide use
on a crop.

Biological Controls: These are parasites,

predators, or pathogenic organisms that feed on
or damage pests. They are introduced by people
rather than occurring naturally. Biological
control advantages include permanence, safety
and economy. Once established, they are
relatively safe without hazardous toxicity or
environmental pollution.

Biological controls are not suitable for all pests.

Parasites or predators need time to develop a
large enough population to control pests. This
can take too long to save an endangered crop. It
is challenge to find parasites or predators to
introduce.

Eliminating secondary parasites of beneficial

parasites, protecting beneficials from insecticides
and determining whether continuous releases are
needed are other challenges. Introducing
biological controls in small isolated landscapes is
usually not effective.

31
Utah State University
Cooperative Extension Service
http://utahpests.usu.edu/ipm/

USU Landscape IPM Pest Advisories

provide periodic updates on current insect
and disease occurences, biology, and
treatment recommendations for Utah.

USU Turf IPM Advisories will provide

periodic updates on current insect and
disease sightings and treatment
recommendations.

Integrated Pest Management is

used to suppress pest
populations while
minimizing costs and
environmental degradation.

32
 VI. PROPER PESTICIDE USE

TOPIC PAGE

PESTICIDE SAFETY .......................................................................................... 33

PESTICIDE APPLICATIONS ........................................................................... 34
PESTICIDE PHTOTOXICITY .......................................................................... 35
MINIMIZING PESTICIDE HAZARDS .......................................................... 36

PESTICIDE SAFETY When mixing, loading, or applying pesticides,

applicators can be exposed through oral, dermal,
The majority of pesticides are poisons that are occular, or respiratory routes. Oral exposure
manufactured to kill unwanted organisms. They occurs when pesticide is swallowed. Spray
should be stored, handled, and applied with care. droplets, mists, splashes, ruptured hoses, and
Pesticides with a restricted use pesticide (RUP) accidental drinking or eating are examples of
designation present a particular hazard to how this can happen. Under normal operating
humans and/or the environment and can only be conditions this is considered the least likely route
used by certified pesticide applicators. of exposure.

Pesticide toxicity values are a measure of the It has been determined that for pesticide
harmful effects on animals and are indicative of applicators, the extent to which dermal exposure
how humans may react when exposed to the occurs is much greater than respiratory exposure.
product. The toxicity values are not the only However, a dermally deposited pesticide is
hazardous factor associated with exposure to outside of the body which allows for cleaning
pesticides. A pesticide’s active ingredients may and removal. A respiratory dose is inside the
be extremely toxic, but the pesticide formulation body and cannot be readily removed.
may present very little hazard due to dilution,
low volatility, specialized packaging, or PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
restricted handling criteria.
EQUIPMENT (PPE)
The protective clothing worn when mixing,
On the other hand, a pesticide with a low toxicity
loading, or applying pesticides provides a barrier
may be quite hazardous because of the high
between the pesticide and the human body.
volatility, prolonged or frequent exposure by
Respirators and gas masks protect against oral
applicators, a tendency to be mishandled, and/or
and respiratory exposure by covering the nose
a high concentration of active ingredients. In
and mouth and by filtering inhaled air. Gloves,
general, herbicides and fungicides are less toxic
boots, hats, and body coverings protect against
than insecticides or rodenticides. The pesticide
dermal exposure. Glasses, goggles, and face
label is the best source of information for
shields protect the eyes.
determining how to safely handle pesticides.

33
PESTICIDE LIMITATIONS leaf mining insects. Soil applied systemic
Pesticides are very effective at controlling insecticides are picked up by roots and
pests, but there are negative aspects to using translocated in the plant xylem to actively
pesticides. These limitations include the growing tissues for the control of leaf or needle
following: feeding insects. Soil applied insecticides do not
• Develops pest strains resistant to pesticides. usually control scales and borers that feed on the
• Temporary controls pests and repeated phloem of woody plant tissues.
treatments are often necessary.
• Pesticide residues are found in and/or Many of the soil applied systemic insecticides
harvested crops. are highly toxic, restricted use pesticides. These
• Pesticide treatments can result in outbreaks of products are most effective on actively growing
secondary pests resulting from the trees and are best at controlling pest before the
destruction of their natural enemies. outbreaks are serious. Some systemic pesticides
• Undesirable damage to nontarget organisms are injected into tree trunks or plants and should
such as beneficial parasites and predators, be done sparingly because of the wounds in the
fish, birds or other wildlife, pollinators, man, plants.
domestic animals, and other plants.
• Acute and chronic hazards to humans from SPRAY ADJUVANTS
contact with pesticides. Adjuvants are included in or added to pesticides
• Specific hazards, formulations concerns, and for improved spray performance and better target
equipment needs that are required by the coverage. These additives control the pH of the
label for safe handling of pesticides. pesticide mixture, prevent pesticide hydrolysis,
improve coverage, increase retention, and/or
improve pesticide performance. These products
PESTICIDE include buffering agents, surfactants, and
APPLICATIONS stickers and are described below.

Mixtures of two or more pesticides are used to Buffering agents are used to counteract Utah’s
perform multiple pest control actions with a high pH soil and water that increase pesticide
single application. Pesticides are sometimes breakdown rates. For example, carbaryl (Sevin)
combined with fertilizers to control pests and hydrolyzes ten times faster in water with a pH of
promote plant growth with one application. 8.0 than when the water’s pH is neutral at 7.0.
There are drawbacks to such products because Premature pesticide breakdown can reduce the
pesticides and fertilizers are frequently not effectiveness of a pesticides or increase injury to
needed at the same place time. nontarget species if a spray mixtures is held for
several hours before use.
When mixing pesticides together and/or with
fertilizers an applicator must be sure the Surfactants or surface active agents improve
chemicals are compatible and that the application spray deposition and surface coverage. Treating
of the mixture does not injure non-target species. waxy or hairy leaf surfaces is difficult without
In some cases when a new combination of surfactants. Injury increases if some surfactants
products is being used, a small mixture should are used on sensitive plants.
be applied to a small area to determine the
effectiveness and potential problems. Stickers add sticking agents to improve foliage
adherence in situations where rain or irrigation
SYSTEMIC PESTICIDES might wash pesticides off the target plant.
Systemic pesticides are absorbed into and move
throughout plants. Systemic action allows SOIL FUMIGANTS
pesticides to control pests like fungi that grow Soil fumigation is used before planting to treat
inside plants, leaf-curling aphids, tip moths, and persistent soil organisms. Since fumigation is

34
costly, it is used on high value crops or where spotted leaves. Severe phytotoxicity kills plants.
more than one disease, nematode insect, and/or Phytoxicity causes can be obvious or subtle and
weed must be controlled. Almost all fumigants mimic insect damage, plant diseases, and poor
are restricted use pesticides that require special growing conditions such as insufficient moisture
skills licenses. Soil fumigant use is less common and improper fertilization.
in Utah and inexperienced applicators should
contact a fumigation specialist for appropriate Some herbicides may leave residues in spray
fumigant selection and applications. tanks even after cleaning that injure desirable
plants. It is recommended that separate sprayer
Fumigation Considerations: equipment is used for herbicide applications.
• Tilth: Fumigants are volatile toxins that Phytotoxicity is more severe with certain plants,
diffuse through soil. Cultivate soils to the pesticide drift, pesticide persistence beyond the
desired control depth. intended control period, and/or improper
• Organic Matter: Fumigants are actively application rates or techniques. Factors that
absorbed by organic matter. Excess debris contribute to pesticide phytotoxicity include:
reduces effectiveness.
• Moisture Content: Excess moisture blocks • High air temperatures during and
fumigant movement, but most need moisture immediately after pesticide applications
for best results. Ideal soil is moist enough for • Pesticide drift
seeding but not saturated. • Excessive pesticide application rates
• Temperature: Fumigants are most efficient at • Too little water in the pesticide mixture.
soil temperatures of 50 to 85 degrees F. • Uneven pesticide distribution.
• Mixing fertilizers with pesticides.
• Waiting Periods: Fumigants are highly toxic.
• Wettable powder formulations are less likely to
Depending on soil and chemical type,
injure plants than EC formulations because
fumigated sites must be aerated for days or
they are not dissolved in oil.
weeks before seeding.
• Using stickers, spreaders, and wetting agents in
pesticide mixtures.
SEED TREATMENTS • Different plant variety and species in the area
Germinating seeds are highly susceptible to being treated.
damping off infections that destroy seeds and kill
• Pesticide mixture incompatibility such as when
young, emerging stems. Chemical treatments
oils, copper, or sulfur compounds are included.
protect germinating seeds and young seedlings.
Most seed-treatment chemicals act only on the
seed surface and nearby soil. Some systemic PESTICIDE PERSISTENCE
chemicals penetrate to kill pathogens within the Residual activity varies greatly among pesticides.
seed and developing seedlings. Pathogens, such Persistence is directly related to application rate,
as verticillium and fusarium wilt pathogens, are soil texture, temperature, moisture, and other
soil-borne. They spread in contaminated soil, factors. Applicators must be familiar with
cuttings, transplants, tubers, roots and bulbs. pesticide persistence of products where adjacent
Once in the soil, they live for years even without areas may be affected, where treated soil is used
host plants and are almost impossible to to grow other plants, or where humans and pets
eradicate. frequent the area.

Successful pest control requires knowing the

PESTICIDE persistence period before making applications.
For example, herbicides used for pre-emergent
PHYTOTOXICITY weed control in turf may persist for 60 to 90
days, and postemergent herbicides last from one
Pesticide applications that cause plant injuries day to several weeks.
are phytotoxic. Phytotoxicity creates abnormal
growth, leaf drop, discolored, curled, and/or

35
MINIMIZING
PESTICIDE HAZARDS
Ornamental and turf pesticides are often applied
near humans, pets, and other domestic animals.
Applicators must be alert to and are legally
responsible for the potential hazards of nontarget
species coming in contact with pesticide. The
following are items to be considered by pesticide
applicators.

• Confirm that the correct site, location, or

address is being treated.
• Do not spray or treat if children, pets, or
other sensitive species are in the area or
adjacent to the area being sprayed.
• Remove items such as toys, pet dishes,
clothing, and bird feeders.
• Avoid spraying lawn furniture, standing
water, and birdbaths.
• Close house windows.
• Observe label restrictions for fruits and
vegetables.
• Sweep or rinse away all pesticide spray
puddles.
• Secure containers and sprayers before
moving.
• Keep herbicides away from desirable plants.
• Residues of herbicides are very hard to wash
out and tiny quantities left in a sprayer can
damage susceptible plants.

PERSONAL SAFETY
Personal safety is important for applicators and
those who come in contact with the pesticides.
Carelessly handled pesticides endanger the user,
other nontarget species, and the environment.
To avoid problems, pesticide handlers should
read and follow the labels directions and
carefully follow application guidelines.

36
 VII. WORKER PROTECTION STANDARD
The U.S. Environmental Protection pesticide applications are taking place
Agency’s Worker Protection Standard and areas where REI are in effect.
(WPS), as revised in 1992, must be • Allowing only trained and equipped
complied with when pesticides are used on workers to be present during a pesticide
agricultural establishments, including farms, application.
forests, nurseries, and greenhouses, for the • Providing personal protective
commercial or research production of equipment (PPE) for pesticide handlers
agricultural plants. The WPS requires and also for workers who enter pesticide
employers to provide agricultural workers treated areas before expiration of the
and pesticide handlers with protections REI.
against possible harm from pesticides. • Protecting pesticide handlers by
Persons who must comply with these giving them safety instructions about the
instructions include owners or operators of correct use of pesticide application
agricultural establishments and owners or equipment and PPE and monitoring
operators of commercial businesses that are workers and handlers in hazardous
hired to apply pesticides on the agricultural situations.
establishment or to perform crop advising
tasks on such establishments. Family One of the provisions of the WPS is the
members who work on an agricultural or requirement that employers provide handlers
commercial pesticide establishment are and workers with ample water, soap, and
considered employees in some situations. single use towels for washing and
decontamination from pesticides and that
WPS requirements for employers include: emergency transportation be made available
• Displaying information about pesticide in the event of a pesticide poisoning or
safety, emergency procedures, and injury. The WPS also establishes REI and
recent pesticide applications on the requirements for PPE. PPE requirements
agricultural sites. are specified for all pesticides used on farms
• Training workers and handlers about and in forests, greenhouses, and nurseries.
pesticide safety. Some pesticide products already carried REI
• Helping employees get medical and PPE directions. This rule raised the
assistance in case of a pesticide related level of protection and requirements for all
emergency. pesticide products.
• Providing decontamination sites to
wash pesticide residues off hands and Other major provisions require that
body. employers inform workers and handlers
• Compliance with restricted entry about pesticide hazards through safety
intervals (REI) the time after a pesticide training. Handlers must have easy access to
application when workers may not enter pesticide label safety information and a
the area. listing of treatments site must be centrally
• Notifying workers through posted located at the agricultural facility. Handlers
and/or oral warnings about areas where are prohibited from applying a pesticide in a
37
way that could expose workers or other
people.

References: The Worker Protection

Standard for Agricultural Pesticides–
How to Comply: What Employers Need to
Know. Web site
<www.usda.gov/oce/oce/labor-
affairs/wpspage.htm>.

38
VIII. PROTECTING GROUNDWATER AND
ENDANGERED SPECIES

INTRODUCTION limitations and instructions may be too

detailed for inclusion in pesticide labeling.
In such cases the labeling will direct the
Federal and state efforts to protect
applicator or handler to another source for
groundwater and endangered species have
instructions and restrictions. The legal
resulted in special requirements and
responsibility for following instructions
restrictions for pesticide handlers and
that are distributed separately is the same
applicators. Pesticides that are incorrectly
as it is for instructions that appear on the
or accidentally released into the
pesticide labeling.
environment can pose a threat to
groundwater and endangered species.
Whether pesticides are applied indoors or PROTECTING
outdoors, in an urban area or in a rural GROUNDWATER
area, the endangered species and
groundwater must be protected and state
Groundwater is water located beneath the
and federal agencies rigidly enforce this
earth’s surface. Many people think that
requirement.
groundwater occurs in vast underground
lakes, rivers, or streams. Usually,
The need for special action by the
however, it is located in rock and soil. It
pesticide handler/applicator depends on
moves very slowly through irregular
site location. Groundwater contamination
spaces within otherwise solid rock or
is of special concern in release sites where
seeps between particles of sand, clay, and
groundwater is close to the surface or
gravel. An exception is in limestone areas,
where the soil type or the geology allows
where groundwater may flow through
contaminants to reach groundwater easily.
large underground channels or caverns.
In the case of endangered species, special
Surface water may move several feet in a
action is normally required in locations
second or a minute. Groundwater may
where the species currently live or in
move only a few feet in a month or a year.
locations where species are being
If the groundwater is capable of providing
reintroduced. The product labeling is the
significant quantities of water to a well or
best source to determine if pesticide use is
spring, it is called an aquifer. Pesticide
subject to groundwater or endangered
contamination of aquifers is very
species limitations.
troubling, because these are sources of
drinking, washing, and irrigation water.
The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) establishes the specific
Utah has implemented a comprehensive
limitations or instructions for pesticide
and coordinated approach to protect
users in locations where groundwater or
groundwater from pesticide
endangered species are most at risk. These
contamination. Formulation of the Utah
39
Groundwater and Pesticide State Correctly: A Guide for Private and
Management Plan is a cooperative effort Commercial Applicators.
between federal, state, private agencies,
producers, and user groups. It provides a The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and
basis for continuing future efforts to Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), as amended,
protect groundwater from contamination establishes a policy for determining the
whenever possible. Furthermore, this plan acceptability of a pesticide use or the
provides agencies with direction for continuation of that use, according to a
management policies, regulations, risk/benefit assessment. As long as
enforcement, and implementation of benefits outweigh adverse effects, the EPA
groundwater strategies. can continue to register the pesticide.
Although the intent of a pesticide
Utah recognizes that the responsible and application is to apply the pesticide to the
wise use of pesticides can have a positive target or pest, part of the pesticide will fall
economic impact, yield a higher quality of on the area around the target or pest. Rain
life, enhance outdoor activities, and give or irrigation water then can pick up the
relief from annoying pests. The EPA has part that is not degraded or broken down
authorized the Utah Department of and carry it to the groundwater via
Agriculture and Food (UDAF) to enforce leaching.
the protection of groundwater from
pesticides. There are many factors that influence the
amount of pesticide contamination that can
The UDAF, in concert with cooperating get into groundwater. The major factors
agencies and entities, demands strict are the soil type, soil moisture, persistence
compliance with all pesticide labels, in soil, placement of the pesticide,
handling procedures, and usage to frequency of application, pesticide
protect groundwater in the state. concentration and formulation, pesticide
water solubility, and precipitation. Each of
Prevention of groundwater contamination these factors will influence the amount of
is important, because once the water is pesticide that can penetrate the soil
polluted, it is very difficult and costly to surface, leave the root zone, and percolate
correct the damage and in some instances into groundwater.
impossible. City and urban areas
contribute to pollution because water Although some pesticides may have a high
runoff can contain pesticides. Shallow adsorption quality, when they are applied
aquifers or water tables are more to sandy soil, they may still migrate to the
susceptible to contamination than deeper water table because there are few clay
aquifers or water tables. Sandy soils allow particles or little organic matter to bind
more pollution than clay or organic soils, them. The management and use of
because clays and organic matter adsorb pesticides is up to the individual applicator
many of the contaminants. and/or landowner as to whether safe
practices are used. Groundwater is a very
For more information about what valuable resource and it must be protected
groundwater is and where it comes from, from pesticide contamination.
read the study manual Applying Pesticides

40
PROTECTING EPA launched a major project known as
Endangered Species Labeling (ESL). The
ENDANGERED goal is to remove or reduce the threat to
SPECIES endangered species from pesticides. EPA
has the responsibility to protect wildlife
and the environment against hazards posed
The Federal Endangered Species Act lists
by pesticides. The ESL program is
the three classifications as endangered,
administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
threatened, and experimental. Endangered
Service (FWS) in the U.S. Department of
has the highest level of protection. The
Interior. The FWS reports to EPA
phrase “endangered species” is used when
concerning endangered species. EPA and
referring to these classifications. This Act
FWS work cooperatively to ensure that
was passed by Congress to protect certain
there is consistency in the pesticide
plants and wildlife that are in danger of
restriction information provided to
becoming extinct. A portion of this Act
agencies and pesticide users.
requires EPA to ensure that these species
are protected from pesticides.
The UDAF acts under the direction and
authority of EPA to carry out the ESL
EPA’s goal is to remove or reduce the
project as it relates to the use of pesticides
threat to endangered species that pesticides
in Utah. Utah’s web sites with maps
pose. Achieving this goal is a portion of
designating the habitat boundaries and
the larger continuing effort to protect
listings of endangered plants and wildlife
species at risk. Normally these restrictions
is: www.utahcdc.usu.edu
apply to the habitat or range currently
occupied by the species at risk.
Occasionally the restrictions apply where
endangered species are being reintroduced
into a habitat previously occupied.

Habitats are the areas of land, water, and

air space that an endangered species needs
for survival. Such areas include breeding
sites, sources of food, cover, and shelter,
and the surrounding territory that provides
space for normal population growth and
behavior.

Utah’s endangered species plan is a

cooperative effort between federal, state,
private agencies, producers, and user
groups. This plan provides agency
direction for regulations, enforcement,
management policies, and implementation
of threatened and endangered species
protection strategies.

41
http://www.water.utah.gov/groundwater/default.asp
Utah Groundwater Information
Utah Division of Water Resources

http://wildlife.utah.gov/habitat/pdf/endgspec.pdf
Endangered and Threatened Animals of Utah

42
 IX. CALIBRATION INFORMATION
Conversion:

Units
One acre = 43,560 square feet Example: ½ acre = 21,780 square feet
One mile = 5,280 feet Example: ¼ mile = 1320 feet
One gallon = 128 fluid ounces Example: ½ gallon = 64 fluid ounces
One quart = 2 pints = 4 cups = 32 fluid ounces Example: 2 quarts = 64 fluid ounces
One pint = 2 cups = 16 fluid ounces Example: ½ pint = 1 cup = 8 fluid ounces
One tablespoon = 3 teaspoons = 0.5 fluid ounces Example: 2 tablespoons = 1 fluid ounce
One pound = 16 ounces Example: ¼ pound = 4 ounces
One gallon = 231 cubic inches Example: 2 gallons = 462 cubic inches

Weights
1 ounce = 28.35 grams
16 ounces = 1 pound = 453.59 grams
1 gallon water = 8.34 pounds = 3.785 liters = 3.78 kilograms

Liquid Measures
1 fluid ounce = 2 tablespoons = 29.573 milliliters
16 fluid ounces = 1 pint = 0.473 liters
2 pints = 1 quart = 0.946 liters
8 pints = 4 quarts = 1 gallon = 3.785 liters

Lengths
1 foot = 30.48 centimeters
3 feet = 1 yard = 0.9144 meters
16 1/2 feet = 1 rod = 5.029 meters
5280 feet = 320 rods = 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Areas
1 square foot = 929.03 square centimeters
9 square feet = 1 square yard = 0.836 square meters
43560 square feet = 160 square rods = 1 acre = 0.405 hectares

Speeds
1.466 feet per second = 88 feet per minute = 1 mph = 1.6 kilometers per hour (kph)

Volumes
27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard = 0.765 cubic meters
1 cubic foot = 7.5 gallons = 28.317 cubic decimeters
43
Area and Volume Calculations:
Area of Rectangular or Square Shapes
The area of a rectangle is found by multiplying the length (L) times the width (W).
(Length) x (Width) = Area
Example: (100 feet) x (40 feet) = 4000 square feet

Area of Circles
The area of a circle is the radius (radius = one-half the diameter), times the radius, times 3.14.
(radius) x (radius) x (3.14) = Area
Example: (25 feet) x (25 feet) x (3.14) = 1962.5 square feet

Area of Triangular Shapes

To find the area of a triangle, multiply ½ times the width of the triangle’s base, times the height
of the triangle.
(½) x (base width) x (height) = Area
Example: (½) x (15 feet) x (10 feet) = 75 square feet

Area of Irregular Shapes

Irregularly shaped sites can often be reduced to a combination of rectangles, circles, and
triangles. Calculate the area of each shape and add the values together to obtain the total area.
Example: Calculate the area of the rectangle, triangle,
square, and one-half of a circle.

Another method is to convert the site into a circle. From a center point, measure the distance to
the edge of the area in 10 or more increments. Average these measurements to find the radius,
then calculate the area using the formula for a circle.
Example: Approximate the area by calculating
the area of a similarly sized circle.

44
Volume of Cube and Box Shapes
The volume of a cube or box is found by multiplying the length, times the width, times the
height.
(Length) x (Width) x (Height) = Volume

Example: (100 feet) x (50 feet) x (30 feet) = 150,000 cubic feet

Volume of Cylindrical Shapes

The volume of a cylinder is found by calculating the area of the round end (see formula for
circle) and multiplying this area times the length or height.

Example: (radius) x (radius) x (3.14) = Area of Circle

(Area of Circle) x (Length) = Volume of Cylinder
(2 feet) x (2 feet) x (3.14) x (6 feet) = 75.36 cubic feet

Sprayer Calibration Formulas:

To Calculate Travel Speed in Miles Per Hour
The travel speed of a sprayer is determined by measuring the time (seconds) required to travel a
know distance (such as 200 feet). Insert the values in the following formula to determine the
miles per hour.
Distance in Feet x 60 = Miles Per Hour
Time in Seconds x 88

Example: (200 feet) x (60) = 12,000 = 4.55 mph

(30 seconds) x (88) 2640

To Calculate the Gallons Per Minute Applied During Broadcast Spraying

The application rate in gallons per minute (GPM) for each nozzle is calculated by multiplying
the gallons per acre (GPA), times the miles per hour (MPH), times the nozzle spacing in inches
(W); then dividing the answer by 5940. For small adjustments in GPM sprayed, operating
pressure is changed. For large adjustments in GPM sprayed, travel speed (miles per hour) is
changed or nozzle size is changed.
GPA x MPH x W = GPM
5940

Example: (12 GPA) x (4.5 MPH) x (24”) = 1296 = 0.22 GPM

5940 5940

To Calculate the Gallons Per Minute Applied During Band Spraying

Broadcast spraying applies chemicals to the entire area. Band spraying reduces the amount of
area and chemicals sprayed per acre. To use the above formulas for band sprayer applications,
use the band width (measured in inches) rather than nozzle spacing for the “W” value.
45
Pesticide Mixing:

Terminology
The active ingredients of a pesticide are the chemicals in a formulation that control the target
pests. The formulation is the pesticide product as sold, usually a mixture of concentrated active
ingredients and an inert material. Restricted use pesticides are purchased in formulations
requiring dilution prior to application. Formulations are diluted with inert substances such as
water. The percentage of active ingredients in a pesticide formulation directly affects dilution
and application rates. Given two pesticides, A = 50% active ingredients, B = 100% active
ingredients; twice as much pesticide A formulation is required to equal pesticide B formulation.

To Determine the Total Amount of Pesticide Formulation Required Per Tank

To calculate the total amount of pesticide formulation needed per spray tank, multiply the
recommended dilution, ounces/pints/cups/teaspoons/tablespoons/etc. of pesticide per gallon of
liquid, times the total number of gallons to be mixed in the sprayer. A full or partial tank of
pesticide spray may be mixed.
(Dilution Per Gallon) x (Number of Gallons Mixed) = Required Amount of Pesticide
Formulation Example: (3 ounces per gallon) x (75 gallons) = 225 ounces
Note: 1 gallon = 128 ounces; through unit conversion 225 ounces = 1.76 gallons

To Calculate the Amount of Pesticide Formulation Sprayed Per Acre

The calculate the total amount of pesticide formulation sprayed per acre is determined by
multiplying the quantity of formulation (ounces/pounds/pints/cups/teaspoons/tablespoons/etc.)
mixed per gallon of water, times the number of gallons sprayed per acre.
(Quantity of Formulation Per Gallon) x (Gallons Sprayed Per Acre) = Formulation Sprayed Per Acre
Example: (1/2 pound per gallon) x (12 gallons per acre) = 6 pounds per acre

To Calculate the Amount of Active Ingredients Sprayed Per Acre

To calculate the total amount of active ingredients (AI) applied per acre, multiply the amount
(pounds, gallons, ounces, etc) of pesticide formulation required per acre, times the percentage of
active ingredients in the formulation (100%, 75%, 50%, 25%, etc.), and divide the value by 100.

(Amount of Formulation Required Per Acre) x (Percentage of AI) = Active Ingredients Per Acre
100

Example: (4 pounds formulation sprayed per acre) x (75% AI) = 3 pounds of AI sprayed per acre
100 Note: 75 % = 0.75

To Calculate the Gallons of Pesticide Mixture Sprayed Per Acre

The calculate the total amount of pesticide mixture sprayed per acre is determined by dividing
the number of gallons sprayed by the number of acres sprayed.
Gallons Sprayed = Gallons Sprayed Per Acre
Acres Sprayed

Example: 200 Gallons Sprayed = 20 gallons of pesticide mixture sprayed per acre
10 Acres Sprayed
46
 X. UTAH PLANT PEST
DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY

The Utah Plant Pest Diagnostic Laboratory (UPPDL) at Utah State University in Logan, Utah provides
assistance with pest identification. Many of the local County Extension Offices can provide assistance
with pest identification and the pest species can be submitted. In some instances digital photographs
can be submitted, but for the more difficult and/or small pest species, and actual specimen will need to
be mailed to the laboratory. Please access the laboratory’s web site for detailed instruction.

UPPDL is the only lab of its kind in Utah that identifies and provides management recommendations
for pest problems. With more than 20 years of experience, it employs two diagnosticians (arthropod
and plant disease) to identify a variety of plant pests for the citizens of Utah. The UPPDL also has
three Extension Specialists to supplement the diagnosticians for customized management information.

Types of pests identified include:

Plant diseases (fungi, bacteria, viruses, nutrient and physiological stresses, herbicide injury).
Arthropods (insects, spiders, mites, ticks) from plant and urban environments.
Clientele includes USU Extension personnel, agricultural and horticultural producers, homeowners,
state and federal agencies, health-care providers, and others.
In addition to plant pest biology and life cycles, The OPPDL also provides the following services:
Recommendations for pest management, including IPM and reduced risk alternatives.
Recommendations for legal and effective pesticide use.
Develops and maintains plant pest identification databases.
Develops in-service training and presentations for workshops and conferences.

Directions for submitting an arthropod sample:

http://utahpests.usu.edu/uppdl/files/uploads/submission-instructions-insect.pdf

Directions for submitting a plant disease sample:

http://utahpests.usu.edu/uppdl/files/uploads/Plant_Instructions.pdf

The fees for pest identification services are posted on the web site and updates occur regularly.

UTAH PESTS WEB SITE

http://utahpests.usu.edu/
Utah's diverse landscape supports thousands of insects and plant pathogens. The UTAH PESTS web
site is the Internet portal for learning more about pests, their beneficial counterparts, and how Utah
State University Extension personnel provide a greater understanding of these organisms in the world.
This site contains links to the following topics of detailed information.
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is used to suppress pest populations while minimizing costs and
environmental degradation. The Utah IPM pest advisories provide weekly or seasonal pest
information for tree fruit, small fruits, and vegetables, landscapes, and turf. Advisories are delivered
by email to subscribers or found on the web site.

PLANT DISEASES
Effective disease control depends primarily on early, accurate identification of the disease and the
causal agents. In most cases, it is too late to control a disease on a plant once the disease appears.
However, timely control measures can prevent the disease from spreading to other plants.

INSECTS AND THEIR RELATIVES

Insects are among the most adaptable group of animals on earth. They thrive in many environments
including deserts, rain forests, hot springs, snow, and in caves. There are more insects than all the other
plants and animals combined. Fortunately, less than 1% of all known insects are considered pests that
cause economical loss or are of medical importance. Insects are highly important because they serve
multiple functions in the ecology of the earth. They are efficient pollinators, macrodecomposers and
biological control agents. Most insects are also part of the food chain for larger animals.

COOPERATIVE AGRICULTURAL PEST SURVEY

Recognizing the economic and environmental impact of introduced plant pests, the federal government
has created the Cooperative Agricultural Pest Survey (CAPS) to detect and monitor invasive pests
nationwide. Lists of target pests and survey guidelines for the following year are published annually.
CAPS is co-managed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection
Service (USDA–APHIS) and each state. The Utah CAPS program is cooperatively administered by
the Utah Department of Agriculture and Food, and Utah State University.
 Appendix 1. Utah Noxious and Restricted Weeds and Seeds
Utah Noxious Weed Act R68-8 lists the following noxious weeds
Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon variety dactylon)
Bermudagrass is not a noxious weed in Washington County
Bindweed (Wild morning glory) (Convolvulus, species plural)
Broadleaved peppergrass (Tall whitetop) (Lepidium latifolium)
Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense)
Diffuse knapweed (Centaurea diffusa)
Dyers woad (Isatis tinctoria)
Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula)
Medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae subspecies caput-medusae)
Musk thistle (Carduus nutans)
Perennial sorghum, species plural (Sorghum halepense) and (Sorghum almum)
Including but not limited to Johnson grass
Purple loosestrife (Lythrum Salicaria)
Quackgrass (Elytrigia repens)
Russian knapweed (Acroptilon repens)
Scotch thistle (Cotton thistle) (Onopordum acanthium)
Spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa)
Squarrose knapweed (Centaurea virgata subspecies squarrosa)
Whitetop (Cardaria, species plural)
Yellow starthistle (Centaurea solsitialis)

Utah Seed Law R68-8 lists the following prohibited noxious weed seeds
Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon variety dactylon)
Bermudagrass is not a noxious weed in Washington County
Bindweed (Wild morning glory) (Convolvulus, species plural)
Broadleaved peppergrass (Tall whitetop) (Lepidium latifolium)
Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense)
Diffuse knapweed (Centaurea maculosa)
Dyers woad (Isatis tinctoria)
Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula)
Medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae subspecies caput-medusae)
Musk thistle (Carduus nutans)
Perennial sorghum, species plural (Sorghum halepense) and (Sorghum almum)
Including but not limited to Johnson grass
Purple loosestrife (Lythrum Salicaria)
Quackgrass (Elytrigia repens)
Russian knapweed (Acroptilon repens)
Scotch thistle (Cotton thistle) (Onopordum acanthium)
Spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa)
Squarrose knapweed (Centaurea virgata subspecies squarrosa)
Whitetop (Cardaria, species plural)
Yellow starthistle (Centaurea solsitialis)

Utah Seed Law R68-8 lists the following restricted weed seeds
Dodder (Cuscuta spp.)
Halogeton (Halogeton glomeratus)
Jointed goatgrass (Aegilops cylindrica)
Poverty weed (Iva axillaris)
Wild oats (Avena fatua)
47
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS
A
ABDOMEN - An insect’s third body ANTIDOTE - A treatment or remedy that
division. counteracts the effects of a poison or
ABSORPTION - The process by which toxin.
pesticides are taken into plants by roots or ANTI-SIPHONING DEVICE - A hose
foliage (stomata, cuticle, etc.). attachment designed to prevent backflow
ACARICIDE - a pesticide that kills mites. of a pesticide mix from the spray tank into
A miticide. a water source.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT - The chemical in APPLICATION RATE - The amount of
a pesticide formulation responsible for pesticide that is applied to a known area,
killing, poisoning, repelling, or other such as an acre, 1,000 square feet, or
biologic activity. volume of water.
ACUTE EFFECT - An illness that occurs AQUIFER - Underground formation of
shortly after exposure to a pesticide. sand, gravel, or porous rock that contains
ACUTE TOXICITY - Injury within 24 water; the place where groundwater is
hours following exposure. found.
ADJUVANT - Material added to a ARTHROPOD - Invertebrate animals
pesticide mixture to improve or alter the such as insects, spiders, ticks, and
deposition, toxic effects, mixing ability, crayfish of the phylum Arthropoda.
persistence, or other qualities of the active They have segmented bodies and
ingredient. jointed appendages.
ADSORPTION - The binding or adhesion
of pesticide spray droplets to the plant or B
soil surface. BACK SIPHONING - The movement of a
AGITATION - The process of stirring or liquid pesticide mixture from a spray tank
mixing in a sprayer. through a hose.
ALLERGIC EFFECTS/ALLERGY -A BACTERICIDE - Pesticide that inhibits or
hypersensitivity to a specific substance, kills bacteria or prevents their growth.
often called the allergen. An allergy may BAIT - A food or other substance used
cause dermatitis, blisters, or hives; it could to attract a pest to a pesticide or trap.
also cause illness, asthma, or life- BAND APPLICATION - An application
threatening shock. Often the entire body of spray or dust to a continuous restricted
is affected. Pesticide allergy symptoms area such as in or along a crop row rather
are similar to other allergy symptoms– than over the entire field.
reddening and itching of the eyes, BARE GROUND TREATMENT -
respiratory discomfort, and asthma-like Herbicide treatment that keeps the ground
symptoms. free of vegetation for long periods of time.
ANNUAL PLANT - A plant that BASAL TREATMENT - Application that
grows, matures, and produces seed in a encircles the stem of a plant above and/or
single year then dies. at ground level such that foliage contact is
ANTIBIOTIC - Chemical substance minimal. Application method commonly
produced by one micro-organism that used to describe treatment of woody
inhibits or kills other micro-organisms. plants.

48
BIENNIAL - Plant that completes its CERTIFIED APPLICATOR - A person
growth in two years. The first year, it qualified and licensed to apply or
produces leaves and stores food; the supervise the application of restricted use
second year, it produces fruits and seeds. pesticides.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL - The control CHEMICAL CONTROL - The control
of pests by means of predators, parasites, or management of pests with treatments
disease producing organisms, or of pesticides produced by chemistry.
competitive microorganisms. CHEMICAL NAME - The technical name
BLIGHT - Disease characterized by of the active ingredient(s) found in the
general and rapid killing of leaves, flowers formulated product. This complex name is
and stems. derived from the chemical structure of the
BLOTCH - Disease characterized by active ingredient.
large, irregular spots or blots on leaves, CHLOROSIS (adj. Chlorotic) - A yellow
shoots, stems and fruits. to white or gray condition of normally
BOOM, SPRAY - A pesticide application green plant tissue resulting from the partial
device attached to a truck, tractor, aircraft, to complete destruction of chlorophyll.
or other vehicle, or held by hand, to which Chlorosis is a common symptom of iron
multiple spray nozzles are attached. deficiency.
BROADCAST APPLICATION - The CHRONIC TOXICITY - Injury or
uniform application of a pesticide or other illness that occurs more than 24 hours
material over an entire field or area. following exposure due to prolonged or
BROADLEAF PLANT - A plant having repeated exposure.
more than one seed leaf and a wide leaves. CONCENTRATION - The amount of
BUFFERS - Adjuvants used to retard active ingredient in a given volume or
chemical degradation of some pesticides weight of formulated product.
by lowering the pH of alkaline water and CONTACT EFFECTS - Injury at the point
maintaining the pH within a narrow range of contact, including skin discoloration
even with the addition of acidic or alkaline and irritation (dermatitis) such as itching,
materials. redness, rashes, blisters, and burns. Also,
swelling, stinging, and burning of the eyes,
C nose, mouth, or throat are contact effects.
CALIBRATION - To properly adjust CONTACT PESTICIDE - Any pesticide
equipment or to determine the correct that controls pest organisms upon contact.
amount of material to be applied to the CONTAINMENT PAD - An
target area. impermeable pad used for mixing and
CANKER - Necrotic, often sunken lesion loading pesticides and cleaning equipment
on a stem, branch, or twig. that is designed to catch spills, leaks,
CARRIER - The liquid or solid material overflows, and wash water for reuse or
added to an active ingredient to facilitate disposal.
its storage, shipment, or use. CONTAMINATION - The presence of
CATERPILLAR - Larvae of the moths an unwanted substance in or on plants,
and butterflies, but larvae of sawflies in animals, soil, water, air, or structures.
the hymenoptera are also caterpillar- like. CROSS CONTAMINATION - When one
CAUTION - The signal word associated pesticide accidentally mixes with another
with pesticide products classified as pesticide, usually in an improperly cleaned
slightly toxic. sprayer or in storage because of the
airborne movement of a volatile pesticide.
49
CROWN - The point where stem and root DILUENT - Any inert liquid, solid, or
join in a seed plant. gaseous material that is combined with a
CULTURAL CONTROL - A pest control pesticide active ingredient during the
method that includes changing sanitation manufacturing process. Also, the water,
and/or work practices. It alters the petroleum product, or other liquid in
environment, the condition of the host or which the product is mixed before
site, and/or the behavior of the pest. application. Also referred to as the carrier.
CUTICLE - The outer protective covering DIRECTED APPLICATION - Precise
of plants which aids in preventing water application to a specific area or plant such
loss. as to a row or bed or to the leaves or stems
of plants.
D DISEASE - Any malfunctioning of host
DAMAGE THRESHOLD LEVEL - The cells and tissue that results from
lowest pest population density at which continuous irritation by a pathogenic agent
damage occurs. or environmental factor and that leads to
DANGER–POISON - The signal word the development of symptoms.
associated with pesticide products DISPERSING AGENT - An adjuvant that
classified as highly toxic. This signal facilitates the mixing and suspension of a
word is also associated with pesticide pesticide formulation in water.
products that are corrosive or cause DORMANCY - State of inhibited
irritation to skin and eyes. germination of seeds or growth of plants.
DECONTAMINATE - To remove or A state of suspended development.
degrade a chemical residue from the skin DORMANT SPRAY - Spray applied
or a surface. during the dormant season when plants are
DEFOLIANT HERBICIDE - A herbicide inactive.
used to remove foliage. DOSE OR DOSAGE - Amount or rate
DEGRADATION - The breakdown of a of chemical applied to a given area or
pesticide into an inactive or less active target.
form. Environmental conditions, DRIFT - The airborne movement of a
microorganisms, or other chemicals can pesticide spray, dust, particle, or vapor
contribute to the degradation of pesticides. beyond the intended contact area.
DELAYED TOXICITY - Illnesses or DRY FLOWABLE - A dry, granular
injuries that do not appear immediately pesticide formulation that forms a
after exposure to pesticides. The effects suspension when added to water. Same as
generally occur between 24 hours and a water dispersible granule.
several days after exposure. DUST - A finely ground, dry pesticide
DERMAL - Pertaining to the skin. formulation containing a small amount of
DERMAL TOXICITY - The measure of active ingredient and a large amount of
injury to the body when exposed to the inert carrier or diluent such as clay to talc.
skin.
DESICCANT HERBICIDE - A herbicide E
that removes water from plant foliage. ECOLOGY - The study of the effect of
DIAGNOSIS - The identification of the environmental factors such as soil, climate
nature or cause of the problem or fault. and culture on organisms.
DIEBACK - Progressive death of shoots, ECONOMIC INJURY LEVEL - The
branches, and roots generally starting at lowest pest population density causing
the tip. economic damage.
50
EFFICACY - The ability of a pesticide to EXPOSURE ROUTE - The dermal (skin),
produce a desired effect on a target oral (ingestion), or respiratory (inhalation)
organism. route by which a substance may enter an
EMERGENCE - Appearance of the first organism.
part of the crop plant above the ground. EXUDATE - Substance, usually liquid,
EMULSIFIABLE CONCENTRATE - A discharged from a plant or animal through
pesticide formulation produced by mixing a natural opening or from diseased tissue
an active ingredient and an emulsifying through a wound.
agent in a suitable petroleum solvent.
When it is added to water, a milky F
emulsion is usually formed. FAMILY - A classification unit of genera
EMULSIFYING AGENT - Material with certain characteristics that make them
which facilitates the suspending of one related.
liquid in another. FIFRA - The Federal Insecticide,
EMULSION - Mixture in which one liquid Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, a federal
is suspended in tiny globules in another law dealing with pesticide regulations and
liquid, such as oil in water. use.
ENDANGERED SPECIES - Plants or FLOWABLE - A pesticide formulation in
animals whose population has been which a very finely ground solid particle,
reduced to near extinction. composed of both active and inert
ENTOMOLOGY - The study of insects. ingredients, is suspended in a liquid
ENVIRONMENT - The external carrier. These formulations are mixed
conditions and influences surrounding with water before spraying.
living organisms. FOLIAR APPLICATION - Pesticide
EPA ESTABLISHMENT NUMBER - A application to plant leaves or foliage.
number assigned to each pesticide FOLIAR BURN - Injury to shoot tissue
production facility by the EPA. The caused by dehydration because of contact
number indicates the plant at which the with high concentrations of fertilizers and
pesticide product was produced and must pesticides.
appear on all labels of that product. FORMULATION - The pesticide product
EPA REGISTRATION NUMBER - A as purchased, containing a mixture of one
number assigned to a pesticide product by or more active ingredients, carriers, and
the EPA when the product is registered by other additives.
the manufacturer or the designated agent. FUMIGANT - A pesticide that kills
The number must appear on all labels of destructive microorganisms, animals and
that particular product. plants as a gas.
ERADICATION - Pest management FUNGICIDE - A pesticide used to destroy
strategy that attempts to eliminate all or inhibit fungi and other plant pathogens.
members of a pest species. FUNGUS - A group of saprophytic and
EROSION - The process of wearing away parasitic spore producing organisms
soil. usually classified as plants that lack
EVALUATION - To examine or chlorophyll and include molds, rusts,
investigate for the purpose of judging the mildews, smuts, mushrooms, and yeasts.
value, extent, or success.
EXPOSURE - Unwanted contact with G
pesticides or pesticide residues by people,
other organisms, or the environment.
51
GALL - Swelling or overgrowth produced HONEYDEW - The sweet, sticky
on a plant as a result of infection by excretion of aphids, leafhoppers scales,
certain pathogens. mealybugs, whiteflies.
GENERAL USE PESTICIDE - A HOST - Plant or animal from which a
pesticide that can be purchased and used parasite gets its nutrients.
by the general public. HUMUS - The organic fractions of soil in
GENUS - (pl. Genera) A group of species which decomposition is so far advanced
with common characteristics. that its original form cannot be
GERMINATION - The beginning process distinguished.
when a plant sprouts from a seed.
GRANULAR - Dry formulation of I
pesticide and other components in discrete INCOMPATIBLE - Two or more
particles generally less than ten cubic materials that cannot be mixed or used
millimeters in size. together.
GRASS - Plant having a single seed INCUBATION PERIOD - The time from
leaf and narrow leaves. A member of the introduction of inoculum to the host and
family Gramineae (Poaceae). when the disease becomes microscopically
GROUND COVER - Low growing evident.
broadleaf plant used to cover the soil. INERT INGREDIENT - The chemical in a
GROUNDWATER - Water sources pesticide formulation that does not possess
located beneath the soil surface. pesticidal activity.
GROWTH STAGES - The growing INFECTION - Establishment of a
process that includes (1) tillering stage: pathogen within a host.
when a plant produces additional shoots INFECTIOUS DISEASE - A pathogen
from a single crown, as in wheat; (2) caused disease that can be transmitted
jointing stage: when the internodes of the between plants.
stem are elongating; (3) boot stage: when INGREDIENT STATEMENT - The
the seedhead of a plant begins to emerge portion of the label on a pesticide
from the sheath (usually grain crops). container that gives the name and amount
GRUB - The larvae of certain beetles and of each active ingredient and the total
also some flies. amount of inert ingredients in the
formulation.
H INHALATION TOXICITY - The property
HABITAT - The environment in which an of a pesticide to be poisonous to humans
organism lives. or animals when breathed in through the
HAZARD - The likelihood of an injury nose or mouth.
from pesticide use. Hazards constitutes INHIBIT - To prevent something from
both toxicity and exposure. happening, such as a biological reaction
HEAT STRESS - A potentially life within the tissues of a plant or animal.
threatening condition where the body INOCULATION - The process of
becomes over heated. transferring inoculum to a host.
HERBACEOUS - The soft tissue of a INOCULUM - Infectious pathogen or its
plant that lacks woody sturucture. spores, mycelium, or virus, bacteria or
HERBICIDE - A pesticide used to control, mycoplasma particles that are capable of
suppress, or kill plants or severely infecting plants or animals.
interrupt their normal growth processes. INSECT - Any of the class Insecta with a
well defined head, thorax, abdomen, six
52
legs, and typically one or two pairs of LIFE CYCLE - The changes between
wings. birth and death of the organism.
INSECTICIDE - Pesticide used to control,
suppress, or kill insects or severely M
interrupt their normal growth processes. MAGGOT - Larvae of the higher diptera,
INSOLUBLE - Refers to a chemical that especially families related to houseflies.
does not dissolve in a liquid. For example, MECHANICAL CONTROL - Physical
a wettable powder does not dissolve in control of pests using devices or
water but rather forms a suspension. machines that kill the pests and/or alter
INSPECTION - A critical examination their environment.
and evaluation aimed at forming a MICROORGANISM - Tiny living
judgment or determination. organism such as bacteria, fungi,
INSTAR - Insect stages between molts. nematode or virus.
INTEGRATED PEST MIST - Pesticide sprays composed of
MANAGEMENT (IPM) - A planned droplets that has particle size sufficient to
pest control program in which various settle fairly rapidly, but still remain
techniques are used to keep pests from suspended long enough to be effective.
causing economic, health related, or other MILDEW - Fungal disease in which the
problems. mycelium and spores are seen as a whitish
INVERT EMULSION - An emulsion in growth on the host surface.
which water droplets are suspended in an MITE - Any of numerous small arachnids
oil rather than the oil droplets being that often infest animals, plants, and stored
suspended in water. foods.
MITICIDE - A pesticide used to destroy or
L inhibit mites.
LABEL - All printed material attached to MODE OF ACTION - The way in which a
or part of a pesticide container. The label pesticide reacts with a pest.
is a legal document. MOLD - Any profuse or woolly fungus
LABELING - The pesticide product label growth on damp or decaying matter or on
and all supplemental pesticide information surfaces of host tissue.
that complements the information on the MULCH - Any material (straw, sawdust,
label but may not necessarily by attached leaves, plastic film, etc.) spread on the
to or part of the container. soil.
LARVA - (pl. Larvae) The immature or
worm stage (caterpillar, maggot, grub) of N
an insect that passes through four stages NECROSIS - Death of plant cells usually
(egg, larva, pupae, adult) in its resulting in the affected tissue turning
development. brown or black.
LEACHING - Process by which some NONINFECTIOUS DISEASE - A
pesticides move down through the soil, disease caused by unfavorable growing
usually by being dissolved in water, with conditions that cannot be transmitted from
the possibility of reaching groundwater. plant to plant.
LEGAL STATUS - Classified such that NONLETHAL - Not capable of causing
an activity is permitted or allowed by law. death.
LESION - Localized area of discolored, NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION –
diseased tissue. Pollution that comes from a widespread
area. The movement of pesticides into
53
streams or groundwater following a application area by air movements at the
broadcast application to an agricultural time of or soon after application.
field, large turf area, or right-of-way is an PATHOGEN - Any organism capable of
example of non-point-source pollution. causing disease. Most pathogens are
NONSELECTIVE HERBICIDE - parasites.
Herbicide that is generally toxic to plants, PELLET - Dry formulation of a pesticide
without regard to species. Toxicity may be in discrete particles, usually larger than ten
a function of dosage, method of cubic millimeters.
application, etc. PERCOLATE - To pass slowly through
NONTARGET ORGANISM - Any a material or spread throughout an area.
plant or animal other than the intended PERENNIAL - Plant that lives from year
target of a pesticide application. to year, but for three years or more under
NOXIOUS - Something that is harmful to normal growing conditions.
living organisms, such as noxious weeds. PERSISTENT HERBICIDE - Herbicide
NOXIUS WEED - A plant defined by law which will, for an extended period of time,
as particularly undesirable. harm plants or interfere with regrowth of
NOZZLE - A device for metering and vegetation.
dispersing a spray solution. PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
NUISANCE WEED - A plant not defined EQUIPMENT (PPE) - Devices and
by law that causes management problems. clothing that protect pesticide applicators,
NYMPH - The immature stage handlers, and workers from exposure to
(resembling an adult) of an insect that pesticides.
passes through three stages (egg, nymph PEST - An undesirable organism (insect,
and adult) of development. bacterium, fungus, nematode, weed, virus,
rodent) that is injurious to humans,
O desirable plants and animals,
OBLIGATE PARASITE - Parasite that in manufactured products, or natural
nature can grow and multiply only on or in products.
living organisms. PESTICIDE - Any substance or mixture of
ORAL TOXICITY - The occurrence of substances intended for preventing,
injury when a pesticide is taken by mouth. destroying, repelling, or mitigrating any
ORGANIC MATTER - Plant or animal pest, and any substance or mixture of
materials that can be broken down and re- substances intended for use as a plant
synthesized in soil. regulator, defoliant, or desiccant.
OVERSEED - Seeding in existing turf, pH - Measure of a solution’s acidity or
usually with temporary turf grass, to alkalinity. Seven is numerically equal to a
provide green, active grass growth during neutral solution, pH increases with
dormancy of the original turf (usually a increasing alkalinity, while pH decreases
warm-season turf grass). with increasing acidity.
PESTICIDE CONCENTRATE - A
P pesticide formulation before any dilution
PARASITE - An organism that lives on or occurs.
in a living host and that gets all or part of PESTICIDE HANDLER - A person who
its nutrients from the host. works directly with pesticides, such as
PARTICLE DRIFT - Spray particles during mixing, loading, transporting,
which are carried away from the cleaning, storing, disposing, and applying,

54
or who repairs pesticide application for the control of pests.
equipment. PRESSURE RINSE - The process of
PHEROMONE - A biochemical decontaminating an empty pesticide
substance produced by insects to attract container with water by using a special
others of the same species through the high-pressure nozzle to rinse the container.
sense of smell. PREVENTION - An action that makes
PHOTODEGRADATION - Breakdown of it impossible or very difficult for an
chemicals by the action of sunlight. unwanted activity to happen.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS - Process by which PROTECTANT - Pesticide applied to a
plants convert sunlight into energy. plant in advance of the pathogen to
PHYSIOLOGY - The study of processes, prevent infection.
activities and phenomena related to life. PROTECTED STATUS - An animal or
PHYTOTOXIC - Injurious to plants such plant species that is designated as
as from a pesticide treatment. endangered, threatened, or experimental,
PLANT GROWTH REGULATOR - and is protected by federal or state law.
Substance used for controlling or PSI - Pressure measured in pounds per
modifying plant-growth processes without square inch.
appreciable phytotoxic effect. PUPA (pl. Pupae) - The resting state of an
POINT SOURCE POLLUTION - The insect that passes through four stages (egg,
contamination of water and soil from a larvae, pupa and adult) in its development.
specific, identifiable place or location, PUSTULE - Small blister-like elevation of
such as a spill site or a permanent mixing, epidermis created as spores form
loading, and cleaning site. underneath and push outward.
POISON CONTROL CENTER - An
agency, generally a hospital, that has R
current information on proper first-aid RATE OF APPLICATION - The
techniques and antidotes for poisoning amount of pesticide applied, usually
emergencies. measured as per acre, per 1,000 square
POLLUTION - Contaminating the feet, per linear foot, or per cubic foot.
environment with harmful chemicals or REGISTERED PESTICIDES - Pesticide
waste products. products that have been registered by the
POSTEMERGENT HERBICIDE - Environmental Protection Agency for the
Herbicide applied after emergence of the uses listed on the label.
crop or weed. RESIDUAL - The ability of a pesticide to
PRECIPITATE - A solid substance that persist after application in amounts that
forms in a liquid and settles to the bottom will kill pests for several days to several
of a container; a material that no longer weeks or longer.
remains in suspension. RESISTANCE - Inherent ability of a host
PRE-EMERGENT HERBICIDE - to suppress, retard, or prevent entry or
Herbicide applied before emergence of a subsequent activity of a pathogen or other
crop or weed. injurious factor.
PREHARVEST INTERVAL - The length RESTRICTED ENTRY INTERVAL
of time following the application of a (REI) - The amount of time that must
pesticide when harvesting is restricted. elapse between treatment of the crop and
PRE-PLANT HERBICIDE - A herbicide the time when a person can reenter and
that is applied before the crop is planted. handle the crop without wearing protective
PRESCRIPTION - A proven formula
55
clothing and equipment or receiving early- SCALE INSECTS - Insects that
entry training. characterized by hard, convex coverings
RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDE - A over their body with no visible appendages
pesticide that can be purchased only by or segmentation.
certified pesticide applicators and used SCALP - To remove excessive amounts
only by certified applicators or persons of functioning green leaves with mowing.
under their direct supervision. Not Gives a shabby, brown appearance from
available for use by the general public exposing crowns, stolons, dead leaves, and
because of high toxicities and/or even bare soil.
environmental hazards. SELECTIVE HERBICIDE - A herbicide
REVEGETATION - The process of that is more toxic to some plant species
planting or seeding areas with no plant than to others.
cover. SIGNAL WORDS - Words that appear on
RHIZOME - Underground stem capable of pesticide labels to denote the relative acute
sending out roots and leafy shoots. toxicity of the product.
RING SPOT - Circular area of chlorosis SILVICIDE - A pesticide used to
with a green center; a symptom of various destroy or inhibit trees and woody
virus diseases. vegetation.
RINSATE - A liquid obtained from SITE - The crop, animal, structure,
rinsing pesticide containers and commodity, or area where a pesticide is
application equipment. applied to control pests.
RISK - The frequency of an adverse SKELETONIZE - To remove the green
effect in a given situation. portions of a leaf, leaving veins, midribs or
ROOT ZONE - The upper six to eight transparent membranes.
inches of soil, where most turf-grass roots SOD - Plugs, squares or strips of turf
are concentrated. grass, with adhering soil used in vegetative
RUNOFF - The liquid spray material that planting.
drips from the foliage of treated plants or SOIL APPLICATION - Pesticide applied
from other treated surfaces. Also, the mainly to the soil surface rather than to
rainwater or irrigation water that leaves an vegetation.
area and may contain trace amounts of SOIL MOBILITY - Variable characteristic
pesticide. of a pesticide based on its chemical nature.
RUSSET - Brownish, roughened areas on Highly mobile pesticides leach rapidly
the skin of fruit resulting from cork through the soil and may contaminate
formation. groundwater. Immobile pesticides or those
RUST - A fungus with orange spores or with low soil mobility remain attached to
the disease caused those fungi. soil particles and are resistant to leaching.
SOIL MODIFICATION - Alteration of
S soil characteristics by adding soil
SALINITY - Excessive soluble salts in amendments; commonly used to improve
the soil. physical conditions.
SANITATION - Term used for cultural SOIL PROBE - A cylindrical soil-
methods that reduce inoculum. sampling tool with a cutting edge at the
SCALD - Turf collapse and browning lower end.
because shallow, standing water gets too SOIL STERILANT HERBICIDE - A
hot. herbicide which renders the soil incapable
of supporting plant growth. Sterilization
56
may be temporary or practically product information not present on the
permanent. current container label.
SOIL STERILIZATION - Treating soil SURFACE WATER - Water on the
by heat or chemicals to kill living earth’s surface in rivers, lakes, ponds, and
organisms. streams.
SOIL STRUCTURE - The relative SURFACTANT - A material in pesticide
proportion of sand, silt, and clay in a soil. formulations imparts emulsifiability,
SOIL TYPES - Term use in classifying spreading, wetting, dispersability, or other
different kinds of soil by physical surface-modifying properties.
characteristics. SUSPENSION - Liquid or gas in which
SOLUBILITY - The extent to which one very fine solid particles are dispersed but
substance is able to dissolve in another. not dissolved.
SOLUBLE POWDER - A powder SWATH - The width of the area covered
formulation that dissolves and forms a by one sweep of an airplane, ground
solution in water. sprayer, spreader, or duster.
SOLUTION - Mixture of one or more SYMPTON - Any detectable change in an
substances in another substance (usually a organism resulting from the activities of a
liquid) in which all the ingredients are pathogen or other pest also, an indication
completely dissolved. of pesticide poisoning in humans and other
SPECIES - Taxonomic classification, animals.
below the genus of related organisms SYNERGISM - The action that produces
capable of interbreeding a greater cumulative effect when two
SPORE - A tiny propagative unit of a pesticides are used together than when
fungus that functions as a seed but differs used individually.
by not containing a preformed embryo. SYSTEMIC - Pesticide absorbed or
SPOT TREATMENT - Pesticide applied injected into the plant and then spread
over small, restricted area(s), of a larger internally through the plant.
area such as the treatment of weed patches
within a larger field. T
SPRAY DEPOSIT - The pesticide that TANK MIX - A mixture of products in a
hits the plant or other surface. spray tank.
SPRAY DRIFT - The movement of TAPROOT - A single, large, primary
airborne spray particles from the intended root.
contact area. TARGET - The plants, animals,
SPREADER - A adjuvant used to enhance structures, areas, or pests at which the
the spread of a pesticide over a treated pesticide or other control method is
surface, thus improving the coverage. directed.
STAND - The number of established TEMPERATURE INVERSION - A
individual shoots per unit area. weather related event that occurs when
STOMA (pl. Stomata) - A tiny opening in cool air is trapped near the ground under a
the epidermis of a leaf or stem through layer of warn air. Under these conditions
which gases are exchanged. very little vertical mixing of air occurs,
SUPPLEMENTAL LABELING - EPA and small spray droplets or vapors may
approved written, printed, or graphic remain suspended in the cool air layer for
material supplied by the pesticide long periods and move with any air flow.
manufacturer that provides additional Damage from spray drift often occurs
under such conditions.
57
THATCH - A tightly intermingled layer
of organic residue between the base of the U
grass and the soil. ULTRA LOW VOLUME (ULV) - Sprays
THICKENER - A drift control adjuvant that are applied at 0.5 gallon or less per
such as cellulose or gel used to promote acre, often as the undiluted formulation.
the formation of a greater proportion of UNCLASSIFIED PESTICIDES -
large droplets in a spray mixture. Pesticides that are commonly referred to
THORAX - The middle region of an as general-use pesticides. They can be
insect's body, where the legs and wings are bought and used by the general public
attached. without special permits or restrictions.
TILLER - A lateral stem or shoot that UNPROTECTED STATUS - Animal or
develops from the central crown. plant species that is not protected by
TOLERANCE - The ability of an federal or state law.
organism to tolerate a pesticide.
TOPDRESSING - Applying a prepared V
soil mix to the turf surface. VAPOR DRIFT - The movement of
TOTAL VEGETATION APPLICATION pesticide vapors from the application site
- Applying of single or multiple pesticide that can injure nontarget plants or animals.
at one time or in sequence to provide pre- VARIETY - A subspecies or a near
emergent and/or post emergent control of relative with minor differentiations.
all plants. The term usually involves VECTOR - Agent that transmits
application to noncrop areas. pathogens.
TOXIC - Poisonous to living organisms. VEINATION - Vein arrangement of a
TOXICITY - The ability of a pesticide to leaf.
harm a living organism. VIABLE - Alive, especially with reference
TRADE NAME - A brand name that is to seeds capable of germinating.
registered as a trademark by the VIRUS - Submicroscopic parasite that
manufacturer. cause mosaics, ring-spots, and other plant
TRANSLOCATED HERBICIDE - diseases. Viruses only reproduce in living
Herbicide that is moved within the plant. cells.
Translocated herbicides may be either VOLATILITY - The degree to which a
phloem-mobile or xylem-mobile, but the substance changes from a liquid or solid
term is often used in a more restrictive state to a gas at ordinary temperatures
sense to refer to herbicides that are moved when exposed to air.
in the phloem. VOLATILIZE - Vaporize or change from
TRANSMISSION - Spread of pathogens a liquid to a gas at certain temperatures.
from plant to plant.
TRIPLE RINSE - The process of W
decontaminating an empty pesticide WARNING - The signal word used on
container by partially filling the container pesticide products that are considered
with water, replacing the lid, shaking the moderately toxic.
container, and then pouring the rinsate in WATER SOLUBLE CONCENTRATE -
the spray tank. This process is repeated A liquid pesticide formulation that
three times. dissolves in water to form a true solution.
TUBER - A swollen underground stem WATER TABLE - The upper level of the
with numerous buds. water saturated zone in the ground.
TUMOR - Abnormal swelling or growth.
58
WEED - A plant growing where it is not
wanted or where it is in direct conflict
with the well-being of humans and their
activities.
WETLAND - Area with aquatic soils and
vegetation.
WETTABLE POWDER - A dry pesticide
formulation in powder form that forms a
suspension when added to water.
WETTING AGENT - An adjuvant used to
reduce the surface tension between a
liquid and the contact surface for more
thorough coverage.
WETLAND - Area with aquatic soils and
vegetation.
WILT - Loss of rigidity and drooping of
plant parts, generally caused by
insufficient water in the plant.
WINDBURN - Death and browning of
leaves caused by desiccation.
WORKER PROTECTION STANDARD
(WPS) - A federal regulation that intends
to reduce the risk of pesticide poisoning
and injuries among agricultural workers
and handlers. The WPS requires
agricultural employers to provide
protections to workers and handlers,
including but not limited to: safety
training, posting of application sites, and
decontamination supplies.

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