PART A

1. What is meant by skeletal system?

The adult human skeletal system consists of 206 bones, as well as a
network of tendons, ligaments and cartilage that connects them. The skeletal
system performs vital functions i.e support, movement, protection, blood cell
production, calcium storage and endocrine regulation which used to enable us to
survive.
2. Definition of bone.
Bone is the substance that forms the skeleton of the body. It is composed
chiefly of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. It also serves as a storage area
for calcium, playing a large role in calcium balance in the blood.

The 206 bones in the body serve several other purposes. They support and
protect internal organs (for example, the skull protects the brain and the ribs protect
the lungs). Muscles pull against bones to make the body move. Bone marrow, the
soft, spongy tissue in the center of many bones, makes and stores blood cells.

3. Describe the functions of bone.

Functions of bones
The functions of bones include:
 Providing the body framework.
 Giving attachment to muscles and tendons.
 Allowing movement of the body as a whole and of parts of the body, by
forming joints that are moved by muscles.
 Forming the boundaries of the cranial, thoracic and pelvic cavities, and
protecting the organs they contain.
 Haemopoiesis, the production of blood cells in redbone marrow.
 Mineral storage, especially calcium phosphate –the mineral reservoir
within bone is essential for maintenance of blood calcium levels, which must
be tightly controlled.

4. What are the functions of skull?

Functions of the skull
The various parts of the skull have specific and different functions:
 The cranium protects the brain.
  The bony eye sockets protect the eyes and give attachment to the muscles
that move them.
 The temporal bone protects the delicate structures of the inner ear
 The sinuses in some face and skull bones give resonance to the voice.
 The bones of the face form the walls of the posterior part of the nasal cavities
and form the upper part of the air passages.
 The maxilla and the mandible provide alveolar ridges in which the teeth are
embedded.
 The mandible, controlled by muscles of the lower face, allows chewing.

5. Discuss about the functions of skull bones.

 The Frontal bone is one of the major cranial bones. It comprises the forehead
(squama frontalis) and the upper orbit of the eye (pars orbitalis). The front of the
top of the head roughly covers the frontal lobes of the brain.
 The Parietal bones form the largest part of the top and sides of the cranium.
There are two parietal bones and each one is shaped roughly like a curved
rectangle.
 There are two Temporal bones in the cranium, each supports part of the face
known as the temple. The temporal bones are crucial in the anatomy of the ear.
 The Ethmoid bone differs from the other bones in the cranium in that it is a
spongy bone opposed to a hard bone. The name derives from the Greek ethnos
meaning sieve and divides the nasal cavity from the brain
 There are 2 Sphenoid bones, each is situated behind the eyes at the base of the
skull in front of the Temporals. Because of the way it is shaped and situated the
Sphenoid bone has contact with all the other cranial bones.
 The Occipital bone forms the back of the skull and the base of the cranium. The
bone is pierced by a large oval hole(the foramen magnum) through which runs
the spinal cord.

6. What is synovial fluid?

Synovial fluid
This is a thick sticky fluid, of egg-white consistency, which fills the synovial
cavity. It:
 Nourishes the structures within the joint cavity
  Contains phagocytes, which remove microbes and Cellular debris
 Acts as a lubricant
 Maintains joint stability
 Prevents the ends of the bones from being Separated, as does a little
water between two glass Surfaces.

7. What is meant by muscle cells?

 Muscle cells are specialised contractile cells, also called fibres. The three
types of muscle tissue, smooth, cardiac and skeletal.
 Each differ in structure, location and physiological function.
 Smooth muscle and cardiac muscle are not under voluntary control and
Skeletal muscles, which are under voluntary control, are attached to bones
via their tendons and move the skeleton.
 Like cardiac (but not smooth) muscle, skeletal muscle is striated (striped),
and the stripes are seen in a characteristic banded pattern when the cells
are viewed under the microscope.

8. What are the two types of respiration?

Blood provides the transport system for O2 and Co2 between the lungs and
the cells of the body.
 Exchange of gases between the blood and the lungs is called external
respiration
 Exchange of gases between the blood and the cells internal respiration.

9. Mention the parts of respiratory system.

The organs of the respiratory system are:
 Nose
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Two bronchi (one bronchus to each lung)
 Bronchioles and smaller air passages
 Two lungs and their coverings, the pleura
 Muscles of breathing – the inter costal muscles and The diaphragm.
10. What is the ventilation perfusion ratio.
The ventilation-perfusion ratio is the ratio between the amount of air getting to
the alveoli (the alveolar ventilation, V, in ml/min) and the amount of blood being
sent to the lungs (the cardiac output or Q - also in ml/min). Calculating the V/Q
ratio is quite easy -
V/Q = alveolar ventilation/cardiac output
V/Q = (4 l/min)/(5 l/min)
V/Q = 0.8
11. What is chloride shift.
When CO2 enters the blood from the tissues, it passes into the red blood cell
and is converted by carbonate dehydratase to bicarbonate (HCO3-); HCO3- ion
passes out into the plasma, whereas Cl- migrates into the red blood cell. Reverse
changes occur in the lungs when CO2 is eliminated from the blood.

12. Write short notes on larynx.

From the pharynx, air enters into the larynx, commonly called the voice box.
The larynx is part of the upper respiratory tract that has two main functions:
 A passageway for air to enter into the lungs, and a source of vocalization. The
larynx is made up of the hyoid bone and cartilage, which helps regulate the flow
of air.
 The epiglottis is a flap-like cartilage structure contained in the larynx that protects
the trachea against food aspiration.
13. What is respiratory exchange rate? (NOV/DEC-2013)
The respiratory exchange ratio (RER) is the ratio between the amount of
carbon dioxide (CO2) produced in metabolism and oxygen (O2) used. Humans
typically inhale more molecules of oxygen than they exhale of carbon dioxide.
The ratio is determined by comparing exhaled gasses to room air.
14. Draw a schematic diagram of respiratory system and label various parts.

15. What is respiratory quotient.

Respiratory quotient is the ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide evolved to
that of oxygen consumed by an organism, tissue, or cell in a given time.

16. State Boyle’s law and its significance with respect to respiratory system.
Boyle's Law states that at a constant temperature, volume of a gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure.
When you breathe, the lungs expand, the pressure in your lungs is greater
than outside and so air exists your lungs outside by diffusion, to balance out the
pressure in your lungs with atmospheric pressure.

17. Inhalation (breathing in) is said to be an active movement. Why?

Inspiration or inhalation is an active process which requires contraction of the
skeletal muscles. The diaphragm creates pressure difference between the
abdominal cavity and the intra-pleural space, while there is some tension in the
diaphragm
18. What are the causes for Asthma?
 Asthma triggers are different from person to person and can include: Airborne
allergens, such as pollen, animal dander, mold, cockroaches and dust mites.
Respiratory infections, such as the common cold. Physical activity (exercise-induced
asthma)
19. Write short notes on respiratory centers.
The respiratory centers (RCs) are located in the medulla oblongata and
pons, which are parts of the brainstem.
The RCs receive controlling signals of neural, chemical and hormonal nature
and control the rate and depth of respiratory movements of the diaphragm and
other respiratory muscles.

20. Give the arrangement of bronchi and their branches in the lungs.

21. Describe structure of bronchiole. What changes take place in it in chronic

smokers?
The mucus is normally swept out of the lungs by the cilia on the epithelial
cells lining the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. However, cigarette smoke
contains harmful chemicals that damage these cells, leading to a build-up of mucus
and a smoker's cough. Smoke irritates the bronchi, causing bronchitis.

22. What is Bohr effect?(M/J-2014)

 An effect by which an increase of carbon dioxide in the blood and a decrease
in pH results in a reduction of the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen.

23. What happens to respiration during sleep apnea? (M/J-2016)

Obstructive sleep apnea is the most common type of sleep apnea. It occurs
when the soft tissue in the back of your throat relaxes during sleep and blocks the
airway, often causing you to snore loudly.

PART B
1. Write a brief notes about the bone types and its structure.
Types of bones
Bones are classified as long, short, irregular, flat and sesamoid.
 Long bones
These consist of a shaft and two extremities. As the name suggests, these bones
are longer than they are wide. Most long bones are found in the limbs; examples
include the femur, tibia and fibula.
 Short, irregular, flat and sesamoid bones.
These have no shafts or extremities and are diverse in shape and size.
Examples include:
 Short bones – carpals (wrist)
 Irregular bones – vertebrae and some skull bones
 Flat bones – sternum, ribs and most skull bones
 Sesamoid bones – patella (knee cap).

Bone Example(s)
Description
types

1.Long  'Long bones' are longer than they are

Bones wide, i.e. length > diameter.
 Femur (leg bone)
 They consist of a shaft - which is the
 Tibia (leg bone)
main (long) part and variable number of
 Fibula (leg bone)
endings (extremities), depending on the
 Humerus (arm
joints formed at one or both ends of the
bone)
long bone.
 Ulna (arm bone)
 Long bones are usually somewhat
 Radius (arm bone)
curved - contributing to their mechanical
strength.

 Scaphoid
bone (wrist bone)
 Lunate bone (wrist
bone)
 'Short bones' can be approximately
 Hamate bone (wrist
cube-shaped,
bone)
i.e. length is similar to width / depth /
2. and other wrist
diameter.
Short bones = carpal
 The most obvious examples are
Bones bones
the carpal bones (of the hands / wrists)
 Cuboid bone (ankle
and the tarsal bones (of the feet /
bone)
ankles).
 First Cuniform bone
(ankle bone)
 Second
Cuniform bone
 (ankle bone)
and other ankle
bones = tarsal
bones

 Cranial
bones (protecting
the brain) e.g.
 'Flat bones' have a thin shape and, in  Frontal bone
some cases, provide mechanical  Parietal bones
protection to soft tissues beneath or  Sternum
3. Flat enclosed by the flat bone e.g. cranial (protecting
Bones bones that protect the brain. organs in the
 Flat bones also have extensive thorax)
surfaces for muscle attachments e.g.  Ribs (protecting
scapulae (shoulder) bones. organs in the
thorax)
 Scapulae (should
er blades).

 Atlas bone
 Axis bone
 'Irregular bones' have complicated
and other
shapes that cannot be classified as
vertebrae
'long', 'short' or 'flat'.
 Their shapes are due to the functions  Hyoid bone
4. Irregular
they fulfill within the body e.g.  Sphenoid bone
Bones
providing major mechanical support  Zygomatic
for the body yet also protecting the bones
spinal cord (in the case of the and other facial
vertebrae). bones.
  Only one type of
sesamoid bone is
present in all
 'Sesamoid bones' develop in some normal human
tendons in locations where there is skeletons so has
considerable friction, tension, and a name.
physical stress.  That is
5.  Typical areas in which they may form the patella (singu
Sesamoid include the palms of the hands and lar), patellae(plur
Bones the soles of the feet. al). Patellae are
 The presence, location and and also called
quantity of sesamoid bones varies 'kneecaps'.
considerably from person to person.  Complete human
 Most sesamoid bones are un-named. skeletons include
2 of these, one in
each leg.
Bone structure
(i) Long bones

A mature long bone: partially sectioned

 These have a diaphysis (shaft) and two epiphyses (extremities). The diaphysis is
composed mainly of compact bone with a central medullary canal, containing
fatty ellow bone marrow.
 The epiphyses consist of an outer covering of compact bone with spongy
(cancellous) bone inside.
 The diaphysis and epiphyses are separated by epiphyseal cartilages, which
ossify when growth is complete. Long bones are almost completely covered by a
vascular membrane, the periosteum, which has two layers. The outer layer is
tough and fibrous, and protects the bone underneath.
 The inner layer contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts, the cells responsible for
bone production and breakdown, and is important in repair and remodelling of the
bone. The periosteum covers the whole bone except within joint cavities, allows
attachments of tendons and is continuous with the joint capsule.
 Hyaline cartilage Replaces periosteum on bone surfaces that form joints.
Thickening of a bone occurs by the deposition of new bone tissue under the
periosteum.
Blood and nerve supply
One or more nutrient arteries supply the bone shaft; the epiphyses have their
own blood supply, although in the mature bone the capillary networks arising from
the two are heavily interconnected.
The sensory nerve supply usually enters the bone at the same site as the
nutrient artery, and branches extensively throughout the bone. Bone injury is,
therefore, usually very painful.
(ii) Short, irregular, flat and sesamoid bones

Sections of flat and irregular bones

These have a relatively thin outer layer of compact bone, with spongy bone
inside containing red bone marrow. They are enclosed by periosteum except the
inner layer of the cranial bones where it is replaced by dura mater.
2. What are the types of bone cells and tissues.
Bone is a strong and durable type of connective tissue. Its major constituent
(65%) is a mixture of calcium salts, mainly calcium phosphate. This inorganic matrix
gives bone great hardness, but on its own would be brittle and prone to shattering.
The remaining third is organic material, called osteoid, which is composed
mainly of collagen. Collagen is very strong and gives bone slight flexibility.
Bone cells
There are three types of bone cell:
 Osteoblast
 Osteocytes
 Osteoclast.
Osteoblasts
These bone-forming cells are responsible for the deposition of both inorganic
salts and osteoid in bone tissue. They are therefore present at sites where bone is
growing, repairing or remodelling, e.g.:
 In the deeper layers of periosteum
 In the centres of ossification of immature bone
 At the ends of the diaphysis adjacent to the epiphyseal cartilages of long
bones
 At the site of a fracture.
As they deposit new bone tissue around themselves, they eventually become
trapped in tiny pockets (lacunae) in the growing bone, and differentiate into
osteocytes
Osteocytes
These are mature bone cells that monitor and maintain bone tissue, and are
nourished by tissue fluid in the canaliculi that radiate from the central canals.
Osteoclasts
These cells break down bone, releasing calcium and phosphate. They are
very large cells with up to 50 nuclei, which have formed from the fusion of many
monocytes.
The continuous remodelling of healthy bone tissue is the result of balanced
activity of the bone’s osteoblast and osteoclast populations. Osteoclasts are found in
areas of the bone where there is active growth, repair or remodelling,
e.g.:
 Under the periosteum, maintaining bone shape during growth and to remove
excess callus formed during healing of fractures.
 Round the walls of the medullary canal during growth and to canalise callus
during healing.
Compact (cortical) bone
Compact bone makes up about 80% of the body bone mass. It is made up of
a large number of parallel tube-shaped units called osteons (Haversian systems),
each of which is made up of a central canal surrounded by a series of expanding
rings, similar to the growth rings of a tree.

Microscopic structure of compact bone

 Osteons tend to be aligned the same way that force is applied to the bone, so for
example in the femur (thigh bone), they run from one epiphysis to the other. This
gives the bone great strength.
 The central canal contains nerves, lymphatics and blood vessels, and each
central canal is linked with neigh-bouring canals by tunnels running at right
angles between them, called perforating canals.
 The series of cylindrical plates of bone arranged around each central canal are
called lamellae. Between the adjacent lamellae of the osteon are strings of little
cavities called lacunae, in each of which sits an osteocyte.
 Lacunae communicate with each other through a series of tiny channels called
canali-culi, which allows the circulation of interstitial fluid through the bone, and
direct contact between the osteo-cytes, which extend fine processes into them.
 Between the osteons are interstitial lamellae, the rem-nants of older systems
partially broken down during remodelling or growth of bone.

Spongy (cancellous, trabecular) bone

 To the naked eye, spongy bone looks like a honey comb. Microscopic
examination reveals a framework formed from trabeculae (meaning ‘little
beams’), which consist of a few lamellae and osteocytes interconnected by canal-
iculi.
 Osteocytes are nourished by interstitial fluid diffusing into the bone through the
tiny canaliculi. The spaces between the trabeculae contain red bone marrow. In
addition, spongy bone is lighter than compact bone, reducing the weight of the
skeleton.
3. Describe the process of bone formation.
Development of bone tissue
The formation of bone is called ossification. During the fetal stage of
development this occurs by two processes: intramembranous
ossification and endochondral ossification.

Intramembranous ossification involves the formation of bone from connective

tissue whereas endochondral ossification involves the formation of bone
from cartilage.

Intramembranous Ossification
 During intramembranous ossification, compact and spongy bone develops
directly from sheets of mesenchymal (undifferentiated) connective tissue. The flat
 bones of the face, most of the cranial bones, and the clavicles (collarbones) are
formed via intramembranous ossification.

Figure 1. Intramembranous Ossification. Intramembranous ossification

follows four steps. (a) Mesenchymal cells group into clusters, and
ossification centers form. (b) Secreted osteoid traps osteoblasts, which
then become osteocytes. (c) Trabecular matrix and periosteum form. (d)
Compact bone develops superficial to the trabecular bone, and crowded
blood vessels condense into red marrow.

 The process begins when mesenchymal cells in the embryonic skeleton gather
together and begin to differentiate into specialized cells (Figure 1a). Some of
these cells will differentiate into capillaries, while others will become osteogenic
cells and then osteoblasts. Although they will ultimately be spread out by the
formation of bone tissue, early osteoblasts appear in a cluster called
an ossification center.
 The osteoblasts secrete osteoid, uncalcified matrix, which calcifies (hardens)
within a few days as mineral salts are deposited on it, thereby entrapping the
osteoblasts within. Once entrapped, the osteoblasts become osteocytes (Figure
1b). As osteoblasts transform into osteocytes, osteogenic cells in the surrounding
connective tissue differentiate into new osteoblasts at the edges of the growing
bone.

 Several clusters of osteoid unite around the capillaries to form a trabecular

matrix, while osteoblasts on the surface of the newly formed spongy bone
become the cellular layer of the periosteum (Figure 1c). The periosteum then
secretes compact bone superficial to the spongy bone. The spongy bone crowds
nearby blood vessels, which eventually condense into red bone marrow (Figure
1d). The new bone is constantly also remodeling under the action of osteoclasts
(not shown).

 Intramembranous ossification begins in utero during fetal development and

continues on into adolescence. At birth, the skull and clavicles are not fully
ossified nor are the sutures of the skull closed. This allows the skull and
shoulders to deform during passage through the birth canal. The last bones to
ossify via intramembranous ossification are the flat bones of the face, which
reach their adult size at the end of the adolescent growth spurt.

Endochondral Ossification
In endochondral ossification, bone develops by replacing hyaline cartilage.
Cartilage does not become bone. Instead, cartilage serves as a template to be
completely replaced by new bone. Endochondral ossification takes much longer than
intramembranous ossification. Bones at the base of the skull and long bones form
via endochondral ossification.
 Figure 2. Endochondral Ossification. Endochondral ossification follows
five steps. (a) Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes. (b) The
cartilage model of the future bony skeleton and the perichondrium form. (c)
Capillaries penetrate cartilage. Perichondrium transforms into periosteum.
Periosteal collar develops. Primary ossification center develops. (d) Cartilage
and chondrocytes continue to grow at ends of the bone. (e) Secondary
ossification centers develop. (f) Cartilage remains at epiphyseal (growth) plate
and at joint surface as articular cartilage.

 In a long bone, for example, at about 6 to 8 weeks after conception, some of the
mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes (cartilage cells) that form the
cartilaginous skeletal precursor of the bones (Figure 2a).
 This cartilage is a flexible, semi-solid matrix produced by chondroblasts and
consists of hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, collagen fibers, and water. As the
matrix surrounds and isolates chondroblasts, they are called chondrocytes.
 Unlike most connective tissues, cartilage is avascular, meaning that it has no
blood vessels supplying nutrients and removing metabolic wastes.
 All of these functions are carried on by diffusion through the matrix from vessels
in the surrounding perichondrium, a membrane that covers the cartilage, Figure
2a).As more and more matrix is produced, the cartilaginous model grow in size.
 Blood vessels in the perichondrium bring osteoblasts to the edges of the structure
and these arriving osteoblasts deposit bone in a ring around the diaphysis – this
is called a bone collar (Figure 2b).
 The bony edges of the developing structure prevent nutrients from diffusing into
the center of the hyaline cartilage. This results in chondrocyte death and
disintegration in the center of the structure.
 Without cartilage inhibiting blood vessel invasion, blood vessels penetrate the
resulting spaces, not only enlarging the cavities but also carrying osteogenic cells
with them, many of which will become osteoblasts.
 These enlarging spaces eventually combine to become the medullary cavity.
Bone is now deposited within the structure creating the primary ossification
center (Figure 2c).
 While these deep changes are occurring, chondrocytes and cartilage continue to
grow at the ends of the structure (the future epiphyses), which increases the
structure’s length at the same time bone is replacing cartilage in the diaphyses.

 This continued growth is accompanied by remodeling inside the medullary cavity

(osteoclasts were also brought with invading blood vessels) and overall
 lengthening of the structure (Figure 2d). By the time the fetal skeleton is fully
formed, cartilage remains at the epiphyses and at the joint surface as articular
cartilage.

 After birth, this same sequence of events (matrix mineralization, death of

chondrocytes, invasion of blood vessels from the periosteum, and seeding with
osteogenic cells that become osteoblasts) occurs in the epiphyseal regions, and
each of these centers of activity is referred to as a secondary ossification
center(Figure 2e).
 Throughout childhood and adolescence, there remains a thin plate of hyaline
cartilage between the diaphysis and epiphysis known as
the growth or epiphyseal plate (Figure 2f). Eventually, this hyaline cartilage will
be removed and replaced by bone to become the epiphyseal line.

4. Explain in detail about the divisions of skeleton.

Division of Skeleton
 The bones of the skeleton are divided into two groups: the axial skeleton and
the appendicular skeleton.
 The axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum.
Together the bones forming these structures constitute the central bony core of
the body, the axis.
 The axial skeleton of the adult consists of 80 bones, including the skull,
the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage.
 The skull is formed by 22 bones. Also associated with the head are an additional
seven bones, including the hyoid bone and the ear ossicles (three small bones
found in each middle ear).
 The vertebral column consists of 24 bones, each called a vertebra, plus
the sacrum and coccyx.
 The thoracic cage includes the 12 pairs of ribs, and the sternum, the flattened
bone of the anterior chest.
 The appendicular skeleton includes all bones of the upper and lower limbs,
plus the bones that attach each limb to the axial skeleton. There are 126 bones in
the appendicular skeleton of an adult.
The skeleton. Axial skeleton in gold, appendicular skeleton in brown.
A. Anterior view. B. Lateral view.
Axial skeleton
i) Skull
The skull rests on the upper end of the vertebral column and its bony structure is
divided into two parts: the cranium and the face.
 Cranium
The cranium is formed by a number of flat and irregular bones that protect the
brain. It has a base upon which the brain rests and a vault that surrounds and covers
it. The periosteum lining the inner surface of the skullbones forms the outer layer of
dura mater. In the mature skull the joints (sutures) between the bones are
immovable. The bones have numerous perforations (e.g. foramina, fissures) through
which nerves, blood and lymph vessels pass. The bones of the cranium are:
 1 frontal bone
 2 parietal bones
 2 temporal bones
 1 occipital bone
 1 sphenoid bone
 1 ethmoid bone.
 Bones of the Cranium and face

 Face
The skeleton of the face is formed by 14 bones in addition to the frontal bone
already described. The relationships between the bones:

 Maxilla (2)

 Zygomatic (2)

 Mandible (1)

 Nasal (2)

 Platine (2)

 Inferior nasal concha (2)

 Lacrimal (2)

 Vomer (1)

ii) Vertebral column

There are 26 bones in the vertebral column. Twenty-four separate vertebrae
extend downwards from the occipital bone of the skull; then there is the sacrum,
formed from five fused vertebrae, and lastly the coccyx, or tail, which is formed from
between three and five small fused vertebrae.
The vertebral column is divided into different regions. The first seven
vertebrae, in the neck, form the cervical spine; the next 12 vertebrae are the thoracic
spine, and the next five the lumbar spine, the lowest vertebra of which articulates
with the sacrum. Each vertebra is identified by the first letter of its region in the spine,
followed by a number indicating its position. For example, the topmost vertebra is
C1, and the third lumbar vertebra is L3.
Functions of the vertebral column
These include:
 Collectively the vertebral foramina form the vertebral canal, which provides a
strong bony protection for the delicate spinal cord lying within it
 The pedicles of adjacent vertebrae form intervertebral foramina, one on each
side, providing access to the spinal cord for spinal nerves, blood vessels and
lymph vessels
 The numerous individual bones with their intervertebral discs allow movement
of the whole column
 Support of the skull
 The intervertebral discs act as shock absorbers, protecting the brain
 Formation of the axis of the trunk, giving attachment to the ribs, shoulder
girdle and upper limbs, and the pelvic girdle and lower limbs.
iii) Thoracic cage
The thorax (thoracic cage) is formed by the sternum anteriorly, twelve pairs of ribs
forming the lateral bony cages, and the twelve thoracic vertebrae.
 Sternum (breast bone)
This flat bone can be felt just under the skin in the middle of the front of the
chest. The manubrium is the uppermost section and articulates with the clavicles at
the sterno clavicular joints and with the first two pairs of ribs. The body or middle
portion gives attachment to the ribs. The xiphoid process is the inferior tip of the
bone. It gives attachment to the diaphragm, muscles of the anterior abdominal wall
and the linea alba.
 Ribs
The 12 pairs of ribs form the lateral walls of the thoracic cage. They are
elongated curved bones that articulate posteriorly with the vertebral column.
Anteriorly, the first seven pairs of ribs articulate directly with the sternum and are
known as the true ribs. The next three pairs articulate only indirectly.
In both cases, costal cartilages attach the ribs to the sternum. The lowest two
pairs of ribs, referred to as floating ribs, do not join the sternum at all, their anterior
tips being free. Each rib forms up to three joints with the vertebral column. Two of
these joints are formed between facets on the head of the rib and facets on the
bodies of two vertebrae, the one above the rib and the one below.
Ten of the ribs also form joints between the tubercle of the rib and the
transverse process of (usually) the lower vertebra. The inferior surface of the rib is
deeply grooved, providing a channel along which intercostal nerves and blood
vessels run. Between each rib and the one below are the intercostal muscles, which
move the rib cage during breathing.
Because of the arrangement of the ribs, and the quantity of cartilage present
in the ribcage, it is a flexible structure that can change its shape and size during
breathing. The first rib is firmly fixed to the sternum and to the 1st thoracic vertebra,
and does not move during inspiration. Because it is a fixed point, when the
intercostal muscles contract, they pull the entire ribcage upwards towards the first
rib.
iv) Auditory Ossicles

 Malleus (2)

 Incus (2)

 Stapes (2)
v) Hyoid bone
This is an isolated horseshoe-shaped bone lying in the soft tissues of the neck
just above the larynx and below the mandible.It does not articulate with any other
bone, but is attached to the styloid process of the temporal bone by ligaments. It
supports the larynx and gives attachment to the base of the tongue.

Appendicular Skeleton
The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the shoulder girdle, the
upper limbs, the pelvic girdle, and the lower limbs.
i) The Bones of the Shoulder Girdle
The pectoral or shoulder girdle consists of the scapulae and clavicles. The
shoulder girdle connects the bones of the upper limbs to the axial skeleton. These
bones also provide attachment for muscles that move the shoulders and upper
limbs.
ii) Bones of the Upper Limbs
The upper limbs include the bones of the arm (humerus), forearm (radius
and ulna), wrist, and hand.
The only bone of the arm is the humerus, which articulates with the forearm
bones–the radius and ulna–at the elbow joint. The ulna is the larger of the two
forearm bones.
The wrist, or carpus, consists of eight carpal bones. The eight carpal bones
of the wrist are the Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetral, Pisiform, Trapezoid, Trapezium,
Capitate, Hamate.
The hand includes 8 bones in the wrist, 5 bones that form the palm, and 14
bones that form the fingers and thumb. The wrist bones are called carpals. The
bones that form the palm of the hand are called metacarpals. The phalanges are
the bones of the fingers.

iii) The Bones of the Pelvis

The pelvic girdle is a ring of bones attached to the vertebral column that
connects the bones of the lower limbs to the axial skeleton. The pelvic girdle consists
of the right and left hip bones. Each hip bone is a large, flattened, and irregularly
shaped fusion of three bones: the ilium, ischium, and pubis.
Female and Male Pelvis. The female and male pelvises differ in several
ways due to childbearing adaptations in the female.
 The female pelvic brim is larger and wider than the male’s.
 The angle of the pubic arch is greater in the female pelvis (over 90 degrees) than
in the male pelvis (less than 90 degrees).
 The male pelvis is deeper and has a narrower pelvic outlet than the female’s.

iv) The Bones of the Lower Limbs

The lower limbs include the bones of the thigh, leg, and foot. The femur is
the only bone of the thigh. It articulates with the two bones of the leg–the larger tibia
(commonly known as the shin) and smaller fibula. The thigh and leg bones articulate
at the knee joint that is protected and enhanced by the patella bone that supports the
quadriceps tendon. The bones of the foot include the tarsus, metatarsus, and
phalanges.
 Foot Bones. The bones of the foot consist of the tarsal bones of the ankle,
the phalanges that form the toes, and the metatarsals that give the foot its arch. As
in the hand, the foot has five metatarsals, five proximal phalanges, five distal
phalanges, but only four middle phalanges (as the foot’s “big toe” has only two
phalanges).
Ankle Bones. The ankle, or tarsus, consists of seven tarsal bones: the
calcaneus, talus, cuboid, navicular, and three cuneiforms.
Foot Arches. The arches of the foot are formed by the interlocking bones and
ligaments of the foot. They serve as shock-asborbing structures that support body
weight and distribute stress evenly during walking.
 The longitudinal arch of the foot runs from the calcaneus to the heads of the
metatarsals, and has medial and lateral parts.
 The transverse arch of the foot runs across the cuneiforms and the base of the
metatarsal bones.

5. Explain in detail about the structure and functions of the respiratory system?
Discuss about the regulation of respiration.
Structural divisions of the respiratory system
Nasal cavity - pharynx - larynx - trachea - bronchi - bronchioles - alveoli –
Lungs.
The respiratory system consists of the following parts, divided into the upper
and lower respiratory tracts:
Parts of the Upper Respiratory Tract
 Mouth, nose & nasal cavity: The function of this part of the system is to
warm, filter and moisten the incoming air.
 Pharynx: Here the throat divides into the trachea (wind pipe) and
oesophagus (food pipe). There is also a small flap of cartilage called the
epiglottis which prevents food from entering the trachea.
 Larynx: This is also known as the voice box as it is where sound is
generated. It also helps protect the trachea by producing a strong cough
reflex if any solid objects pass the epiglottis.
Parts of the Lower Respiratory Tract
 Trachea: Also known as the windpipe this is the tube which carries air from the
throat into the lungs. It ranges from 20-25mm in diameter and 10-16cm in length.
The inner membrane of the trachea is covered in tiny hairs called cilia, which
catch particles of dust which we can then remove through coughing. The trachea
is surrounded by 15-20 C-shaped rings of cartilage at the front and side which
help protect the trachea and keep it open. They are not complete circles due to
the position of the oesophagus immediately behind the trachea and the need for
the trachea to partially collapse to allow the expansion of the oesophagus when
swallowing large pieces of food.
 Bronchi: The trachea divides into two tubes called bronchi, one entering the left
and one entering the right lung. The left bronchi is narrower, longer and more
horizontal than the right. Irregular rings of cartilage surround the bronchi, whose
walls also consist of smooth muscle. Once inside the lung the bronchi split
several ways, forming tertiary bronchi.
 Bronchioles: Tertiary bronchi continue to divide and become bronchioles, very
narrow tubes, less than 1 millimeter in diameter. There is no cartilage within the
bronchioles and they lead to alveolar sacs.
 Alveoli: Individual hollow cavities contained within alveolar sacs (or ducts).
Alveoli have very thin walls which permit the exchange of gases Oxygen and
Carbon Dioxide. They are surrounded by a network of capillaries, into which the
inspired gases pass. There are approximately 3 million alveoli within an average
adult lung.
 Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a broad band of muscle which sits underneath the
lungs, attaching to the lower ribs, sternum and lumbar spine and forming the
base of the thoracic cavity.

 Intercostal muscles:There are 11 pairs of inter costal muscles occupying the

spaces between the 12 pairs of ribs. They are arranged in two layers as external
and internal inter costal muscles.
 External Intercostal Muscles: These extend downwards and forwards
from the lower border of the rib above to the upper border of the rib below.
They are involved in inspiration.
 Internal Intercostal Muscles: These extend downwards and backwards
from the lower border of the rib above to the upper border of the rib below,
crossing the external inter costal muscle fibres at right angles. The internal
intercostals are used when expiration becomes active, as in exercise.
The first rib is fixed. Therefore, when the external inter costal muscles
contract they pull all the other ribs towards the first rib. The ribcage moves
as a unit, upwards and outwards, enlarging the thoracic cavity. The
intercostals muscles are stimulated to contract by the intercostals nerves.
Regulation of respiration:
 Respiration is controlled by the areas of the brain that stimulate the contraction of
the diaphragm and the intercostals muscles. These areas called respiratory
centers.
 The Dorsal medullary inspiratory center, located in the medulla oblongata,
generates rhythmic nerve impulses that stimulate contraction of the inspiratory
muscles(diaphargm and external intercostals muscles).
 Ventral medullary respiratory center are associated with expiration. Normally,
expiration occurs when these muscle relax, but when breathing is rapid, the
inspiratory center facilitates expiration by stimulating the expiratory
muscles(internal intercoastal muscles and abdominal muscles).
 Medulla Respiratory centers

Inspiratory central(Dorsal respiratory group)

 It forces the inspiration
 Phrenic nerve-stimulates the diapharm to contract)
 Intercostal nerves - stimulates the external intercostals muscle to contract

Expiratory central(ventral respiratory group)

 It forced expiration
 Phrenic nerve- stimulates the diaphargm to relax
 Intercostal nerves - stimulates the internal intercostals to contract and
external intercostals muscle to relax

Pons respiratory centers:

 Pneumotaxiccenter- slightly inhibits medulla, causes shorter, shallower,
quicker breaths.
 Apneusticcenter- stimulates the medulla, causes longer, deeper,
slower breaths.

Process of inspiration and expiration

Process of inspiration (breathing in)

1. external inter costal muscles contract
2. ribs and sternum move up and out
3. width of thorax increases front to back and side to side
4. diaphragm contracts
5. diaphragm moves down, flattening
6. depth of thorax increases top to bottom so the...
 volume of thorax increases.
 pressure between the pleural surfaces decreases.
 lungs expand to fill thoracic cavity.
 air pressure in alveoli is less than atmospheric pressure.
 air is forced in by the higher external atmospheric pressure.
As the lungs fill with air the stretch receptors send impulses to the expiratory
part of the respiration centre to end breathing in.

Process of expiration (breathing out)

1. External inter costal muscles relax
2. ribs and sternum move down and in
3. width of thorax decreases front to back and side to side
4. diaphragm relaxes
5. diaphragm moves up
6. depth of thorax decreases top to bottom. So the ...
 volume of thorax decreases.
 pressure between the pleural surfaces increases.
 lung tissue recoils from sides of thoracic cavity
 air pressure in alveoli is more than atmospheric pressure.
 air is forced out.
As the air leaves, the stretch receptors are no longer stimulated. The inhibition
of breathing in (via the expiratory part of the centre) stops so breathing in can
start again.

6. Explain about the mechanisms of breathing.

Exchange of gases
Although breathing involves the alternating processes of inspiration and
expiration, gas exchange at the respiratory membrane and in the tissues is a
continuous and ongoing process. Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide depends
on pressure differences, e.g. between atmospheric air and the blood, or blood and
the tissues.
Composition of air
 Air is a mixture of gases: nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and
small quantities of inert gases.
 Each gas in the mixture exerts a part of the total pressure proportional to its
concentration, i.e. the partial pressure. This is denoted as, e.g. Po2, PCo2.
Alveolar air
 The composition of alveolar air remains fairly constant and is different from
atmospheric air. It is saturated with water vapour, and contains more carbon
dioxide and less oxygen.
 Saturation with water vapour provides 6.3 kPa (47 mmHg) thus reducing the
partial pressure of all the other gases present.
 Gaseous exchange between the alveoli and the bloodstream is a continuous
process, as the alveoli are never empty, so it is independent of the respiratory
cycle.
Diffusion of gases
 Exchange of gases occurs when a difference in partial pressure exists across a
semi-permeable membrane.
 Gases move by diffusion from the higher concentration to the lower until
equilibrium is established.
 Atmospheric nitrogen is not used by the body so its partial pressure remains
unchanged and is the same in inspired and expired air, alveolar air and in the
blood.
 These principles govern the diffusion of gases in and out of the alveoli across the
respiratory membrane (external respiration) and across capillary membranes in
the tissues (internal respiration).
External respiration
 Respiration. A. External respiration. B. Internal respiration.

 This is exchange of gases by diffusion between the alveoli and the blood in the
alveolar capillaries, across the respiratory membrane.
 Each alveolar wall is one cell thick and is surrounded by a network of tiny
capillaries (the walls of which are also only one cell thick).
 The total area of respiratory membrane for gas exchange in the lungs is about
equivalent to the area of a tennis court.
 Venous blood arriving at the lungs in the pulmonary artery has travelled from all
the tissues of the body, and contains high levels of Co2 and low levels of O2.
 Carbon dioxide diffuses from venous blood down its concentration gradient into
the alveoli until equilibrium with alveolar air is reached.
 By the same process, oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood.
 The relatively slow flow of blood through the capillaries increases the time
available for gas exchange to occur.
 When blood leaves the alveolar capillaries, the oxygen and carbon dioxide
concentrations are in equilibrium with those of alveolar air.
Internal respiration

Summary of external and internal respiration

 This is exchange of gases by diffusion between blood in the capillaries and the
body cells.
 Gas exchange does not occur across the walls of the arteries carrying blood from
the heart to the tissues, because their walls are too thick.
 Po2 of blood arriving at the capillary bed is therefore the same as blood leaving
the lungs.
 Blood arriving at the tissues has been cleansed of its CO2 and saturated with O2
during its passage through the lungs, and therefore has a higher PO2 and a
lower PCO2 than the tissues.
 This creates concentration gradients between capillary blood and the tissues, and
gas exchange therefore occurs.
 O2 diffuses from the bloodstream through the capillary wall into the tissues.
 CO2 diffuses from the cells into the extracellular fluid, then into the bloodstream
towards the venous end of the capillary.
Transport of gases in the bloodstream
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are carried in the blood in different ways.
Oxygen
Oxygen is carried in the blood in:
 Chemical combination with haemoglobin as oxyhaemoglobin (98.5%)
 Solution in plasma water (1.5%).
 Oxyhaemoglobin is unstable, and under certain conditions readily dissociates
releasing oxygen.
 Factors that increase dissociation include low O2 levels, low pH and raised
temperature.
 In active tissues there is increased production of carbon dioxide and heat, which
leads to increased release of oxygen.
 In this way oxygen is available to tissues in greatest need. Whereas
oxyhaemoglobin is bright red, deoxygenated blood is bluish purple in colour.
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is one of the waste products of metabolism. It is excreted by the
lungs and is transported by three mechanisms:
 As bicarbonate ions (hco3−) in the plasma (70%)
 Some is carried in erythrocytes, loosely combined with haemoglobin as
carbamino haemoglobin (23%)
 Some is dissolved in the plasma (7%).
 Carbon dioxide levels must be finely managed, as either an excess or a
deficiency leads to significant disruption of acid-base balance.
 Sufficient Co2 is essential for the bicarbonate buffering system that protects
against a fall in body pH.
 Excess Co2 on the other hand reduces blood pH, because it dissolves in body
water to form carbonic acid.
Lung volumes and capacities:
 Tidal volume (TV).
This is the amount of air passing into and out of the lungs during each cycle of
breathing (about 500 mL at rest).
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV).
This is the extra volume of air that can be inhaled into the lungs during maximal
inspiration, i.e. over and above normal TV.
 Inspiratory capacity (IC).
This is the amount of air that can be inspired with maximum effort. It consists of
the tidal volume (500 ml) plus the inspiratory reserve volume.
 Functional residual capacity (FRC).
This is the amount of air remaining in the air passages and alveoli at the end of
quiet expiration. Tidal air mixes with this air, causing relatively small changes in
the composition of alveolar air.
As blood flows continuously through the pulmonary capillaries, this means that
exchange of gases is not interrupted between breaths, preventing moment-to-
moment changes in the concentration of blood gases. The functional residual
volume also prevents collapse of the alveoli on expiration.
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV).
This is the largest volume of air which can be expelled from the lungs during
maximal expiration.
 Residual volume (RV).
This cannot be directly measured but is the volume of air remaining in the lungs
after forced expiration.
 Vital capacity (VC).
This is the maximum volume of air which can be moved into and out of the lungs:
 VC = Tidal volume + IRV + ERV
 Total lung capacity (TLC).
This is the maximum amount of air the lungs can hold. In an adult of average
build, it is normally around 6 litres. Total lung capacity represents the sum of the
vital capacity and the residual volume.
It cannot be directly measured in clinical tests because even after forced
expiration, the residual volume of air still remains in the lungs.
 Alveolar ventilation.
This is the volume of air that moves into and out of the alveoli per minute. It is
equal to the tidal volume minus the anatomical dead space, multiplied by the
respiratory rate:

Lung function tests are carried out to determine respiratory function and are
based on the parameters outlined above. Results of these tests can help in
diagnosis and monitoring of respiratory disorders.

7. What are the types of Joints? and their function

A joint is the site at which any two or more bones articulate or come together.
Joints allow flexibility and move-ment of the skeleton and allow attachment between
bones.
a) Fibrous joints (fixed)

Suture (fibrous joint) of the skull.

 The bones forming these joints are linked with tough, fibrous material. Such an
arrangement often permits no movement. For example, the joints between the
skull bones, the sutures, are completely immovable, and the healthy tooth is
cemented into the mandible by the periodontal ligament.
 The tibia and fibula in the leg are held together along their shafts by a sheet of
fibrous tissue called the inter osseous membrane. This fibrous joint allows a
limited amount of movement and stabilises the alignment of the bones.

b) Cartilaginous joints (slightly moveable)

The cartilaginous joint between adjacent vertebral bodies.

 These joints are formed by a pad of tough fibro cartilage that acts as a shock
absorber. The joint may be immova-ble, as in the cartilaginous epiphyseal plates,
which in thegrowing child links the diaphysis of a long bone to theepiphysis.
 Some cartilaginous joints permit limited movement, as between the vertebrae,
which are separated by the intervertebral discs, or at the symphysispubis , which
is softened by circulating hormones during pregnancy to allow for expansion
during childbirth.

c) Synovial joints (including freely movable)

Synovial joints are characterised by the presence of a space or capsule
between the articulating bones. The ends of the bones are held close together by a
sleeve of fibrous tissue, and lubricated with a small amount of fluid. Synovial joints
are the most moveable of the body.
 The basic structure of a synovial joint.

Movements at synovial joints

Movement at any given joint depends on various factors, such as the
tightness of the ligaments holding the joint together, how well the bones fit and the
presence or absence of intra capsular structures. Generally, the more stable the
joint, the less mobile it is.
Types of synovial joint
Synovial joints are classified according to the range of movement possible or
to the shape of the articulating parts of the bones involved.
i) Ball and socket joints
The head of one bone is ball-shaped and articulates with a cup-shaped socket
of another. The joint allows for a wide range of movement, including flexion,
extension, adduction, abduction, rotation and circumduction. Examples include the
shoulder and hip.
ii) Hinge joints
The articulating ends of the bones fit together like a hinge on a door, and
movement is therefore restricted to flexion and extension. The elbow joint is one
example, permitting only flexion and extension of the forearm. Other hinge joints
include the knee, ankle and the joints between the phalanges of the fingers and toes
(interphalangeal joints).
iii) Gliding joints
The articular surfaces are flat or very slightly curved and glide over one
another, but the amount of movement possible is very restricted; this group of joints
is the least movable of all the synovial joints. Examples include the joints between
the carpal bones in the wrist, the tarsal bones in the foot, and between the processes
of the spinal vertebrae (note that the joints between the vertebral bodies are the
cartilaginous discs).
iv) Pivot joints
These joints allow a bone or a limb to rotate. One bone fits into a hoop-shaped
ligament that holds it close to another bone and allows it to rotate in the ring thus
formed. For example, the head rotates on the pivot joint formed by the dens of the
axis held within the ring formed by the transverse ligament and the odontoid process
of the atlas.
v) Condyloid joints
A condyle is a smooth, rounded projection on a bone and in a condyloid joint it
sits within a cup-shaped depression on the other bone. Examples include the joint
between the condylar process of the mandible and the temporal bone, and the joints
between the metacarpal and phalangeal bones of the hand, and between the
metatarsal and phalangeal bones of the foot. These joints permit flexion, extension,
abduction, adduction and circumduction.
vi) Saddle joints
The articulating bones fit together like a man sitting on a saddle. The most
important saddle joint is at the base of the thumb, between the trapezium of the wrist
and the first metacarpal bone. The range of movement is similar to that at a
condyloid joint but with additional flexibility; opposition of the thumb, the ability to
touch each of the fingertips on the same hand, is due to the nature of the thumb
joint.
Functions of Joints

 Joints connect bones within your body, bear weight and enable you to move.
 They are made up of bone, muscles, synovial fluid, cartilage and ligaments.
Joints aren't all alike, however. Hinge joints are found in your elbows and knees,
while ball-and-socket joints are needed for the hips and shoulders.
 Different joints provide unique points of stability and mobility. Understanding the
functions of your joints and how your lifestyle and overall health affect them can
help if you develop conditions like arthritis, osteoarthritis or gout.

8. Explain about the cartilage types and its functions.

Cartilage

Cartilage. A. Hyaline cartilage. B. Fibrocartilage. C. Elastic fibrocartilage.

Cartilage is firmer than other connective tissues. The cells (chondrocytes ) are
sparse and lie embedded in matrix rein-forced by collagen and elastic fibres. There
are three types: hyaline cartilage, fibro cartilage and elastic fibr ocartilage.
 Hyaline cartilage
Hyaline cartilage is a smooth bluish-white tissue. Thechondrocytes are
arranged in small groups within cellnests and the matrix is solid and smooth. Hyaline
carti-lage provides flexibility, support and smooth surfaces formovement at joints. It
is found:
on the ends of long bones that form joints
forming the costal cartilages, which attach the ribs tothe sternum
forming part of the larynx, trachea and bronchi.
 Fibro cartilage
This consists of dense masses of white collagen fibres in a matrix similar to
that of hyaline cartilage with the cells widely dispersed. It is a tough, slightly flexible,
supporting tissue found:
as pads between the bodies of the vertebrae, the intervertebral discs
between the articulating surfaces of the bones of theknee joint, called semilunar
cartilages
on the rim of the bony sockets of the hip and shoulder joints, deepening the
cavities without restricting movement.
 Elastic fibro cartilage
This flexible tissue consists of yellow elastic fibres lying in a solid matrix with
chondrocytes lying between the fibres. It provides support and maintains shape of,
e.g. the pinna or lobe of the ear, the epiglottis and part of the tunica media of blood
vessel walls.
Functions:
 The mechanical properties of articular cartilage in load bearing joints such
as knee and hip have been studied extensively at macro, micro and nano-scales.

 These mechanical properties include the response of cartilage in frictional,

compressive, shear and tensile loading.

 Cartilage is resilient and displays viscoelastic properties.

 Lubricin, a glycoprotein abundant in cartilage and synovial fluid, plays a major

role in bio-lubrication and wear protection of cartilage.

 Cartilage has limited repair capabilities: Because chondrocytes are bound

in lacunae, they cannot migrate to damaged areas.

 Therefore, cartilage damage is difficult to heal. Also, because hyaline cartilage

does not have a blood supply, the deposition of new matrix is slow.

 Damaged hyaline cartilage is usually replaced by fibrocartilage scar tissue. Over

the last years, surgeons and scientists have elaborated a series of cartilage
repair procedures that help to postpone the need for joint replacement.
9. Briefly explain the Muscle structure and its movements.

 A skeletal muscle may sometimes contain hundreds of thousands of muscle

fibres as well as blood vessels and nerves. Throughout the muscle, providing
internal structure and scaffolding, is an extensive network of connective tissue.
 The entire muscle is covered in a connective tissue sheath called the
Epimysium. Within the muscle, the cells are collected into separate bundles
called Fascicles, and each fascicle is covered in its own connective tissue
sheath called the Perimysium.
 Within the fascicles, the individual muscle cells are each wrapped in a fine
connective tissue layer called the Endomysium. Each of these connective tissue
layers runs the length of the muscle.
 They bind the fibres into a highly organised structure, and blend together at each
end of the muscle to form the Tendon, which secures the muscle to bone. Often
the tendon is rope-like, but sometimes it forms a broad sheet called an
Aponeurosis, e.g. the occipitofrontalis muscle.
 The multiple connective tissue layers throughout the muscle are important for
transmitting the force of contraction from each individual muscle cell to its points
of attachment to the skeleton. The fleshy part of the muscle is called the Belly.

Skeletal muscle cells (fibres)

Contraction of a whole skeletal muscle occurs because of coordinated
contraction of its individual fibres.
i) Structure
 Under the microscope, skeletal muscle cells are seen to be roughly cylindrical in
shape, lying parallel to one another, with a distinctive banded appearance
consisting of alternate dark and light stripes.
 Individual fibres may be very long, up to 35 cm in the longest muscles. Each cell
has several nuclei (because the cells are so large), found just under the cell
membrane (The Sarcolemma).
 The cytoplasm of muscle cells, also called Sarcoplasm, is packed with tiny
filaments running longitudinally along the length of the muscle; these are the
contractile filaments.
Structure of Muscle and muscle fibers

Sacromere relaxation and contraction

 There are also many mitochondria essential for producing Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP) from glucose and oxygen to power the contractile
mechanism.
 Also present is a specialized oxygen-binding substance called Myoglobin, which
is similar to the haemoglobin of red blood cells and stores oxygen within the
muscle.
 In addition, there are extensive intracellular stores of calcium, which is released
into the sarcoplasm by nervous stimulation of muscle and is essential for the
contractile activity of the myofilaments.
Actin, myosin and sarcomeres:
 There are two types of contractile myo filament within the muscle fibre, called
thick and thin, arranged in repeating units called sarcomeres.
 The thick filaments, which are made of the protein myosin, correspond to the dark
bands seen under the microscope.
 The thin filaments are made of the protein actin. Where only these are present,
the bands are lighter in appearance.
 Each sarcomere is bounded at each end by a dense stripe, the Z line, to which
the actin fibres are attached, and lying in the middle of the sarcomere are the
myosin filaments, overlapping with the actin.
ii) Contraction
 The skeletal muscle cell contracts in response to stimulation from a nerve fibre,
which supplies the muscle cell usually about halfway along its length. The name
given to a synapse between a motor nerve and a skeletal muscle fibre is the
neuromuscular junction.
 When the action potential spreads from the nerve along the sarcolemma, it is
conducted deep into the muscle cell through a special network of channels that
run through the sarcoplasm, and releases calcium from the intracellular stores.
 Calcium triggers the binding of myosin to the actin filament next to it, forming so-
called cross-bridges. ATP then provides the energy for the two filaments to slide
over each other, pulling the Z lines at each end of the sarcomere closer to one
another, shortening the sarcomere.
 This is called the sliding filament theory. If enough fibres are stimulated to do this
at the same time, the whole muscle will shorten (contract).
 The muscle relaxes when nerve stimulation stops. Calcium is pumped back into
its intracellular storage areas, which breaks the cross-bridges between the actin
and myosin filaments.
 They then slide back into their starting positions, lengthening the sarcomeres and
returning the muscle to its original length.
The neuromuscular junction
 The axons of motor neurones, carrying impulses to skeletal muscle to produce
contraction, divide into a number of fine filaments terminating in minute pads
called synaptick nobs.
 The space between the synaptic knob and the muscle cell is called the synaptic
cleft.
 Stimulation of the motor neuron releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
(ACh), which diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to acetylcholine
receptors on the postsynaptic membrane on the motor end plate (the area of the
muscle membrane directly across the synaptic cleft).
 Acetylcholine causes contraction of the muscle cell.

The neuromuscular junction.

Motor units
 Each muscle fibre is stimulated by only one synaptic knob, but since each motor
nerve has many synaptic knobs, it stimulates a number of muscle fibres.
 The figure shows an electron micrograph of a motor nerve and two of its motor
end plates.
 One nerve fibre and the muscle fibres it supplies constitute a motor unit. Nerve
impulses cause serial contraction of motor units in a muscle, and each unit
contracts to its full capacity.
 The strength of the contraction depends on the number of motor units in action at
a particular time. Some motor units contain large numbers of muscle fibres, i.e.
one nerve serves many muscle cells.
 This arrangement is associated with large-scale, powerful movements, such as in
the legs or upper arms. Fine, delicate control of muscle movement is achieved
when one motor unit contains very few muscle fibres, as in the muscles
controlling eye movement.