Ancient History

Prehistoric Era:

In India, during the Pleistocene Ice Age, around 300,000 years ago, humans
are believed to have emerged, according to scientific research. Since the
environment was favorable and food resources were abundant, early humans
likely originated in the southern and eastern parts of the subcontinent and
migrated to the northern regions. Historians divide human history into the
Prehistoric and Historic periods. The history of human life before the
beginning of Proto-history (around 1500 BCE) is described as a long
prehistoric era, where human life was primitive and subsisted mainly on
hunting and gathering. However, even in this phase, humans, driven by the
natural desire for a comfortable life, learned life skills through observation
and imitation, which helped them survive. This led to the eventual progress
of civilization. Historians categorize this long phase into the Stone, Bronze,
Copper, and Iron Ages. In the Stone Age, there were divisions between the
Ancient and Modern periods. The Ancient Stone Age itself is further divided
into Upper, Middle, and Lower periods, based on the tools and materials used
by humans during that time.

Paleolithic Age: The prehistoric period of India, particularly the Stone Age,
has not been studied as scientifically as expected. This research began in
1892 when a scholar named Bruce Foot discovered stone tools near
Pallavaram, near Madras. Based on Bruce Foot’s and others’ research, it is
understood that Paleolithic humans lived in various regions of Andhra
Pradesh.

Paleolithic humans lived in natural caves and shelters near riverbanks. Their
lives revolved around hunting for food and survival. The tools used in that
period were primarily hand axes and chisels made by chipping stones. Stone
tools have been found in large numbers in areas like Kadapa, Kurnool,
Guntur, Nellore, Anantapur, Nalgonda, Warangal, and Karimnagar. These
tools were made using locally available materials. In the Kadapa and Kurnool
regions, tools made of limestone and quartzite were used. The area near
Dornakal, in the Nandikhanum (Giddalur) region, appears to have been a hub
for the Paleolithic tool industry.

The Paleolithic human did not know how to cook food or store water.
However, since grinding stones have been found among the tools, it is likely
that they used animal hides, processed meat, and wore them as clothing. In
the Bhillasurgam (Bhillasurangam) cave in the Kurnool district, many animal
skeletons without heads were discovered. This suggests that religious beliefs
may have been beginning during this time. The stone tools found in the
southern parts of India resemble those found in Africa, suggesting that
Paleolithic humans in India might have belonged to the Negroid race.

Mesolithic Age: The period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic ages is
called the Mesolithic or Microlithic Age. In this period, tools of small size were
used, giving it its name. People during this time lived in high areas and
hunted animals and fished for food. They made small tools from precious
stones like flint, quartz, and agate. These tools included knives, chisels,
grinding stones, and arrowheads. They used these tools in the form of
daggers or bones tied to sticks to make powerful weapons. This suggests
that bows and arrows were in use during this time.

Domestication of animals began, and they used them for food, including the
khadga deer, wild boar, pig, monkey, and rats. Towards the end of this
period, there are signs of pottery-making. Burial practices also began, as
evidenced by findings from the Giddalur, Nagarjuna Konda, Kondapur
regions, and Adilabad district. Microlithic tools found near Giddalur suggest
that this period extended from 8000-6000 BCE. The microlithic tools found in
South India resemble those found in the Caspian Sea area.

Neolithic Age: Evidence of the transition from the hunting-gathering stage to

the food-producing stage, marking the shift from the Paleolithic to the
Neolithic Age, has been found in places like Giddalur and Sangankallu in
Bellary district. Neolithic tools have been discovered in almost all districts of
Andhra Pradesh. In this phase, there were changes in the number and
characteristics of tools. Approximately forty different types of tools from the
Neolithic period have been identified. There was significant skill in tool-
making, with stones being chipped and polished to make them shine. Key
tools from this period included axes, double-edged sickles, scrapers,
grinders, and pestles. A special type of stick with a spike was used to plow
the land. These plows have been found in the Nagarjuna Konda valley.
Evidence from various sites suggests that crops like millet, pulses, and rice
were cultivated during this time. With the rise of food production, permanent
settlements began to form. People built round huts by digging the ground,
placing strong wooden poles in the center, and covering them with mud.
Animal dung was used as fuel for cooking. Domestication of animals began,
and people raised them in pens surrounded by fences. Evidence of dung
heaps being burned as fuel has been found near Utnur (Mahbubnagar
district). Based on scientific methods like Carbon-14 dating, it is believed
that these remains date back to around 2000 BCE.

Chalcolithic Age (Copper Age): It was long believed that there was no Copper
Age in the South, and that humans directly transitioned from the Neolithic
Age to the Iron Age. However, the discovery of copper and bronze tools at
places like Brahmagiri and Puducherry has dispelled this notion. In the final
stages of the Neolithic period, there is strong evidence that the southern
people were introduced to the Chalcolithic culture from the northern regions.
At places like Paatapadu in Kurnool district, terracotta pots with intricate
designs were discovered. In the village of Kesarapalli in Krishna district,
copper tools were also found. Despite the similarities in the cultures of the
Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods in the Andhra-Karnataka region, there are
also distinct differences that suggest the local identity was unique. It is likely
that this culture spread from a central location to the Andhra-Karnataka
region.

Iron Age - Megalithic Monuments: In Andhra Pradesh, the Iron Age is closely
associated with "Rakshasa Gulla" (Megaliths), meaning "large stones." These
burial monuments are found not only throughout the southern part of India
but also in many parts of Central and West Asia. The megalithic graves in the
southern region are dated to around 500 BCE. In these tombs, the remains of
the deceased, along with their belongings, were buried, often including iron
tools and gold ornaments.

There are approximately twelve different types of megalithic graves. One

common type is the stone pillar, which was erected as a memorial for the
deceased, referred to as "Menhir." These pillars have been found in the
Revarala region of Krishna district. Similar stone pillars, known as "Ursakal,"
are still maintained in central India. The tradition of erecting shadow pillars
might have originated from this practice. Shadow pillars from the Ikshvaku
period have been found at Nagarjuna Konda. Another type of tomb
construction involves building a stone chest-like structure with a lid made of
stone. These tombs are often referred to as "Dolmen," with one side of the lid
having a large hole. When placed on the ground, the dolmen tomb is called
"Dolmen," while a tomb with a circular arrangement of stones around it is
known as a "Cist." Dolmens are found in the Godavari, Krishna, and Chittoor
districts, while Cists are found throughout Andhra Pradesh (except
Visakhapatnam).

Another type of tomb is the earthen sarcophagus, where the remains or

ashes of the deceased are placed and then sealed. These have been found in
Chittoor and Anantapur districts, and some of these sarcophagi have distinct
shapes, such as a sheep-shaped box from Sankhaveru in Kurnool district and
an elephant-shaped one from Aleshwar in Nalgonda district.

Did Megalithic People Practice Agriculture? It is believed that the people of

the southern region were the first to cultivate rice as food. They mined
minerals like iron and gold. Scholars suggest that the people of South India
learned the independent techniques of iron tool-making and iron production
without any influence from the northern regions. Evidence of iron tools has
been found in many ancient sites in Telangana, indicating that these people
were skilled in iron production. The use of iron tools led to the development
of agriculture, and with the increase in food production, populations grew,
trade networks were established, and villages expanded into larger
settlements and cities, which became symbols of prosperity.

The diversity seen in the megalithic tombs suggests that various tribes, who
followed different customs but shared a common belief system, might have
built these monuments. Since these tombs are widespread in regions where
Dravidian languages are spoken, it is believed that the creators of these
megaliths belonged to the middle Dravidian races. This is supported by the
findings of human remains in these tombs. For example, in Aleshwar, a single
tomb contained both male and female remains, which could indicate either
the practice of sati (wife following her husband in death) or the punishment
for a crime involving both partners being executed and buried together.

The belief in an afterlife was prevalent among these people, as shown by the
evidence of ancestor worship and rituals such as "Shraddha" (offerings for
the deceased). The holes in the stone slabs of Dolmens and Cists suggest a
belief that the soul (or spirit) of the deceased would travel to the earth's
surface. This belief in afterlife rituals and burial practices could be linked to
the Buddhist traditions of Stupa worship. Additionally, trishuls (tridents)
found in some megaliths suggest that these people may have worshipped
Shiva, possibly viewing him as the god of life and death.

The development in various economic sectors, along with the growth of

moral and religious practices, led to social stratification, the establishment of
occupational classes, and the emergence of political structures that helped
preserve economic and social prosperity.

Vedic Culture Expansion

Between 2000 and 1500 BCE, the Indo-European people began entering the
Indian subcontinent through the northwestern borders. These people,
commonly referred to as the “Aryans,” were not defined by race or language
but by the term “Arya,” meaning “noble” or “honorable.” The local population
referred to these newcomers as “Aryas,” while they themselves were often
referred to as “Dasas” or “Dasa” (servants or slaves). Over time, the Aryans
settled in India, and although their early interactions with the locals were
marked by conflict, these gradually evolved into peaceful relations and
mutual understanding.

The Aryans, who were Initially a nomadic and pastoral society, did not have a
structured social or institutional system. However, they soon adopted
agricultural practices and developed a social division of labor, including
priestly and ritual roles, many of which they absorbed from the indigenous
“Dasas.” Scholars suggest that the Vedic culture, which emerged during this
period, was shaped by the fusion of Aryan and non-Aryan traditions.

The Vedic language and culture developed as a result of the interaction and
synthesis between the Aryan culture and the indigenous cultures. Famous
figures like Vishwamitra, Vashistha, Agastya, and Bharadwaja, though often
considered Aryans, were likely representatives of this cultural amalgamation.
The Vedic system of thought, religious practices, and philosophy possibly
emerged through their interactions with the local populations. The blending
of northern and southern traditions was a gradual process, which eventually
led to the growth of a unified Vedic civilization.

The Rigvedic people did not have a clear knowledge of the southern regions
initially. They recognized the southern land only as “outside territories”
where the “outsiders” lived. It was only after establishing their dominance in
the central regions that the northern Aryans began to pay more attention to
the south. Even then, for a long time, the Vindhya mountains served as a
natural boundary between Aryavarta (the land of the Aryans) and the
southern lands.

By the time of the Brahmana period, however, northern attention was

increasingly drawn to the southern regions. The “Aitareya Brahmana”
(around 800 BCE) mentions the kingdom of Vidarbha and its ruler Bhima,
suggesting that the northern expansion towards the south was underway.
The work also references the people of the southern regions, such as the
Andhras, Shabaras, Mutibas, Pulindas, and Pundras, indicating early
interactions with southern tribes.

In the 6th century BCE, Panini, the great grammarian, also mentions southern
kingdoms like Kalinga and Ashmaka in his work “Ashtadhyayi.” This
highlights the growing awareness of the southern territories among the Vedic
people.

The information about the southern lands is more prominent in later epics
like the Mahabharata, where Agastya is portrayed as a key figure. In the
Mahabharata, Agastya is depicted as a powerful sage who not only subdued
the pride of the Vindhya mountains but also tamed the fierce hill tribes. He is
considered one of the key figures in the southern expansion of Aryan culture.
Agastya’s legendary achievements in bringing Aryan culture to the south are
significant in Vedic history. The Tamils and other Dravidian communities
venerate Agastya, with temples dedicated to him in Tamil Nadu and other
regions. The Agattiyam, the first grammar of the Tamil language, is
traditionally attributed to him, suggesting that he might have contributed to
the spread of Vedic and Aryan ideas into the Dravidian-speaking areas by
learning and adopting local languages and customs.

In addition to the Vedic texts, other accounts in the Mahabharata also

mention places like Shurparaka, Kishkindha, Dandaka, Karahata, which are
connected with southern regions like Dravida, Pandya, Kerala, Andhra, and
Utkala. These references suggest the growing interaction between the
northern Aryans and the southern tribes, helping in the cultural exchange
that eventually led to the spread of Vedic traditions across the entire
subcontinent.

In the Ramayana, there is a more extensive reference to the southern

regions. It mentions kingdoms like Vidarbha, Dasharna, Dandakaranya,
Kalinga, and Utkala, as well as people like the Rishikas, Mahishakas, Andhra,
Pandya, Chola, and Kerala. There are conflicting opinions about the
identification of places like Panchavati, Rishyamook, and Pampasarovara.
While Maharashtra scholars argue that Panchavati is near Nashik, Andhra
scholars believe that the Panchavati description matches the area near
Bhadradri. Similarly, the Kannada scholars claim that Rishyamook was near
Bellary. The Ramayana mentions tribes like Shabara and Guha, which are
identified as being from eastern India in the Mahabharata. Hence, many
scholars conclude that the Ramayana is set in eastern India with an Austric
cultural backdrop. However, some historians, like R.C. Majumdar, argue that
the heroic deeds of Rama in Ravana’s kingdom should be historically
accepted. Archaeologist H.D. Sankalia also considers the current version of
the Ramayana as a mythical creation. Yet, based on research suggesting the
origin of the Ramayana in the Chota Nagpur region, it is concluded that the
Ramayana took place in eastern India.

The Ramayana can be interpreted as illustrating the Vedic people’s southern

expansion and the collaborative approach of kings and priests in achieving
this. The Ramayana mentions ashrams of saints like Kanva and Bharadwaja,
who are believed to have traveled south following Agastya's footsteps. These
ashrams were centers for spreading Vedic culture. It can be inferred that
Rama might have traveled south to protect the Vedic way of life from non-
Aryan threats. Because of his contribution to the spread of their culture,
Vedic sages viewed Rama as an incarnation of Vishnu.

In the 6th century BCE, Jainism and Buddhism, which rejected caste
distinctions, began to flourish. As missionary religions, they facilitated
greater interactions and migrations between the northern and southern
paths, leading to cultural unity. The Buddhist text Suttanipata mentions the
story of the Brahmin teacher Bāvari, who came to the southern regions and
established an ashram on the banks of the Godavari river. His fame spread
as far as Kalinga. Bāvari, a contemporary of Buddha, later adopted
Buddhism. According to the Vimānavatthu commentary, Mahākātyāyana, a
principal disciple of Buddha, spread Buddhism to the king of Assaka. The
Jataka tales mention kingdoms like Assaka, Mulaka, and Kalinga, with
references to Assaka kings like Arun and Brahmadatta. The Bhimasena
Jataka mentions the Andhra region, and the Serivanjika Jataka mentions
Andhra city. The 'Andhra Nagari' might have been a grain-producing town.

By the time of the commentator Katyayana (around 400 BCE), there was
extensive interaction between the northern and southern regions, with
increased migration. Many tribes in the southern path, like Yadu and Bhoja,
claimed to be descendants of ancient tribes. The Iyalas (ancient tribe) were
believed to have resided at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers.
Their capital, Pratisthana (modern-day Allahabad), later became the capital
of the Satavahana dynasty.

Following the Vishnu Purana, it is mentioned that the Ikshvaku rulers from
Kosala established kingdoms like Ashvaka and Mulaka in the south. Based on
Jain texts, another Ikshvaku prince, Yashodharmma, migrated south and
founded the kingdom of Pratipalapura, identified with modern Bhattiprolu.
The Tamil Pandyas claimed to be descendants of the Pandavas, and ancient
Greek texts also support the idea that the Pandyas migrated from the north.
Their capital, Madurai, became prominent, with the pattern of Madura
serving as a model. Katyayana mentions that the Pandyas belonged to the
'Pandava' tribe, and Varahamihira stated that the 'Pandava' people were from
the central region. The Tamil Brahmins, particularly those following the
Brihchara tradition, likely settled in the south after a long migration from the
northern regions, leading to their distinct identity in the south.

It appears that the Uttaraahus (pe”ple from the northern regions) came to
the south by following two different routes. One of these routes was explored
by Agastya, known as “Vaskodagama,” who traveled through the Vindhya
mountains. It can be said that the disciples of Bāvari followed this route.
They traveled through regions like Assaka, Mulaka, Vidarbha, and Avanti,
eventually reaching Shravasti. This route was popular at the time. According
to the Jain Avashyaka Sutra, it seems there was another route from Magadha
to the Krishna mouth through Kalinga. Historical figures like
Mahapadmananda, Ashoka, and Samudragupta likely followed this route
during their southern expeditions.

There are no significant records of northern people arriving with large armies
and establishing kingdoms in the southern regions. They did not expand by
destroying local tribes and cultures. Stories like that of Vatapi Ilwala suggest
local resistance during their expansion. When different tribes and cultures
come into contact, conflict is inevitable. Denying such conflicts would be a
mistake. However, these conflicts were short-lived. The sages who
established ashrams promoted Vedic culture with patience and
perseverance, gaining the respect of the local populations. In many cases,
Vedic culture peacefully coexisted with local religious practices and rituals.
As a result, the spread of culture happened peacefully through social
integration and cultural coordination. The Jataka tales suggest that local
people in the southern regions developed an interest in Vedic rituals, which
eventually led to the formation of the caste system in the south. The local
rulers became Kshatriyas, while the priests were classified as Brahmins.
These groups found their place within the Gotra (lineage) of the great sages.

As a result of this harmonious integration, new social relationships and

institutions were established, and there was a need to create operational
guidelines for their survival. In Andhra, the philosopher Apastamba fulfilled
this need. Scholars like Buler and Kane have concluded that he lived around
500 BCE at the mouth of the Godavari river and delivered his teachings.
Apastamba not only defined the rules for Vedic study and rituals but also
incorporated local religious beliefs and practices into the Atharvaveda,
granting them higher status. He accepted the Puranas as authoritative texts
on religious matters. All these actions reflect the vision of unity and harmony
of that time. There is also a tradition that Katyayana and Kautilya were
associated with the South. If this is true, then by the 4 th century BCE, the
southern regions must have adopted the standards of Sanskrit culture.

Magadha Empire – Andhra Region

In the 6th century BCE, major religious, social, and political revolutions
occurred in India. The Vedic people, who had been practicing sacrificial
rituals and extravagant worship, along with caste distinctions and pride,
were challenged by the rising spiritual leaders like Mahavira and Gautama
Buddha, who established new religions. These movements aimed at cultural
integration and nation unification. Jainism and Buddhism soon gained
considerable popularity among the local tribes. It is said that Gautama
Buddha himself introduced the “Kalachakra Tantra” near Dhanayakataka, and
the followers of the faith spread his teachings. However, the accounts that
Mahavira moved from Magadha to Tosali (Tosali in present-day Andhra) and
preached Jainism there are not reliable. Despite this, Andhra Pradesh was a
prominent region for the propagation of Buddhism from the early days.
Buddhist texts mention that figures like Bhavari and Mahakatyayana,
contemporaries of Buddha, helped spread Buddhism in Andhra Pradesh. The
inscriptions at Bhattiprolu, dating back to Ashoka’s time, confirm the
presence of Ashoka’s edicts in the southern region, supporting the view that
Buddhism spread in Andhra Pradesh during his reign. By Ashoka’s time, he
had installed pillars in many famous Buddhist sites across the country.

In the Kalinga region, people became followers of Jainism. Around 450 BCE,
Mahapadmananda of Kalinga is said to have carried Jain idols as symbols of
victory, as per the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela (c. 185 BCE). With
the spread of Jainism and Buddhism, a new phase of relationships between
northern and southern India began.

Along with the spread of new religions, new political developments also took
place. While the goal of these religions was nation unification, the political
developments aimed to unify the country under a single government. The
sixteen Mahajanapadas, which were once constantly in conflict, were unified
under Magadhan control. The Haryanka dynasty laid the foundations of the
Magadhan empire, and the Shishunaga dynasty expanded this empire.
Eventually, the Shishunagas were overthrown by the Nanda dynasty, a family
of Shudra origin.

The Nanda Dynasty: The founder of the Nanda dynasty, Mahapadmananda,

was a great conqueror. He is described in the Puranas as being of unknown
lineage, a destroyer of Kshatriyas, and an all-powerful ruler. Greek writers
praised him as a fierce leader. The Nanda revolution holds great significance
in our history, as Mahapadmananda, a Shudra, broke the political monopoly
of the higher castes. Not only did he dismantle the Kshatriya dominance, but
he also caused distress to the Brahmins, as suggested in Kautilya’s stories.
After the Shishunaga dynasty, all the rulers of the country were from non-
Kshatriya dynasties, as mentioned in the Puranas. With a powerful army,
Mahapadmananda embarked on territorial expansion. The Hathigumpha
inscription mentions that he conquered Kalinga, and the Puranas state that
he also conquered Ashmaka.

The city of Nanded (Navananda) located on the Godavari river marks the
southern boundary of the Nanda empire. The frequent references to the
Nanda kings in ancient Tamil literature are also cited as evidence of their
conquest of the southern region. Thus, Mahapadmananda established a vast
empire between the Sindhu and Godavari rivers, a feat that had not been
achieved by any Kshatriya before him. This might have been made possible
by the widespread consciousness brought about by the propagation of
Jainism and Buddhism, which united lower castes under a common banner,
giving Mahapadmananda the strength to achieve these victories.

However, the successors of Mahapadmananda became greedy and

oppressive, leading to a loss of popular support. Their empire disintegrated
in a short time. The Mauryas then captured Magadha, and since the Mauryas
had already undertaken military expeditions in the southern region, it can be
inferred that during the final years of the Nanda dynasty, the Andhra,
Kalinga, and other southern kingdoms became independent.

Mauryas: In 322 BCE, Chandragupta Maurya, along with Chanakya, a

Brahmin and Kshatriya, united with the goal of overthrowing the Shudra
dominance. Although the Puranas describe the Mauryas as Shudras, Jain
texts portray them as Kshatriyas. Since they were followers of Jainism and
Buddhism, the Puranas may have represented them as Shudras. If the
Mauryas were indeed Shudras, then Chanakya would not have supported
them. With the unity of the higher castes, the Nanda dynasty was
overthrown, and the Mauryas, seated on the throne of Magadha, were able to
bring India under a single rule. However, they too were followers of new
religions!

The question of who the Mauryan emperor was who conquered the Andhra
region remains unresolved. Ashoka’s edicts found in regions such as
Siddhapuram, Jaitung Rameshwaram, Maski (Karnataka), Yerragudi, and Rajul
Mandagiri (Kurnool) provide evidence that his rule extended to these areas.
His 13th edict confirms that the Andhras were living under the Mauryan
empire. However, Ashoka’s only major conquest was the Kalinga War. After
witnessing the devastation of war, Ashoka renounced military aggression and
became a promoter of Dharma. Therefore, Ashoka did not conquer the
Andhra region. It is believed that his father, Bindusara, or his grandfather,
Chandragupta, had already done so.

According to Tibetan historian Taranatha, some historians believe that

Bindusara, Ashoka’s father, conquered the southern region. Taranatha writes
that with Chanakya’s assistance, Bindusara expanded his empire between
the eastern and western seas. His title “Amitraghata” (the destroyer of
enemies) is often cited as evidence of his military conquests. However,
Taranatha’s writings are not reliable. According to the Junagadh inscription of
Rudradaman I (150 CE), it was Chandragupta who conquered the Saurashtra
(western coast). This inscription mentions that Chandragupta’s
representative in the region, Sudarshan, constructed the Sudarshan Lake.
Furthermore, it was Ashoka who conquered Kalinga, not Bindusara.
Therefore, Taranatha’s accounts should be disregarded.

Greek writings do not suggest Bindusara had any particular interest in

alcohol or intellectual gatherings, nor do they imply he was involved in
military conquests. During Bindusara’s reign, there were uprisings in places
like Takshashila, which were quelled by Ashoka and his brothers, though
Bindusara did not go himself. Perhaps these suppressions earned Bindusara
the title “Amitraghata,” meaning “destroyer of enemies,” not “conqueror of
kingdoms.” Except for Taranatha’s 19th-century writings, there is no mention
of Bindusara’s conquest of the south in Indian records. Therefore, it is
reasonable to conclude that Chandragupta Maurya was the one who
conquered the southern region. Several points support this conclusion:

1. Ancient Jain texts like Brihatkathakosa by Harisena mention that

Chandragupta Maurya, accompanied by his Jain teacher Bhadrabahu,
traveled to Shravanabelagola in Mysore. The Rajavalikatha also
mentions that in Shravanabelagola, Chandragupta followed the Jain
 tradition and took the vow of Sallekhana, ending his life. This suggests
that Shravanabelagola was part of Chandragupta’s empire.
2. Places like Chandragupta Pattan, Chandragiri, and Chandraguptabasti
in the southern region point to a connection with Chandragupta
Maurya’s empire.
3. Greek historian Plutarch’s writings suggest that Chandragupta Maurya
assembled an army of 600,000 soldiers and conquered most of India.
4. According to the Sangam period Tamil poet Mamoolwar, the Tamil epic
Wombamoryer describes a military expedition led by Chandragupta to
the Podiyil hills in the Tamil Nadu district of Tirunelveli. It mentions that
Andhra warriors led by the Andhra general, Vadugar, advanced ahead
of the Mauryan army and captured the city of Mohuru. The term
“Wombamoryer” signifies a person who rose to power unexpectedly,
fitting the description of Chandragupta, the founder of the Maurya
dynasty.

In the destruction of the Nanda dynasty, the establishment of the Maurya

dynasty, and more importantly, due to the fear of Greek invasions from the
northwest, it is argued by some historians that Chandragupta Maurya’s
attention was focused on the political scenario of northern India, and
therefore he did not conquer the southern region. However, the political
developments of that time were highly favorable for Chandragupta’s
southern conquest.

When Alexander left India in 325 BCE, Greek historians wrote that the Indian
forces, led by Indian leaders, defeated the Greek army. Chandragupta was
the leader of this independence movement. The death of Alexander in 324
BCE further encouraged the Indians. After Alexander’s death, his generals, in
their second division treaty, did not show interest in India. By 317 BCE, the
Greek general Eudemus left India, and Greek control over the region ended.

Thus, after 317 BCE, the Maurya Empire was no longer threatened by
invasions from the northwest, and there were no obstacles to
Chandragupta’s consolidation of power in India. Furthermore, the southern
regions, which had been part of the Nanda Empire, became independent,
and for Chandragupta to complete his empire’s conquest, it was necessary to
subdue these regions. Without conquering the southern states, the Magadha
Empire could not be fully established. Therefore, the able strategist
Chanakya relieved Chandragupta of administrative duties and allowed him to
pursue his southern campaigns.

According to the political philosophy of that time, “The discontent of the

Brahmins must be settled, and the discontent of the rulers must be pacified,”
the continuous expansion of the empire was essential for the stability and
prestige of the ruling dynasty. However, in 305 BCE, Greek general Seleucus
once again invaded India. Chandragupta defeated him and captured
territories like Arakosia and Gedrosia. Thus, the period between 317 and 305
BCE was favorable for Chandragupta’s southern conquest. It is likely that
between 310 and 305 BCE, Chandragupta Maurya had already conquered the
southern region.

The Andhra Region During the Maurya Period:

The Andhra region became part of the Maurya Empire around 310 BCE
during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign. The 13th edict of Ashoka mentions the
people of Andhra as part of the Mauryan Empire. It is suggested that the
southern part of Ashoka’s empire included three key regions: the western
region, which was Soṁpāra (Surparaka), the Kalinga region, with Tosali
(Dhaulī), and the southern region, which had Suvarṇagiri as its capital. The
Brahmagiri edict also refers to Suvarṇagiri, but historians identify this
location differently. Some point to Kanakagiri near Maski (Raichur district),
while others suggest Jonnavari in the Anantapur district as a more likely
candidate, as it is close to the Yerragudi inscriptions.

In these capitals, the administration was carried out by the Aryaputras or

Mahamatras (officials). It appears that Ashoka’s attempts to centralize
governance were unsuccessful as many regions within the empire
experienced some degree of independence. The people of the Rākṣasi caves
seem to have been the ‘Nāgarakas’ (urban dwellers), and they likely
facilitated the establishment of republic-like systems (Gana-Rajya).

Interestingly, there is no direct evidence of Mauryan officials in Andhra.

Greek ambassador Megasthenes, in his accounts, mentions that the Andhra
region had 30 fortresses, a large military force with a strength of 100,000
infantry, 3,000 cavalry, and 2,000 elephants. Another Greek historian, Arias,
refers to 50 kingdoms in Andhra. These 30 fortresses and 50 kingdoms
mentioned could be interpreted as separate city-states or republics.
Archaeological findings, such as ruins of ancient cities like Pratishthana,
Saudanyapura, Kotilingala, Dhulikatta, Pedabankuru, Kondapur, Phanigiri,
Gazulbandi, Veerapuram, Satani Kota, Bhattiprolu, Dhanayakataka, Tambrap
(Chebrolu), Narasala, and Vijayapuri, align with this idea. These are often
identified as small republics or city-states.

It Is believed that in areas like Kareemnagar and Nalgonda, kingdoms such

as the Sabaka and Mahishaka were emerging, and coins have been found
that corroborate these claims. The Bhattiprolu stupas also mention a ruler
named Kubhirakuda, who governed with the help of the ‘Nigamasabha,’ or
the council of city leaders. This indicates a local governance system with
significant participation from local elites. The concept of ‘Nigamasabha’ and
local governance was common in several cities across Andhra. For example,
in Vaddaman, there are references to a king Somakuni and the Nigama (city
council).

The inscriptions in ancient Amaravati mention “Rākumārās,” which were

likely the administrative or royal officials of the time. Chandragupta and
Ashoka may have allowed the local republics in Andhra to maintain some
autonomy, possibly in exchange for tribute or taxes. This policy might have
been a pragmatic one, as they were more focused on maintaining control
over the larger and more strategically important regions.

Iron and Agriculture in Andhra during the Maurya Period:

During the Mauryan period, iron became extensively used in Andhra. The use
of metals, including gold, also increased. In the remains of the ancient city of
Kondapur, there are signs of iron production. Iron tools and farming
implements boosted agricultural productivity, resulting in large yields of
crops such as rice and cotton. Andhra was also famous for its textile industry,
as evidenced by references in the Bhimasena Jataka.

The region became prosperous due to the growth of agriculture, metal

industries, and textile manufacturing. This economic prosperity enabled
trade with northern India and possibly even Sri Lanka. The Buddhist tooth
relics, which were well-known in Sri Lanka, suggest that Andhra played a
crucial role in facilitating maritime trade between northern India and Sri
Lanka.

Megasthenes’ reference to the thirty cities thriving due to their industries,

commerce, and prosperity highlights how Andhra grew rich and became a
key player in regional trade. The coastal ports of the western shore, including
cities like Muziris, were already engaged in trade with distant lands like
Rome. The wealth from these trade routes likely helped strengthen the local
kingdoms, including the Satavahanas, who were contemporaries of Ashoka
and later expanded Andhra’s power and influence.

Before the Third Buddhist Council in 251 BCE, Buddhism had already gained
widespread popularity in the Andhra region, as indicated by recent
archaeological evidence from places like Dhanayakatakam. The 13 th edict of
Ashoka mentions that the people of Andhra were already following Dharma
(the righteous path) during his reign. This is significant in understanding the
early influence of Buddhism in the region.

One of the recent inscriptions found in Dhanayakatakam mentions the

establishment of a “Vandanamagoṣṭhi,” a congregation of Buddhist monks,
highlighting the presence of organized Buddhist communities in the area.
Scholars like Ghosh and Sarkar have pointed out that the carvings found in
this region are older than those found at Sanchi and Bharhut, indicating an
early and deep-rooted Buddhist presence.

Ashoka’s Influence and Buddhist Monasteries

Ashoka’s 13th edict not only confirms the spread of Dharma but also suggests
that Buddhist monks in Andhra were significantly involved in propagating
Buddhist teachings. In one inscription, it is mentioned that Ashoka urged
teachers to instill a sense of Dharma in their students, further emphasizing
the role of education in promoting Buddhist values.

One notable feature of the period was the prominence of the “Andhakas” (a
tribe or community) in the Buddhist scene. The Kathavattu, a Buddhist text,
mentions them as important figures in the development of Buddhist
practices and traditions during Ashoka’s time. Similarly, inscriptions from
Bhattiprolu suggest that Buddhists in the region were organized and actively
teaching Buddhist principles, sometimes even referred to as “Simhagoshti”
(Lion’s congregation).

Ashoka’s Patronage of Buddhism in Andhra

Ashoka is also credited with sending a prominent Buddhist monk, Mahadeva

Bhikkhu, to the Mahisha region (present-day Andhra Pradesh), which further
illustrates the importance he placed on spreading Buddhism. The discovery
of the Suvarṇamalikistūpa (a stupa dedicated to gold) in Anuradhapura in Sri
Lanka, where Mahadeva Bhikkhu is said to have been present along with
numerous other monks, highlights the active role of Andhra’s Buddhist
community in the spread of the religion beyond India. The presence of this
stupa and the association with Ashoka’s missionary efforts reinforce the idea
that Andhra played a key role in the diffusion of Buddhism, especially to Sri
Lanka.

The historical texts from Sri Lanka, particularly the Mahavamsa, also mention
the gathering of numerous Buddhist monks at Pallavabogga, which ties into
the broader network of Buddhist activities spreading from Andhra. This
widespread involvement indicates a strong Buddhist culture in the region and
a deep admiration for the religion among the Andhra people.

Impact on Social and Political Unity

The rise of Buddhism in Andhra contributed to the gradual erosion of

tribalism and the fragmentation of society into smaller, independent tribal
units. This religious and cultural unity, fueled by Buddhism, facilitated the
consolidation of power under the Satavahana leadership. The Satavahanas,
who followed in the footsteps of the Mauryas, were able to unify the Andhra
tribes and establish a centralized political structure, laying the foundation for
a strong empire.

Thus, Buddhism not only influenced the spiritual lives of the people in Andhra
but also had a significant role in shaping the region’s social and political
landscapes. It paved the way for the unification of the Andhra tribes under
the Satavahana dynasty and helped foster a centralized empire-building
process.