Let’s Read the Text

Chapter 6

Read. Highlight. Summarize.

Complete Section Assessments
Biology Check-in
Our Objectives

• Recognize that all living things are made of matter.

• Classify types of matter: element, molecules, compounds
• Recognize that chemical reactions support the growth and
development of all living things.
• Define the properties of water that make it well suited to maintain
homeostasis in organisms.
• Identify the chemical composition of organic compounds:
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
• Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds.
• Identify the building blocks of organic compounds.
• Explain the role/function of organic compounds in the cell and human
body.
6.1 Atoms, Elements, & Compounds
Main Idea. All living things are made of Matter. Matter is
composed of tiny particles called atoms.

• Concepts:
Atoms are the Fundamental Building Blocks of Matter
The Structure of Atoms Indicates How They Will React in Nature
Elements are Collections of Atoms with the Same Identity
Periodic Table Organizes Known and Man-made Elements
There are Specific Elements Essential for Life
Understanding Isotopes & Radioactive Isotopes in Biology
Living Things Make and produce Different Compounds
Chemical Bonds: Ionic vs. covalent
Van der waals Forces
All living things are composed of
“stuff”, the fundamental substance that
makes up everything in the universe.

“Stuff”
STUFF…
“STUFF” is also called Matter

Matter is anything that has mass and volume.

Mass is the measure of the amount of matter

that makes up and object

Volume is the amount of space that an

object takes up.

So...Matter is anything that has mass and

takes up space.
More to know about “STUFF”

ALL matter is made by combinations of 100 different

kinds of elements.

An element is a chemical made up of one kind of

atom.
The Atom

Atoms are considered the most

fundamental building blocks of
matter.
Each atom has a specific identity.
The Identity of an Atom
• An atom’s identity is determined by the
particles inside of it.

• Atoms are made of smaller particles:

• Protons (+)
• Neutrons (0)
• Electrons (-)

• The number of protons in an atom

identifies what kind of atom it is.
The Atom
• Some say the smallest piece of the
universe because they make up
everything there is…
• … but atoms can be broken down into
smaller parts.
• Protons & Neutrons
• Electrons
• Quarks & Gluons
• Lepton

• So why does the science

world say this?
The Atom
The atom isn’t the smallest particle of matter,
but…
• Chemist say this because, in the context of chemistry, the smallest particle
of an element that retains its chemical properties is the atom.
• Atoms are the smallest units for understanding chemical reactions and
element properties.
• Even though they contain protons, neutrons, and electrons, splitting
atoms in a chemical reaction changes the atom that you are working with.
How are the particles that make up atoms
diagrammed?
 Sodium Atom

Chemical Name: Sodium

Chemical Symbol: Na
# of protons: 11
# of neutrons:11
# of electrons: 11
Elements are collections of
atoms with the same identity.
• Elements are pure substances that cannot be broken
down into other substances by physical or chemical
means.
• Each element is made up of atoms that have the same
number of protons. For example:

• All Atoms of Oxygen have 8 protons inside their nucleus.

8p 8p 8p 8p
The most abundant elements in the
human body…
The most abundant elements in the
human body…
The most abundant elements in the
human body…
The most abundant elements in the
human body…
The most abundant elements in the
human body…
The most abundant elements in all
living things…

Carbon (C) Hydrogen (H) Nitrogen (N)

Phosphorous
Oxygen (O) Sulfur (S)
(P)
Isotopes
• Are versions of the same element with differing
number of neutrons in the nucleus.

Radioactive
Stable Stable
(unstable)
Characteristics of Isotopes

1 Same Atomic Number 2 Different Mass Number

Isotopes share the same They differ in the number of
number of protons, defining neutrons, resulting in varying
defining their element. atomic masses.

3 Similar Chemical 4 Different Physical

Properties Properties
Isotopes of the same element Their different masses can lead
exhibit similar chemical to subtle variations in physical
behavior due to their identical properties like melting point
electron configurations. and density.
Stability of Isotopes
• Isotopes can be either stable or unstable.

• Stable isotopes have a nucleus with a

balanced ratio of protons and neutrons.
They do not decay and remain unchanged
over time.

• Unstable isotopes, have an unbalanced

ratio of protons and neutrons. This
imbalance leads to a tendency to decay,
emitting radiation and transforming into a
more stable form.
Stability of Isotopes
Definition of Radioactive Isotopes
Unstable Atoms Emission of Radiation
Radioactive isotopes are atoms that To stabilize their nucleus, radioactive
have an unstable nucleus. Their isotopes emit particles or energy in the
nucleus contains an excess of form of radiation. This process is called
energy, which they try to release. radioactive decay.
Types of Radioactive Decay
1 Alpha Decay 2 Beta Decay 3 Gamma Decay
Alpha decay occurs when an In beta decay an unstable atomic Gamma decay occurs when
unstable nucleus emits an alpha nucleus emits an electron or an excited nucleus releases
particle, consisting of two positron while converting a energy in the form of
protons and two neutrons. neutron to a proton. The proton gamma rays, high-energy
formed stays inside the atom. electromagnetic radiation.

Example: Thorium-232 produces Example: Carbon 14 produces

and alpha particle and a and beta particle and a
Radium-228 Nitrogen-14
Understanding Isotopes & Radioactive
Isotopes in Biology
• Our knowledge of different
isotopes provides essential
information about the basic
elements that make up living
organisms.

• For example, understanding the

abundance of various carbon
isotopes reveals how carbon
cycles through ecosystems and
contributes to photosynthesis.
 Importance of Isotopes in Biology

• Metabolic Processes
• Medical Research
• Paleontology and Archaeology
• Environmental Science
• Food Safety and Nutrition
Periodic Table of Elements
• Table that organizes all the known elements in
the universe.

• Elements on the periodic table are organized by

their atomic number. The atomic number
matches the number of protons that atoms of
that element have.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Is CO (carbon monoxide) an atom?
Let’s Review How we Distinguish Atoms
• Atom has a defined structure (definite
number of p, n, and e)

• Unique chemical and physical properties

• Atoms of an element have the same

identity
Is CO (carbon monoxide) an atom?
Use the following details to formulate an excellent answer.

• Atom has a defined structure (definite number of p, n, and e)

• Unique chemical and physical properties
• Atoms of an element have the same identity
• Carbon Monoxide has a formula where C is linked to O by a triple
bond
• Carbon and oxygen are different elements
• Carbon and Oxygen have different chemical and Physical properties
Is CO (carbon monoxide) an atom?
Water is formed by two hydrogen atoms and Methane is formed by four hydrogen atoms
one oxygen atom. and one carbon atom

Elements combine to form compounds.

Compounds once formed cannot be broken
down by a physical means because of their
chemical bonds.
Living things are made up many
different compounds. Living things
produce many different compounds.
Life on Earth is Carbon based.
Compounds containing carbon are called organic compounds.
THE diagrams below represent 4 different
MOLECULES!
What makes the oxygen
molecule different from the
rest?
The oxygen molecule is made
up of the same kind of atoms,
while the others are made up of
different kinds of atoms.
The Compound

• The remaining molecules are considered

compounds.
• A compound is a substance that
contains two or more elements,
chemically combined in a fixed portion.
• Compounds are represented by chemical
formulas
• Ex. Water (H2 O), Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ),
Glucose (C6 H12 O6)
All MOLECULES are COMPOUNDS….BUT!
BUT all Compounds are NOT Molecules!

Calcium Chloride, Ca𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝟐𝟐

Explain
Please!
 A molecule is a type of compound in which
atoms are held together by covalent bonds.

Thus compounds in which atoms are held together by

other types bonds are NOT molecules.
 Calcium Chloride is a compound and NOT a
molecule because it is formed by ionic bonds.

Calcium Chloride, Ca𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝟐𝟐

There are three main types of chemical bonds:

• Ionic
• Covalent
• Metallic
Ionic Bonds (Opposites Attract)
• Formed between metal and nonmetal
• Electron Transfer: Electrons move from metal to nonmetal
• Charged Particles: Ions form with strong electrostatic attraction
• Example: NaCl (table salt)
Covalent Bonds (Tug-o-War)
• Formed between two nonmetals
• Atoms share electrons to form molecules
• Can be polar or nonpolar
• Example: H₂ (hydrogen gas)
Metallic Bonds (sea of electrons)
• Metallic bonds occur between metal atoms, creating
a strong network.

• Metal atoms share their outer electrons, forming a

"sea of electrons" that attracts the positively
charged metal ions.
• This "sea of electrons" gives metals their unique
properties.
Van der Waals Forces
• Weak Attraction: Intermolecular forces between molecules
• Electron Fluctuations: Based on temporary changes in electron density

• Comparative Strength: Weaker than ionic and covalent bonds

A temporary attraction that
• Example: Forces between helium atoms in liquid helium happens when electrons in
two nearby atoms are
unevenly distributed, creating
temporary positive and
negative charges.
Adhesion: A Van der
Waals Force
Adhesion is the ability of one substance to stick to another, often
driven by Van der Waals forces. These forces arise from
temporary fluctuations in electron density within molecules.

Geckos utilize van der Waals forces through their setae (tiny hair-
like structures) to climb smooth surfaces.

Adhesion is prevalent in everyday life, from sticky notes to tape,

and understanding van der Waals forces allows for designing
materials with specific adhesive properties.
London Dispersion Forces in Biology

• Drug-Target Interactions
• Membrane Structure
• Protein-Protein Interactions
• Protein Structure
• Lipid Aggregation
Comparison of Chemical Bonds

Ionic Bonds Covalent Bonds Van der Waals Forces

Form when a metal and nonmetal Form when two nonmetals share Weak forces that occur between
share electrons. This creates charged electrons to create molecules. molecules due to temporary changes
particles (ions) that are strongly in their electron density. They are
Example: H₂ (hydrogen gas)
attracted to each other. weaker than ionic and covalent bonds.

Example: NaCl (table salt) Example: Forces between helium

atoms in liquid helium.
Why is it important for living organisms
to be made of strong and weak bonds?

Ionic Bonds (strong bonds) Covalent Bonds (strong bonds) Van der Waals Forces (weak bonds)

Strong bonds hold things together and store energy, while weak bonds
allow things to interact and fit together in the right way. This is important
for living things to work properly.
6.2 Chemical Reactions
Main Idea.
Chemical reactions allow living things to grow, develop,
reproduce and adapt.

• Concepts
Chemical reaction
Chemical equation
Energy of reactions
Activation energy
Endothermic vs. exothermic
Catalysts and Enzymes
What do all these images have in
common?
They are ALL Chemical Reactions that
take place in the body!!!!!
Chemical Reactions
• Occurs when the chemical bonds between elements are
formed or broken.
• Involves reactants changing into products.
• Requires a gain or loss of energy.
• Represented in a chemical equation.
Chemical Equation
Short-hand notation that represents what happens in a chemical reaction.

Uses symbols and formulas instead of words.

Its like the recipe for different chemical reactions.

This is the equation for PHOTOSYNTHESIS!
What is a chemical equation?
Chemical equation describes a chemical
change.
• Parts of an equation:
Reactants Product

2Ag + H2S Ag2S + H2

Plus symbol separates Arrow separates reactants from

reactants or products. products.
“Reacts with” “Reacts to produce”
 Parts of a Chemical Equation

Plus sign (+) placed between Arrow (Yields) separates

Reactants written in chemical reactants or products reactant side from product side
formulas
H2 O
A + BC AC +B REACTANTS PRODUCTS

Catalyst substance that speeds up Physical State (s), (l), (g), (aq)
a chemical reaction; written on written beside each substance Products written in chemical
top of the arrow on either sides of the formulas
equation. 2H + O
catalyst
A+B AB A(g) + B(s) AB (s)
Balancing Equations

Unbalanced
Balancing Equations
Unbalanced Balanced
• An unbalanced equation does not indicate the • A balanced equation is one in which each
quantity of the reactants needed to make the side of the equation has the same
product. number of atoms of each element

• We usually start here to identify the reactants • In balancing the equation, you are
and products involved in the reaction. determining the amount of product
made and the amount of reactant
required to make the product in specific
amounts

• Coefficients are used to balance

equations.

• It is important to realize that coefficients

are NOT subscripts.
Imagine you're trying to push a heavy boulder up a hill. You push
and strain, but the boulder doesn't budge. That's because you
haven't reached the activation energy needed to overcome the
hill's peak and start rolling downhill. Similarly, in chemical
reactions, molecules need a specific amount of energy to get
things moving. We call this activation energy.
The key to starting a chemical reaction is
energy!
• Most compounds in living things cannot undergo chemical
reaction without energy.
• Energy helps in bringing reactant molecules together.
• Energy helps in breaking existing bonds and forming new ones.
Substances need a specific amount of energy to get
things moving!

Activation energy is the minimum energy required

for a chemical reaction to occur.
Example#1
Burning wood: Wood doesn't spontaneously
combust at room temperature because the
activation energy for burning is high. But a spark or
high heat provides enough energy to overcome the
barrier and start the fire.
Substances need a specific amount of energy to get
things moving!
Activation energy is the minimum energy required for a chemical reaction to
occur.
Example#2
Digestion: Enzymes in our bodies act as catalysts, lowering the activation energy
needed for breaking down food molecules, allowing us to efficiently extract
energy.
Activation energy is the initial input of energy the reactant molecules
must receive before they can rearrange into the product molecules.
Activation energy also affects the reaction rate.

• The reaction rate measures how quickly a reaction can

proceed.
Higher activation energy = Slower reaction rate
Activation energy also affects the reaction rate.

Higher activation energy = Slower reaction rate

Why do you think this is?

Activation energy also affects the reaction rate.
• The reaction rate measures how quickly a reaction can proceed.
• A higher activation energy results in a slower reaction rate.

Why do you think this is?

This is because high activation energy presents a larger

barrier to getting the reaction started.
Activation energy also affects the reaction rate.

• Lower activation energy reduces the

amount of energy that must be put into the
system for the reaction to proceed.

• A lower energy requirement means the

overall reaction can happen faster.
Activation energy also affects the reaction rate.

Higher activation energy ; Lower activation;

Slower reaction rate Faster reaction rate
Energy Change in Chemical Reactions

• Exothermic reactions are chemical reactions in which energy is

released in the form of heat.
Energy Change in Chemical Reactions

• Endothermic reactions are chemical reactions in which heat energy is

absorbed.
Energy Change in Chemical Reactions

What energy change do you notice between the two reactions?

Energy Change in Chemical Reactions
• Energy of the products for exothermic reactions is lower than the energy of
the products for endothermic reactions
• Exothermic reactions, also, have a lower activation energy compared to the
reverse endothermic reaction.
Come up with a metaphor to explain this!
• Energy of the products for endothermic reactions is lower than the energy
of the products for exothermic reactions
• Exothermic reactions, also, have a lower activation energy compared to the
reverse endothermic reaction.
Energy Change in Chemical Reactions
Imagine a party! Exothermic reactions are like the excited guests who readily jump
into the dance floor, needing little encouragement. Endothermic reactions are like
wallflowers initially hesitant to join the fun, requiring some convincing to get them
moving. The activation energy acts as the bouncer at the door, deciding who gets
in and how easily.
Catalysts in Chemical Reactions

• A catalyst is a substance that can be added to a reaction to

increase the reaction rate without getting consumed in
the process.

o Decrease activation energy

o Increase the reaction rate

Example: Manganese is the catalyst found in the photosynthetic core of

plants. It helps speed of the process of photosynthesis.
Catalyst and Activation Energy
• Catalysts work to speed up the rate of reactions.

• They help reactions happen much faster because they find a shorter, easier
path for the reacting molecules to take.

• Since the reaction rate is tied to the activation energy, catalysts increase the
reaction rate by lowering the activation energy. Catalysts do this by providing
alternative reaction mechanisms that require less energy.
Catalyst and Activation Energy

Think of those molecules as tiny cars bumping around and trying to crash into
each other to make new things. Normally, they need a big boost of energy
(activation energy) to get close enough and actually react. But a catalyst comes
along and builds a little bridge between them, so they don't have to struggle as
much. They can bump into each other and make new molecules much quicker
and easier.
Catalysts in Chemical Reactions

• What are the benefits of catalysts in chemical

reactions?
Benefits of Catalysts in Chemical Reactions

• Faster reactions
• Lower energy requirements
• Controlling the chemical reaction
How Enzymes Work

1. Lower Activation Energy

• Enzymes help chemical reactions happen faster by
reducing the energy needed to get them started. Think of
it like lowering a hill on a roller coaster track, making it
easier for the reaction to "roll" downhill.
How Enzymes Work

2. Perfect Fit
• Enzymes have a special pocket called the active site that
fits the reactant molecules like a lock and key. This
precise fit ensures the reaction happens efficiently.
How Enzymes Work

3. Orient the Reactants/Strategic Positioning

• Just like a chef carefully arranges ingredients, enzymes
position the reactant (substrate) molecules in the exact
way they need to be for the reaction to occur.

• Enzymes don't just hold substrates, they arrange them

precisely like a chef prepping ingredients. This perfect
alignment makes the reaction much more efficient.
How Enzymes Work

4. Provide a Helping Hand

• Some enzymes actively participate in the reaction itself,
forming temporary bonds with the reactants (substrate)
to help push the process along. This is called covalent
catalysis.
How Enzymes Work

5. Release and Repeat

• Once the reaction is complete, the enzyme releases the
product molecules and is ready to bind with new
reactants and start the cycle again.
Let’s Get More Familiar with Enzymes
Due Tuesday, January 16, 2024
1. Consider your interests in biology, medicine, or even everyday
life. What biological processes or phenomena pique your
curiosity? Look for enzymes involved in those areas!
2. Choose an enzyme that is distinct A diverse mix of research topics will
lead to a richer class discussion.
3. Explore its structure, function, mechanism of action, and any
applications related to its biological role.
4. Analyze how the enzyme's structure (active site, cofactors) is perfectly
designed for its specific function. How does it lower activation energy
and facilitate the reaction?
5. Delve into any intriguing aspects of your chosen enzyme. Are there
unique regulatory mechanisms? Is it linked to any diseases or medical
applications?
6. Pull all of the data together into a flyer highlighting the details of your
findings.
Let’s Get More Familiar with Enzymes (Rubric)
6.3 Water and Solutions
Main Idea.
The properties of water make it well suited to help maintain homeostasis in an
organism.

• Concepts
 Polar molecules
 Types of mixtures: heterogeneous, homogeneous
 Solution, solvent, solute
 Acids and bases
 pH and buffers
Polarity
• Water is formed by covalent bonds between hydrogen
(H) and Oxygen (O) atoms.
Polarity
• Water is polar because the oxygen and hydrogen have different
electronegativity values.
• Electronegativity is a number that tells you how good an atom is at pulling
electrons towards itself. The higher the number, the stronger the pull.
Polarity
• Water molecules have a positive and negative end formed as a result
of unequal sharing of electrons between hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
• This unequal distribution makes them polar and results in the
molecules bent shape.
Polarity
Understanding water’s polarity helps us understand how tiny
molecules interact, build structures, and control crucial
processes within living organisms.

1. Water, the universal solvent.

• water acts as a universal solvent, readily dissolving polar
substances like sugars, salts, and amino acids.

2. Interaction with other Polar Molecules

• Most of the essential molecules in living things, like proteins,
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, are polar. Their polarity allows
them to interact with each other and with water, forming the
intricate structures and performing the vital functions that make
life possible.

3. Facilitation of Transportation
• Facilitating the transport of nutrients, waste products, and
signaling molecules.
Which image in below is not a
mixture?

AIR

SALAD PURE WATER

LEMONADE TRAIL MIX

What is a mixture?
A physical blend of 2 or more components together in the same
place.

The atoms of the different substances in a mixture are NOT

chemically bonded.

Each substances keeps its individual properties inside of a mixture.

All parts of a mixture are combined in a set ratio.

Mixtures can be separated into their original parts

There are two types of mixtures!!

Homogeneous

Heterogeneous
Heterogeneous Mixture
A mixture in which the composition is not
uniform. You can usually see all the
different parts and they can be easily
separated out.
• Chicken noodle soup
• Cereal
• Pizza
• Chocolate chip milkshake
• Oil and Water
Homogeneous Mixture
A mixture in which the composition is
uniform throughout; the mixture is
evenly mixed. You cannot see the
different parts.
• Air
• Soy Sauce
• Vegetable Oil
• Salt Water
• Simple Syrup
Homogeneous Mixture
(Solutions)
Solute – part of the solution that is dissolved
by the solvent.

Solvent – part of the solution in the largest

amount that dissolves the other substance.

• In a solution of salt water. The salt

is the solute and the water is the
solvent.
Homogeneous Mixture

Homogeneous mixtures are often

called solutions. A solution is a
mixture that contains a solute and a
solvent.

• Most solutions are liquids.

• Some are gases like…
Which image in below is not a
mixture?

AIR

SALAD PURE WATER

LEMONADE TRAIL MIX

 Try This!
1. Classify the following mixtures as
heterogeneous or homogeneous:
• Cup of coffee
• Sugar water
• Mouthwash
• Coca-Cola with ice
• Salt and pepper
• Blood
 Try This Answers

Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Cup of coffee Coca-Cola with ice
Sugar water Salt and Pepper
Mouthwash Blood
Heterogeneous Mixture
A mixture in which the composition is not
uniform. You can usually see all the
different parts and they can be easily
separated out.
• Chicken noodle soup
• Cereal
• Pizza
• Chocolate chip milkshake
• Oil and Water
Homogeneous Mixture
A mixture in which the composition is
uniform throughout; the mixture is
evenly mixed. You cannot see the
different parts.
• Air
• Soy Sauce
• Vegetable Oil
• Salt Water
• Simple Syrup
Homogeneous Mixture
(Solutions)
Solute – part of the solution that is dissolved
by the solvent.

Solvent – part of the solution in the largest

amount that dissolves the other substance.

• In a solution of salt water. The salt

is the solute and the water is the
solvent.
The Essence of Acids
1 Proton Donors
Acids are proton donors. They release hydrogen ions (H+) in aqueous
solutions (dissolved in water). This process is key to many biological
reactions.

2 Sour Sensation
The sour taste of acids is a sensory clue. It's nature's way of signaling
signaling potential danger or unripeness in foods.

3 Corrosive Nature
Strong acids can be corrosive. They react with metals and break down
down organic matter. This property is both useful and potentially harmful.
harmful.
Theories that Define Acids
 Arrhenius
Theory of Acids
• Acids are hydrogen containing compounds that+ionize
(by losing electrons) to yield hydrogen ions (H ) in
aqueous solution.
• Hydrogen ion (H + ) producer

• Monoprotic acids
o Example (HNO3 )

• Diprotic acids
o Example (H2 SO4 )

• Triprotic acids
o Example(H3 PO4 )
 Bronsted-Lowry
Theory of Acids
• Acids are hydrogen ion donors
• A substance that can donate a hydrogen ion (H⁺).
• In aqueous solution, it increases the
concentration of hydrogen ions.
 Lewis Theory of Acids
• Acids accept a pair of electrons during a reaction
• A Lewis acid is a substance accepts a pair of
electrons to form a covalent bond.
Acids
The Nature of Bases

1 Proton Acceptors
Bases are proton acceptors. They readily bond with
with hydrogen ions, creating OH- ions in solution.
solution.

2 Bitter Taste; Slippery Feel

Bases often feel slippery to the touch. This is due to
due to the saponification of oils on our skin.

3 Neutralizing Agents
Bases can neutralize acids. This reaction forms water
water and a salt, balancing the pH.
The Nature of Bases
4 Do NOT React with Metals

5 pH greater than 7
Theories that Define Bases
 Arrhenius
Theory of Bases
• bases are compunds that ionize to yeild hydroxide ions (OH− )
in aqueous solution.

• hydroxide ion (𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − ) producer

 Bronsted-Lowry
Theory of Bases
• Bases are hydrogen ion acceptor.
• A substance that can accepts a hydrogen ion (H⁺).
• In aqueous solutions, it increases the concentration of
hydroxide ions (OH⁻).
• Examples: NH₃ (ammonia), OH⁻ (hydroxide ion), HCO₃⁻
(bicarbonate ion).
 Bronsted-Lowry
Theory of Bases
• NH₃ (ammonia) is considered a Bronsted-Lowry base
because it accepts a hydrogen ion from water.
 Lewis
Theory of Bases
• A Lewis base is a substance donates electrons.
 pH
• pH measures acidity/basicity based on the concentration
of (H + ) in a solution.

• 7 = neutral
• <7 (lower) = acidic
• >7 (higher) = basic
The pH Scale:

Acidic Range
pH values below 7 indicate acidity. The lower the number, the
number, the stronger the acid. Acidic solutions have an
abundance of hydrogen ions (H +)

Neutral Point
A pH of 7 is neutral, like pure water. It's the balance point
point between acids and bases.

Basic Range
pH values above 7 indicate basicity. The higher the number, the
number, the stronger the base. Basic solutions have more
more hydroxide ions (OH⁻) than hydrogen ions (H+ )
The pH Scale:

Acidic Range
pH values below 7 indicate acidity. The lower the number, the
number, the stronger the acid. Acidic solutions have an
abundance of hydrogen ions (H +)

Neutral Point
A pH of 7 is neutral, like pure water. It's the balance point
point between acids and bases.

Basic Range
pH values above 7 indicate basicity. The higher the number, the
number, the stronger the base. Basic solutions have more
more hydroxide ions (OH⁻) than hydrogen ions (H+ )
Buffers: Guardians of pH Balance
Definition
A solution that resists changes in pH when acids or bases are added.
added. They're crucial in biological systems.

Examples
Bicarbonate buffer in blood, phosphate buffers
buffers in cells, and TRIS buffer in lab
experiments.
Biological Significance
The majority of biological processes carried out by cells occurs between pH
6.5 and 7.5.

Digestion Blood pH Cellular Function

Stomach acid (pH 1.5-3.5) breaks down Blood maintains a narrow pH range Intracellular pH affects enzyme activity,
food. The small intestine neutralizes range (7.35-7.45). This balance is activity, protein structure, and cellular
this acid with bases. maintained by buffers in the blood and cellular processes. Cells tightly regulate
and is crucial for enzyme function and regulate their internal pH.
and oxygen transport.
 pH Overview
1. pH measures acidity/basicity
• 7 = neutral
• <7 (lower) = acidic
• >7 (higher) = basic

2. Acids release H+ ions, increasing solution acidity

3. Bases release OH- ions, decreasing solution acidity.

4. Buffers are mixtures that can react with acids or bases

to keep their pH within a specific range.
 Significance of Acids/Bases
in Biology
• Enzymes require optimal pH for activity. How do buffer
systems maintain pH in biological systems? Discuss specific
examples like hemoglobin in blood.

• Respiration involves acid production. How does the body

regulate this acidity to maintain pH homeostasis? What are
the consequences of pH imbalances?

• Explain how the acidic environment of the stomach aids in

protein digestion. Compare and contrast with the role of
bile in the small intestine.
Indicators: Nature's pH Detectives

Flower Power
Butterfly pea flower changes from blue to purple to pink as pH decreases. It's a natural, edible indicator.

Cabbage Chemistry
Red cabbage juice is a rainbow indicator. It shifts through various colors across the pH spectrum.
spectrum.

Litmus Test
Litmus paper, derived from lichens, turns red in acids and blue in bases. It's a classic lab tool.
Chap 6 Exam Concepts
Concepts:
 Atoms are the Fundamental Building Blocks of Matter
 The Structure of Atoms Indicates How They Will React in Nature
 Elements are Collections of Atoms with the Same Identity
 Periodic Table Organizes Known and Man-made Elements
 There are Specific Elements Essential for Life
 Understanding Isotopes & Radioactive Isotopes in Biology
 Living Things Make and Produce Different Compounds
 Chemical Bonds: Ionic vs. covalent
 Van der Waals Forces
 Chemical reaction
 Chemical equations
 Balancing Chemical Equations
 Energy of reactions
 Activation energy
 Endothermic vs. exothermic
 Catalysts and Enzymes
 Polar molecules
 Types of mixtures: heterogeneous, homogeneous
 Solution, solvent, solute