TEACHING AND LEARNING

IN THE 21ST CENTURY

 Christina Furlano and Karen Pak

Major Curriculum Theorists and their Contributions

Below I have outlined a brief history of curriculum theorists and their
major publications that have contributed thought-provoking, his-
torically contextual and theoretical frameworks that aim to answer
questions relating to the purposes of education and how these pur-
poses have been formulated.

1792 - Wilhelm von Humboldt, Germany

The Spheres and Duties of Government
Wilhelm von Humboldt is considered to be one of the fathers of
modern education primarily because of his conceptualization of the
Humboldtian education ideal. Driven by the desire to marry research
and teaching, Humboldt viewed education as a way to develop both the
individual and the knowledge developed by the individual. At the core,
Humboldt believed study should allow individuals to develop their own
way of thinking and being with knowledge, supported by evidentiary rea-
soning versus the indoctrination of ideas, values and beliefs. Humboldt
is credited for integrating research and teaching in higher education,
driven by the desire to connect culture, research and teaching.

1918 - Franklin Bobbitt, United States

Scientific Method in Curriculum-Making
Franklin Bobbitt suggests that the education system, as it exists, was
developed for a previous era, the 19th century. He stated that new
methods, new materials and a new vision were required. In Bobbitt’s
view, education required a preparation of the mind for lived experi-
ences, not simply theoretical metanarratives. He proposed the use of
scientific methods in the development of curriculum through such
means as standardization and evaluation in order to create a more
specific, exact and particularized curriculum. He believed that educa-
tion and curriculum, while not capable of completely extending these
opportunities, played a critical role in achieving this end.

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1929 - John Dewey, United States

My Pedagogic Creed
John Dewey is often viewed as one of the first curriculum theorists
who advocated for the participation and inclusion of the child in the
development of his or her education. My Pedagogic Creed outlines five
statements regarding his beliefs surrounding the definition and pur-
poses of education. Central to his ideas are the dynamics of power
relationships and development of a child’s abilities and capacities. He
believed that learners are social beings constantly contributing to and
being shaped by their social interactions. The primary commonality
throughout this document centres the child as author and master of
his or her own education and learning as pertaining to society and
social interactions.

1932 - Edward L. Thorndike, United States

The Fundamentals of Learning
Edward Lee Thorndike compiled a series of experiments over a three-
year period that aimed to explore the fundamental facts of learning.
These experiments provided a foundational understanding for those in
the field of education. The book draws heavily upon the field of psych-
ology and is considered one of the first pieces to create a pathway for
the field of educational psychology.

1940 - Donalda J. Dickie, Canada

The Enterprise in Theory and Practice
Dickie accomplished tremendous academic achievements—graduat-
ing from Queen’s University, Columbia University, Oxford University
and the University of Toronto. She was instrumental in providing
direction for the education of children and teachers across Canada,
particularly in Alberta. Dickie was one of Canada’s most influential
educational leaders during the first half of the 20th century. Her deep
understanding of the nature of classrooms and her commitment to

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teaching, research and academic excellence are impressive in and of

themselves, but perhaps even more so considering the political and
social context of her time. Her interest in progressive education to pro-
mote social improvement was demonstrated by her concern with the
interconnectedness of knowledge and by promoting stories of the si-
lenced in history. In the Canadian context, Dickie was one of the first
curriculum writers to present Aboriginal children as protagonists. Her
textbook for teacher education, The Enterprise in Theory and Practice
(1940), established her as a leader in the field of education.

1949 - Ralph W. Tyler, United States

Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction
Ralph W. Tyler is recognized as having made a significant contribu-
tion to the field of curriculum development through Basic Principles of
Curriculum and Instruction, in which he created and contributed what
is called the “Tyler Rationale.” More specifically, his method high-
lighted four processes: (1) the identification of the school’s purposes,
(2) the selection of experiences used to fulfill the school’s purposes,
(3) the organization of the experiences, and (4) the development of
evaluative means to measure the school’s purposes. He is considered
one of the “Fathers of Assessment and Evaluation” and is credited for
bridging the gap between test-taking versus learning, and using the
term “evaluation” as a method of aligning testing with educational
objectives.

1962 - Lev Vygotsky, Russia

Thinking and Speech
Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist and cultural theorist. His
work in education was spurred by his belief that it was not only the
improvement of an individual’s potential but the historical expression
and growth of the human culture. Thinking and Speech (also translated
as Thought and Language), originally published in Russian in 1934,

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emphasized the power of language and how it influences individual

thinking and behaviour. His work has had significant impact on the
field of educational psychology. The delay in popularity of his work is
partially attributed to his early death. Vygotsky was Jewish and lacked
opportunities that others had in Russia at the time (Wertsch, 1988).

1968 - Philip W. Jackson, United States

Life in Classrooms
Philip W. Jackson takes the skills he observed being used by social
anthropologists studying primates at the Center for Advanced Study
in the Behaviorial Sciences (Stanford) to life in the classroom in this
seminal work. Focusing primarily on elementary schools, Jackson
writes about the experiences that develop and shape the experiences of
students and teachers alike. In particular, he focuses on the role that
schools play in the moral development of children. Life in Classrooms is
viewed as a classic with valuable insights and nuances as to how class-
rooms and those who participate in them operate.

1969 - Joseph J. Schwab, United States

The Practical: A Language for Curriculum
Joseph Schwab, a professor of Natural Sciences and Education at the
University of Chicago, held two main beliefs regarding curriculum.
First, he believed that curriculum had reached an endpoint where
it was unable to contribute meaningful growth and direction to the
field of education. Second, he believed that curriculum was far too
dependent on theories outside of education, making it impractical
and ill-fitted for the reality of teaching within classrooms. Essentially,
he problematizes the lack of continuity and segregation of teaching
particular skills via subject matter in The Practical: A Language for
Curriculum. The disconnect he observed between the theoretical basis
for the institutionalization of education and meeting human needs in
classrooms was incommensurable.

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 Christina Furlano and Karen Pak

1970 - Paulo Freire, Brazil

Pedagogy of the Oppressed
Paulo Freire is best known for his advocacy of critical pedagogy and for
coining the term “conscientization,” meaning that education could be
used to consciously shape people and society. Pedagogy of the Oppressed
received wide acclaim for its powerful observation of the relationship
between the colonized and the colonizer. Freire also problematized
traditional methods of pedagogy. He referred to this as the banking
model of education, in which students were treated as places to hold
and store information. Freire viewed the participation and involve-
ment of learners to be pivotal to the ongoing creation of knowledge.

1971 - Maxine Greene, United States

Curriculum and Consciousness
Maxine Greene focuses on the process of meaning-making for stu-
dents. She describes curriculum as constraining, focusing on standards
and prescriptive learning rather than paying attention to the individ-
ual in quest of his or her own future. In Greene’s view, imagination
and the arts need to be further developed in order to invite students to
explore their own meaning-making.

1972 - Michel Foucault, France

Archaeology of Knowledge
Foucault’s fourth book opens a discussion on a particular way of view-
ing and discussing history and its epistemological evolution. Foucault
states that the purpose is “…to uncover the principles and conse-
quences of an autochthonous transformation that is taking place in the
field of historical knowledge” (Foucault, 1972, p. 15). This stimulated
discussion on whose knowledge counts? within the field of education lets
Foucault explore the deep philosophical roots of how the development
of thoughts and ideas may have birthed particular structuralisms.

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1972 - W. James Popham, United States

Objectives
James Popham’s detailed analysis of curriculum objectives explores the
depths of curriculum planning to ensure proper student evaluation.
Complete with guidelines on creating objectives, the book emphasizes
a rational approach to curriculum planning. With a focus on clear and
measurable objectives, Popham encourages educators to be aware of
what they wish to accomplish and how to know when they have ac-
complished it. This clarity is intended for student awareness and allows
for a student-centred approach. His lists and explanations of guide-
lines help form clear, measurable objectives in hopes of ensuring that
evaluation is consistent between educators.

1978 - Ted T. Aoki, Canada

Toward Curriculum Inquiry in a New Key
Aoki’s work on curriculum inquiry made a huge impact on the
community of curriculum theorists. Through revisiting past major
theorists, Aoki shares his concerns for the future of curriculum in-
quiry, especially due to the lack of recent innovation at the time. He
notes that the bulk of research focused on Ralph Tyler’s curriculum
rationale instead of exploring new perspectives. Aoki comments on
the positive work of Eisner, Apple and others to restore the field of
curriculum studies, pushing for self-reflection, new direction and dif-
fering perspectives. Aoki suggests that curriculum cannot be centred
solely on the teacher, the student or the disciplines as such focus is
too restrictive for research. Rather, curriculum should focus on “man/
world” relationships, a view that cannot, he argues, be simplified.

1978 - William F. Pinar, United States

Reconceptualization of Curriculum Studies
In this often-cited piece, Pinar briefly revisits past curriculum theory.
At the time of publication, many curriculum theorists fell under the
“traditionalist” label, which Pinar disagreed with. Traditionalists

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typically lacked interest in developing theories and research, and

focused on “conventional wisdom.” Pinar agreed more with con-
ceptual-empiricists, who believed that curriculum objectives are not
practical and that the field of education was best researched utilizing
the differing perspectives of other fields of study. By understanding
that research is influenced by politics, reconceptualists see curriculum
in a different light and are aware that there is no escape from politics.

1982 - Mortimer J. Adler, United States

The Paideia Proposal
Adler was the chairman of The Paideia Group, which consisted of the
21 members involved in the creation of The Paideia Proposal, which
was “concerned” with the American public school system. Published
shortly after the United States required 12 years of mandatory school-
ing for all students, the Paideia Group advocated for equality in
education in order to represent a more democratic curriculum. The
proposal outlines the roles of teachers and principals in the school
community. Notably, the proposal emphasizes that all children possess
an innate curiosity and desire to learn and so no child is “unteachable.”

1989 - Peter McLaren, Canada

Life in Schools
McLaren’s work stems from his thesis, Cries from the Corridor, in which
he journalled his experiences of life in an inner-city Toronto school in
a low-income area. Life in Schools was published years later and in-
cluded these same journal entries with an analysis and critique of his
experiences. His discussion on class, race and gender issues in schools
is a thought-provoking look into the discrepancies seen in our school
system. McLaren’s insights into the views of school teachers and ad-
ministrators can be both heartbreaking and encouraging, but provide
the reader with the desire to invoke change. Life in Schools encourages
educators to empower their students through critical pedagogy and to
understand the true impact of politics on the education system.

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1993 - Michael W. Apple, United States

Official Knowledge: Democratic Education in a Conservative Age
With a focus on politics, Michael Apple explores through race, gender
and class, the relationships between schooling and society, the inequi-
ties that are evident in both, and how these are exacerbated in our
current education system. Instead of focusing on what we are teaching,
we place the focus on evaluation and organization. Interestingly and
perhaps most relevant to our times, he includes a chapter on econom-
ics and its relation to schooling. The remainder of the book provides
information on cultural knowledge, the regulation of knowledge and
the history of curriculum—issues that Apple thought to be most
prominent in curriculum.

1994 - bell hooks, United States

Teaching to Transgress
Under the pen name bell hooks, Gloria Jean Watkins advocates for
freedom and discusses how education should be focused on freedom.
With a chapter on Paulo Freire and her own personal narrative of class-
room and teaching experience, hooks examines issues of power and
oppression in education. Teaching to Transgress calls for altering the
way teachers teach in order to provide an experience where students
are excited, interested and passionate about learning.

1999 - Cynthia Chambers, Canada

A Topography for Canadian Curriculum Theory
Chambers identifies the lack of Canadian content in Canadian cur-
riculum theory. Speaking on survival and colonialism, Chambers
notes that Canada influences the way we form our views and how it
should not be influenced by Eurocentrism. Although we have a strong
and recent history of colonization, our curriculum theories, Chambers
suggests, should be focused on the place of Canada and how we became
who we are. Canadian curriculum theorists, however, face challenges.
Not only must we write from Canada, we also must write about it
and, importantly, for it. Curriculum theorists should acknowledge the

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work of other Canadian scholars as well as obtain non-academic and

Aboriginal views. These perspectives offer a more accurate view of the
Canada we live in and allow for curriculum theory to better reflect the
place that is Canada.

2001 - Elliot W. Eisner, United States

What Does it Mean to Say a School is Doing Well?
Eisner critiques the current school system that America is using to
judge how well a school is doing. He asks a multitude of questions re-
garding both student concerns and the extent of teacher development
in the school system. Ideally, Eisner envisions schooling that supports
improvised or “surprise” teaching in order to achieve a variety of goals.
The introduction of the “business model” of schools compares poor-
ly-performing schools to companies. When companies fail, they “go
out of business”; when schools perform poorly, they receive less fund-
ing and less positive attention.

2004 - Henry Giroux, Canada

Critical Pedagogy and the Postmodern/Modern Divide: Towards a
Pedagogy of Democratization
Known for his critiques on neoliberalism, Giroux discusses the future
of democratic education. Democracy, he argues, is both a political and
moral practice. Standardized testing, unjust policies and violence are
examples of societal issues that affect schools. He believes teachers
must be responsible for actively opposing neoliberalism and for being
critical of so-called neutral forms of knowledge, as well as avoid the
modern/postmodern divide that suggests we can foster either cultural
or economic perspectives but not both.

2006 - Ursula Franklin, Canada

The Ursula Franklin Reader: Pacifism as a Map
This book is a collection of over four decades of Franklin’s works and
lectures, featuring her passion for feminism, technology, education
and pacifism. A female scientist, Franklin was aware of inequalities

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in science and engineering and encouraged other women to do their

best in these male-dominated industries. Her pacifist beliefs dominate
much of her work as a humanitarian. Franklin remained involved in
the scientific world and refused to make any contributions in her field
of physics that could help promote warfare. She was the first female to
become a university professor at the University of Toronto and holds
many honourary degrees from other Canadian universities, in addition
to her many awards and acknowledgements for her work in teaching
and her dedication and contributions to equality and environmental
protection.

2009 - Dwayne Donald, Canada

Forts, Curriculum, and Indigenous Métissage
Donald suggests that our relationship with the Indigenous people of
Canada needs to be challenged and rebuilt through education. Our
current curriculum treats Indigenous people as separate from our
Canadian history. Donald calls for our curriculum to become decol-
onizing through the concept of métissage, in which the power of our
educational institutions is challenged. By highlighting the differences
between ourselves and our histories without erasing them, Donald
argues that we can create a more relational curriculum. This relational
view of education urges educators to re-examine their views and ways
of teaching Canadian history to better represent how Indigenous hist-
ory is related to our own. The next chapter in the book will tackle this
necessary narrative.

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