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A 5,000,000- volt artificial lightning discharge breaks down the resistance of 15 feet of air.

How Current Flow depends on

ßesistance and Conductance
VOL. 10, No.6 Dewey Classification R100
Many long corrugated insulators ore used to prevent electrical conduction
between the parts and framework of this high voltage rectifier.

Resistance of these units is varied by means of an electric motor.

 Ol./N('/ëCQJ Oldest: W(l(1lO.1ffO(If.

110,1f nffiff
er,,/:,

RESISTANCE AND CONDUCTION

It is absolutely necessary in the study of any electrical

subject
to have a complete understanding of the three important quantities
that govern the operation of every electrical circuit. These quan-
tities are current, electromotive force and resistance. However,
before one can really say he understands the relation between the
flowing in a circuit, or part of a circuit, to
amount of current
electrical pressure that forces the current to flow
the amount of
he must also have a good working knowledge of the quantity "Resis-
tance".
and con-
Hence, in this lesson we will deal chiefly with resistance
duction, the latter being the inverse of resistance. The subjects
pertain to explanations about different materials and their char-
acteristics with regard to the ease or difficulty with which cur-
will
rent will flow through them; also, how a change in temperature
the calculation of the re-
change the resistance of a material; and
on. Our next lesson will explain in de-
sistance of wire, and so
quanti-
tail about the electrical circuit itself and how the three
electromotive force and resistance,
ties mentioned above, current,
which was
are always associated together in a definite relationship
electrical science the
discovered by George Simon Ohm, who gave to
famous and invaluable Ohm's Law.

It will be seen that resistance has to do with

different kinds of
materials that are used in the construction of an electrical cir-
offer to the progress-
cuit and the opposition that such materials
from atom to atom through the mate-
ive movement of its electrons,
whenever pressure is suitably applied. It is to be remember-
rial,
and that the
ed that the electron in motion is the electric current
value of the current is measured in the unit "ampere".
for
Also, the pressure or electromotive force that is responsible and
causing the electron movement is measured in the unit "volt",
of
the resistance of the material which hinders the free movement
the electrons is measured in the unit "ohm". These units have
already been defined in a previous lesson.

The word "resistance" should be familiar to everyone since it is

frequently encountered in our every day life, and wherever the word
an "opposition"
is used it generally has one meaning which expresses
of some sort.

Copyright 1932 by RCA Institutes. Inc. -1- V-10 #6 ,.

2

Many examples could be given showing how this applies but the fol-
lowing ones are sufficient. If you undertake to do any kind of
work, and regardless of whether the task requires mental or physi-
cal effort, there are oppositions in one form or another that must
be met and overcome before the work can be accomplished. Just what
these oppositions are will depend, of course, upon the nature of the
work. When you walk or run there are oppositions or resistances
constantly present that retard your action. No doubt you have had
the experience of rowing a boat through rough water, or against the
tide, and found that a much greater effort was required to make the
boat move forward than if the water were smooth and calm. Even in
the latter case, that is, with the water smooth, the pull on the
oars (which represents the energy expended in overcoming the oppo-
sition of the water which otherwise would prevent the forward move-
ment of the boat) is often sufficient to tire out, in a short time,
anyone but a strong person.

A good analogy is always at hand in the case of hydraulics, or water

running through a pipe under a certain head pressure, to illustrate
the relation existing between pressure, rate of flow, and opposition
of resistance. It is easy to understand that water will flow fast
or slow according to the pressure, but the oppositions in any par-
ticular system also have an important bearing on the rate of the
flow as we will explain. Water running through a pipe, even under
a strong head pressure, is retarded to some extent because as it
rushes along it is constantly in contact with the inner walls of the
pipe and this creates a certain amount of friction. If the pipe has
a fairly large diameter, and its inner surfaces are clean and smooth
the water will then flow with comparative ease, but if rust and silt
are allowed to collect in the same pipe, either along its length, or
at bends, elbows or joints, it will require more pressure to force
the same quantity of water through than in the first case, or when
the pipe was clean.

Thus we see that rust and silt form an obstruction, or resistance

to the movement of water and this must be added to other oppositions
in the pipe line. In general, the various oppositions in a water
supply system would include the inner wall resistance as determined
by the total length of the pipe and its inner surface condition,
that is, whether smooth or rough, the pitch of the pipe at different
locations, the area of cross section, and the size of the pipe at
the end where the water flows out, the latter usually being regu-
lated by a valve.

Now suppose that instead of thinking of the opposition or resis-

tance presented to the flow of water by any piping system we thought
of this system only in terms of the ease with which water was con-
ducted through it. We could then compare two different systems
and say that one conducted water more readily than the other. Here
we have the use of the word "conducted" and it is evident that we
have simply another way of looking at the same conditions. So,
whether we say that the latter system has a higher resistance to
water flow than the former we would in either case have conveyed
the same idea. This illustrates the practical use of the terms
"resistance" and "conduction".

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. Similar conditions of resistance and con-

duction are met with in the case of an electric current flowing

V-10 #6
 cA(N('/7(QJ V.l(1Pff W(l(!l(7,1(-1OO1.

HOME OFFICE
j, Jrtc% 1 free/. J:eiu%i,d

RESISTANCE AND CONDUCTION

It is absolutely necessary in the study of any electrical subject

to have a complete understanding of the three important quantities
that govern the operation of every electrical circuit. These quan-
tities are current, electromotive force and resistance. However,
before one can really say he understands the relation between the
amount of current flowing in a circuit, or part of a circuit, to
the amount of electrical pressure that forces the current to
flow
he must also have a good working knowledge of the quantity "Resis-
tance".
con-
Hence, in this lesson we will deal chiefly with resistance and
duction, the latter being the inverse of resistance. The subjects
pertain to explanations about different materials and their char-
acteristics with regard to the ease or difficulty with which cur-
will
rent will flow through them; also, how a change in temperature
of material; and the calculation of the re-
change the resistance a
sistance of wire, and so on. Our next lesson will explain in de-
tail about the electrical circuit itself and how the three quanti-
ties mentioned above, current, electromotive force and resistance,
was
are always associated together in a definite relationship which
discovered by George Simon Ohm, who gave to electrical science the
famous and invaluable Ohm's Law.

It will be seen that resistance has to do with different

kinds of
materials that are used in the construction of an electrical cir-
cuit and the opposition that such materials offer to the progress-
ive movement of its electrons, from atom to atom through the
mate-
rial, whenever pressure is suitably applied. It is to be remember-
ed that the electron in motion is the electric current and that
the
value of the current is measured in the unit "ampere".
for
Also, the pressure or electromotive force that is responsible
causing the electron movement is measured in the unit "volt", and
the resistance of the material which hinders the free movement
of
the electrons is measured in the unit "ohm". These units have
already been defined in a previous lesson.

The word "resistance" should be familiar to everyone since it is

frequently encountered in our every day life, and wherever the word
is used it generally has one meaning which expresses an "opposition"
of some sort.

Copyright 1932 by RCA Institutes. Inc. -1- V-lO #6°7¡7

2

Many examples could be given showing how this applies but the fol-
lowing ones are sufficient. If you undertake to do any kind of
work, and regardless of whether the task requires mental or physi-
cal effort, there are oppositions in one form or another that must
be met and overcome before the work can be accomplished. Just what
these oppositions are will depend, of course, upon the nature of the
work. When you walk or run there are oppositions or resistances
constantly present that retard your action. No doubt you have had
the experience of rowing a boat through rough water, or against the
tide, and found that a much greater effort was required to make the
boat move forward than if the water were smooth and calm. Even in
the latter case, that is, with the water smooth, the pull on the
oars (which represents the energy expended in overcoming the oppo-
sition of the water which otherwise would prevent the forward move-
ment of the boat) is often sufficient to tire out, in a short time,
anyone but a strong person.

A good analogy is always at hand in the case of hydraulics, or water

running through a pipe under a certain head pressure, to illustrate
the relation existing between pressure, rate of flow, and opposition
of resistance. It is easy to understand that water will flow fast
or slow according to the pressure, but the oppositions in any par-
ticular system also have an important bearing on the rate of the
flow as we will explain. Water running through a pipe, even under
a strong head pressure, is retarded to some extent because as it
rushes along it is constantly in contact with the inner walls of the
pipe and this creates a certain amount of friction. If the pipe has
a fairly large diameter, and its inner surfaces are clean and smooth
the water will then flow with comparative ease, but if rust and silt
are allowed to collect in the same pipe, either along its length, or
at bends, elbows or joints, it will require more pressure to force
the same quantity of water through than in the first case, or when
the pipe was clean.

Thus we see that rust and silt form an obstruction, or resistance

to the movement of water and this must be added to other oppositions
in the pipe line. In general, the various oppositions in a water
supply system would include the inner wall resistance as determined
by the total length of the pipe and its inner surface condition,
that is, whether smooth or rough, the pitch of the pipe at different
locations, the area of cross section, and the size of the pipe at
the end where the water flows out, the latter usually being regu-
lated by a valve.

Now suppose that instead of thinking of the opposition or resis-

tance presented to the flow of water by any piping system we thought
of this system only in terms of the ease with which water was con-
ducted through it. We could then compare two different systems
and say that one conducted water more readily than the other. Here
we have the use of the word "conducted" and it is evident that we
have simply another way of looking at the same conditions. So,
whether we say that the latter system has a higher resistance to
water flow than the former we would in either case have conveyed
the same idea. This illustrates the practical use of the terms
"resistance" and "conduction".

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE. Similar conditions of resistance and con-

duction are met with in the case of an electric current flowing

V-10 #6
 3
through a circuit. First will be discussed the subject of resis-
tance, and following that the subject of conduction.

Although the amount of current passing through a circuit depends

primarily upon the amount of pressure that causes it to flow, yet
the fact remains that the current strength is limited by the resis-
tance of the circuit. Resistance is a property possessed by all
substances that opposes the free movement of electricity through
them. All materials have this property, but in some it is more
pronounced than in others, and as a result substances are classified
under two heads, namely: conductors and non-conductors or insula-
tors.

After all, the resistivity of substances is only comparative and,

therefore, it can be said that conductors are those materials which
offer relatively low resistance to current flow and insulators are
those which offer a very high resistance as compared to conductors.
For all practical purposes an insulator is supposed to completely
block the flow of current, and high grade insulators come very near
doing this even when subjected to excessively high voltages.

Just how much a certain material will oppose current flow depends
in general upon its natural properties, its physical dimensions, or
size, and its temperature.

DEFINITION OF A STANDARD OHM. The unit in which resistance in meas-

ured is the OHM, as heretofore stated. Resistance is represented by
the letter (R) and the electrical unit "ohm" is designated by the
symbol (IL) which is the Greek letter Omega.

The standard value of an ohm is defined as that resistance offered

to an unvarying electric current by a column of pure mercury 106.3
centimeters long, of uniform cross-sectional area, and weighing
14.4521 grams at a temperature of melting ice, or 0 degrees Centi-
grade, which is the same as 32 degrees Fahrenheit.

Although the following does not strictly define an ohm, and only
expresses the relationship of an ohm to voltage and current, yet it
is often called a definition. "An ohm is said to be that resistance
possessed by a circuit which allows one ampere of current to pass
when an electromotive force of one volt is applied to the circuit".

RESISTANCE IN A D -C CIRCUIT. In a direct -current circuit resistance

can be calculated very easily inasmuch as the only opposition pre-
sented to the current is by the materials which comprise the circuit
and since all circuits are made up mainly of wire of some kind or
other then the opposition is due principally to the wire. It is only
at the closing or opening of a direct current circuit that oppositions
other than the resistance of the wires are introduced which affect
the flow of current. When the current reaches its steady value and
flows without interruption in a d -c circuit, then only the resistance
of the materials limits the current.

RESISTANCE IN AN A -C CIRCUIT. Current flow in an alternating cur-

rent circuit is affected similarly by the materials and wires as in
a d -c circuit, and also by another form of resistance due to the

V-10 #6
4

inductance of the circuit. This is explained as follows: In an

circuit the current is constantly changing in intensity and
a -c
this current produces magnetic lines of force which likewise change
in magnitude. Hence, in an a -c circuit an electromotive force is
induced in the wires and coils which make up the circuit, this being
accounted for by the action of the changing lines of force cutting
the very wires in and around which they exist. In every case the
induced e.m.f. opposes any change in current strength.

The induced e.m.f. may reach comparatively high values and serious-
ly retard the current if coils are used which have too many turns
of wire which would set up an excessively strong varying magnetic
field around the coil for the particular circuit in question. Thus,
we say that an a -c circuit contains inductance due to the wires
used in the construction of apparatus and the wires used to supply
power and connect the parts. We particularly think of inductance
in the use of a coil because of the greater concentration of the
lines of force in a given space when the conductors are wound in
the form of a coil.

The e.m.f. induced in an a -c circuit (because of changing current

and consequent action of the magnetic lines on the conductors and
which tends at all times to oppose the changes in current as just
explained) is a form of resistance called inductive reactance,
which is measured in the same unit "ohm" as is the usual resistance
presented by the wires or materials.

Now if an a -c circuit contains capacitance, such as could be easily

provided by inserting a condenser in a circuit, there still will be
another form of resistance present, because the a -c current will
charge this condenser. Suppose the condenser used mica between its
metal conducting plates. The mica will take on an electric charge
but in so doing the current does not actually pass through this
material as in the case of a copper wire. This is because the atoms
of the mica (the mica is an insulating material) do not possess the
necessary free electrons that can be forced to move progressively
from atom to atom of the material, but rather what happens is the
electrons in the mica atoms are merely pushed to one side, or shift
ed slightly from their usual positions in the atoms by the e.m.f.
in the circuit. It requires an expenditure of force, or a certain
amount of e.m.f. to cause this displacement of electrons in the
atoms of the mica, and when in this stressed condition, the conden-
ser is said to be charged. This form of resistance is called ca-
pacitive reactance, and it is also measured in the unit "ohm".

The student should know right from the start that current does not
flow through insulating materials because such materials are lack-
ing in free electrons which are the conductors of electricity, but
an insulating material used in a condenser gives the effect of cur-
rent passing through it since it can be charged and discharged by
the action of its electrons being displaced in one case, and re-
turning to their normal or unstressed positions in the other.

Thus, if an alternating current circuit contains coils and conden-

sers, or as we would ordinarily say, inductance and capacitance,

V-10 #6
 5

there will be three different forms of resistance present and act-

ing at the same time. To sum up our statements, the three resis-
tances are as follows:
(A) Resistance presented by the materials.
(B) Resistance due to inductive reactance.
(C) Resistance due to capacitive reactance.

Combining these resistances and knowing that they all affect the
flow of current we have a term which expresses the sum total of the
oppositions; this term is impedance. In our a -c circuits we will
again come to this subject of impedance.

From these preliminary facts it is apparent that resistance is a

factor to be considered in all alternating and direct current cir-
cuits. In a d -c circuit resistance is found in only one form, but
in an a -c circuit it is present in more than one form as just out-
lined. The reason for again referring to this is because we often
want to distinguish between resistance that materials of the cir-
cuit offer from other resistances due to the presence of inductance,
or capacitance, or both. The resistance due to natural physical
properties of materials or wires used is referred to as ohmic resis-
tance.

It should now be clear that no electrical circuit could be designed

without having some resistance. In some cases an excessive amount
of resistance is undesirable and in other cases resistance is in-
serted purposely to limit the flow of current. Keep in mind that
all substances have this property and that metals in general have
by far less resistance than other substances. Therefore, it is
obvious why metals serve best as carrying agents of electricity.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTANCE. Conductance is just the inverse of resis-

tance as we explained before, and its unit of measurement is the
MHO, which is OHM spelled backwards. It expresses the ease with
which current will flow in a conducting medium, that is, it in-
dicates the ease with which electrons can be made to move in a pro-
gressive order between the atoms of a material when an electrical
pressure is supplied.

EXAMPLES. If a certain conductor, or circuit

has a resistance of (R) ohms, its conductance
will equal unity (1) divided by (R), that is,
1.4-R. For example, if the resistance of three
resistors were respectively 1C ohms, 400 ohms,
and 5 ohms, the conductance for each would equal
1/10 mho, 1/400 mho, and 1/5 mho.

The unit "mho" is not used to any great extent

in our work and when used it is in the calcula-
tion of the resistance of a divided circuit. To
find the resistance of a divided or parallel cir-
cuit in terms of conductance the following
rule should be used. Add the conductances of
the several branches in order to first obtain
the total conductance of the combination, and
this result when inverted will give the total
resistance of the combination -

V -10 íí6
6

Other examples of the use of the term conductance are as follows:

EXAMPTFS. Inverted means that if the conduc-
tance of a combination were found to be 1/15,
this fraction inverted would become 15/1, and
15 -
1 equals 15, and the combination would
have a resistance of 15 ohms; or, if we had
3/16 mhos as the conductance, this fraction in-
verted would be 16/3, and working this out, we
would get 5.3 ohms as an answer. Additional ex-
planations are given about parallel circuits in
the lesson dealing with Ohm's law.

THE USE OF THE TERMS "RESISTANCE" AND "RESISTOR". Resistance is a

property of all materials which opposes the free flow of an electric
current, as we already know, but considering only the word itself,
or "resistance", it is common knowledge that is is used loosely to
indicate or identify any device made especially to be inserted in
a circuit to limit the current flow. The proper term to apply to
a piece of equipment intended for this purpose is "resistor". The
term resistance, in its more correct use, is the inherent opposition
offered by all substances to the flow of electrical current.

Three names in general use which designate resistance units are

Resistor, Rheostat, and Potentiometer. You will become very famil-
iar with these terms as you advance in your studies. Resistance
devices are made up in innumerable sizes and shapes to meet any
practical condition.
-_-Terminals---,

Contad
Arm

Figure 1
'Contact
Figure 3
Re*stance
Between Contacts Studf

Figure 2 Figure 4
RHEOSTAT. When a resistance unit is constructed to permit the
amount of resistance it contains to be altered, it is called a
"rheostat". Two terminal connections are provided for such a unit;
one of the connections goes to the movable contact arm which is
firmly pressed against the wire by a spring, and the other to one end
of the wire. By simply moving the arm across the wire it makes con-
tact on different portions and, hence, more or less of the resis-
tance wire will be included in the circuit in which the device is
connected. This action is expressed by saying that resistance is
cut in or cut out of the circuit. Thus, by the use of a rheostat
current in a circuit can be controlled.

One form of rheostat is shown in Figure 1. Figure 2 illustrates a

commercial type rheostat for regulating current in the field coils
of a motor or generator. It is made with tap connections taken from
different portions of the wire, and these taps terminate at brass

V-10 #6
 7

studs or segments. In this type, when the contact arm or handle is

moved over the studs, from one end to the other, sections of the
wire are successively cut in or out, and the change in resistance
causes the current supplied to the fields to be increased or de-
creased as the case may be. The resistance of the rheostat in
Figure 2 is varied in sections, or, as we usually say, in steps, but
the resistance of the rheostat in Figure 1 is continuously variable
since the contact, on the arm slides along the wire itself.

Resistor -Fixed Type. If there is no need for varying the current

during the operation of a circuit, then resistors of the fixed type
can be used to control the flow of current. The resistances of
fixed resistors cannot be altered since no mechanical means are
provided for doing so. An exception to this is in the case of
fixed resistors wound with special wire which changes its resistance
with changes in current strength, and these are used to provide
automatic regulation for certain kinds of work. Figures 3 and 4
show fixed resistors.

FIG. 5 - WIRE WOUND FIXED RESISTOR.

Potentiometer. The long narrow resistor in Figure 5 consists of
many feet of resistance wire wound on a rod of insulating material
with tapped connections taken from the wire at certain intervals.
A unit of this kind is called a "potentiometer" and its function in
EXCITER VOLUME EXCITER VOLUME
LAMP INDICATING LAMP CONTROL
AMMETER METER AMMETER

INPUT PLUG FADER EXCITER LAMP

AND SOCKET POTENTIOMETER RHEOSTATS

FIG.6 -EACH CONTROL KNOB SHOWN

IS USED TO VARY RESISTANCE.

a circuit is different from that of either a rheostat or fixed re-

sistor. Although a potentiometer is physically a resistance device
it is not used to limit current flow in a circuit but is used as a
convenient method to supply voltages of different amounts to one or
more circuits that may be suitably connected to the various termin-
als. Suppose for the sake of explanation that a battery having an
e.m.f. of 30 volts was connected to the extreme ends of this poten-
tiometer, then certain intermediate values of e.m.f. between 0 and
30 volts could be obtained at the taps. Since a potentiometer is
primarily a voltage dividing device it is not referred to as a re-
sistor. Potentiometers are built with resistances ranging all the
way from a hundred ohms or less to several hundred thousand ohms.

V-10 #6
8

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS. A few examples of typical resistors built

for various purposes are now given. Bear in mind that all of these
resistors function in a similar way insofar as the electrical cir-
cuit is concerned.

Figure 6 is the front view of an input control panel made for use
in certain types of sound picture equipment. In this view is seen
the controls, while the resistors themselves are shown in the rear
view in Figure 7. There are two rheostats of the continuously va-
riable type used to control the amount of current passing through
the exciter lamps. One of the two potentiometers is used to con-
trol the output current to the loudspeaker when changing from one
projector to the other. It is so arranged that when the current
from one amplifier to the loudspeaker is decreased, the current from
the second amplifier is increased, which keeps the sound volume from

EXCITER LAMP RESISTANCE VOLUME

AMMETER UNITS INDICATOR METER

EXCITER
LAMP
AMMETER

PHOTO CELL
PROTECTIVE
RESISTOR

EXCITER VOLUME EXCITER

LAMP FADER CONTROL LAMP
RHEOSTAT POTENTIOMETER RHEOSTAT RHEOSTAT

FIG. 7 --VARIOUS TYPES OF RESISTORS

FORM PART OF TRIS INPUT CONTROL PANEL.
the loudspeaker at the same level while the change is being made.
This is called a "fader". The other potentiometer is used for the
volume control. A fixed resistor is employed to control the current
flowing in the photo -cell circuit.

The schematic diagram in Figure 8 illustrates the manner in which

the rheostats are connected in the circuit. Figure 9 shows the vol-
ume control connections, while the fader connections are given in
Figure 10.
The partially completed rheostat shown in Figure 11 is constructed along
the lines of the rheostat in Figure 2. This particular type made by the
Ward Leonard Co. is a Vitrohm dimmer plate before the application of
the protective enamel coating to the resistance wire and the contacts.

The large motor -driven rheostat illustrated on one cover is used in

theatres for dimming the stage lights. To provide the necessary
changes in light a rheostat of this kind must be capable of handling
hundreds of amperes and, therefore, it is very rugged in constructior
as the photograph indicates.

V-10 #6
 9

In Figure 12 are two illustrations showing a more recent application of

resistors in the ignition systems of automobiles equipped with radio
sets. Small resistors of the order of 25,000 ohms are used with each
spark plug and the main high tension wire from the distributor head
to suppress radio -frequency current which otherwise would seriously
interfere with the clarity of the broadcast heard in the loudspeaker.

MATERIALS USED FOR RESISTANCE PURPOSES-ALLOYS. All electrical pieces

of equipment built to give a predetermined amount of resistance are
constructed, for practical and economical reasons, with the least
amount of material and made into a unit of suitable physical propor-
tions as governed by the use to which the part will be put.

DEVICE TO BE DEVICE TO 8E_

CONTROLLED--" CONTROLLED

I
t
SOURCE OF SOURCE OF
SUPPLY SUPPLY

FIG. 9--A CIRCUIT

FIG. 8-- SCHEMATIC OF ARRANGEMENT FOR
A RHEOSTAT CONNECTION. VOLUME CONTROL.
To grasp the importance of the idea of size in devices of this kind,
just consider for a moment how much copper wire would be required
to give a resistance of some comparatively low value, let us say
100 ohms. This can best be explained if we suppose that the resis-
tor shown in Figure 3 has a resistance of 100 ohms. To construct a
resistor of equivalent value, or 100 ohms, would take about 10,000
feet of copper wire, provided we used a No. 20 B. & S. gauge wire,
and the copper would weigh approximately 30 lbs. A No. 20 wire has
a diameter of 31.961 mils or .C3196 inch. These figures are based
on the data given in the "Wire Table" at the end of this lesson.

LL LL
o< OFF
ON
OM
ON .

no PROJ A
y PROJ B ao
r-.a
-ct
on_
0
oa
0

INPUT TO.
VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER y '-MOVABLE ARM

FIG. 10 -VARIABLE RESISTANCE IS

USED IN A FADER UNIT.
its low resistivity,
It is easy to see that copper wire, because of
suited for use as a resistance material and, furthermore,
is not
bulk of copper would make its use
the high cost of such a large
for this purpose. Copper is, however, the most widely
prohibitive
used material for electrical conductors because of its low resis-
for con-
tivity. Iron wire and aluminum wire are extensively used
of about 7 times that of
ductors, the iron having a resistivity wire is
about 1.6 times. Galvanized iron
copper and the aluminum
used on many telegraph lines.
so on have
Since pure metals such as copper, iron, aluminum and which
comparatively low resistivity it is necessary to use materials

V-10 #6
10

are alloys to obtain high resistances with reasonably small amounts

of material. Alloys are combinations of different materials and are
manufactured expressly to give high resistances. The resistance of
an alloy can be made much higher than the resistance of the pure
metals alone, that is, when not in the combination. Of course, the
resistance of any alloy will depend upon the
nature of the metals and the percentage of
each used. Moreover, alloys are prepared
with great care to obtain non -corrosive
materials that will remain practically with-
out change in resistance at different tempera-
tures. Materials in this class should re-
main as nearly constant as possible under
normal working conditions. There are some
alloys used for the specific purpose of auto-
matically limiting the current in a circuit;
the resistance of such materials changes con-
siderably for changes in temperature. This
kind of alloy is used to make the photo -cell
protective resistor shown in Figure 7.
FIG. 11- RESISTANCE
FIRE IN PLACE BEFORE The resistivity of an alloy is greater than
PROTECTIVE ENAMEL IS pure metals like copper, iron, aluminum,
APPLIED.
nickel, zinc, chronium and so on. This is
explained y the following example. An alloy, such as manganin, con-
sists of three metals, namely; copper, nickel, and iron -manganese and
when combined in certain proportions the alloy can be made to have a
resistance of three or four hundred ohms for each foot of wire when
the wire is drawn to a diameter of .001 inch. Alloys of some of the
materials mentioned above are made to give a resistance of more than
600 ohms per foot when in the form of a wire .001 inch in diameter.
Notice that a foot of wire of .001 inch diameter is used as a unit
for comparison of materials. This is known as
a "milfoot". Monel metal is an alloy of ap-
proximately 71 per cent nickel, 27 per cent ílI1
copper, and 2 per cent iron. Constantan,
another alloy used in rheostats and measur- BINDING POST
ing instruments, consists approximately of TYPE DISTRIBUTOR
USING SPARK-PLUG
60 per cent copper and 40 per cent nickel. TYPE SUPPRESSOR.
In commercial practice we find rheostats
and resistors constructed of rods, disks,
strips of the resistance material, and re-
sistance wire wound in coils, and so on.
One type consists simply of a metallized de-
posit on a form of insulating material.

The wires wound on the parts shown in

Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are alloys of
different kinds. A resistor of one type may
use iron wire and another may use carbon
ground up and placed in tubes shaped in
different forms, and so on. Since some
heat is developed by these units the re-
sistance wires on the parts in Figures 1
and 3 are wound on forms of a non -inflam-
mable fibre material while porcelain is
FIG.12 - RESISTORS USED
IN AUTOMOBILE IGNITION
used to hold the wires in Figures 2 and 4. SYSTEM TO ELIMINATE
INTERFERENCE.
Engineers who design electrical equipment for healing and other pur-
poses take a great deal of care in selecting the proper material so

V-10 #6 :
 11

that it will have the desired resistance and, not only that, the
material must have sufficient cross-sectional area to be capable of
radiating from its surface whatever heat is generated in the material
by the current, at a rate that will never permit the temperature to
rise high enough to damage the wire or insulation if this is used.

The dissipation of heat is measured in watts since the heat is due

to the power supplied which in turn is represented by the voltage
and current in the circuit. You will recall that a watt equals a
volt multiplied by an ampere, the watt being the unit of electrical
power. Every wire has its safe current -carrying capacity and if
operated within the current limits specified excess temperature con-
ditions will not exist.

RESISTANCE OF VATERIALS CHANGES WITH TEMPERATURE. In any of its

forms a resistance material, or any conductor of electricity, dis-
sipates a certain amount of heat proportionate to the current
strength and resistance of the material. This relation of current
(I) and resistance (R) is referred to as the "I R" loss, or heat
loss. Changes in temperature of a material alter its resistance,
but so long as the temperature remains constant the resistance will
remain unchanged.

In general, the resistance of metals increases with a rise in tem-

perature. Carbon is an example of a material that decreases in
resistance with an increase in temperature. Other substances that
exhibit this same peculiarity are porcelain, glass, and electrolytes.
The latter name refers to solutions of water and various salts and
acids. A solution of sulphuric acid and water such as is used in
lead -acid type storage batteries is called an "electrolyte".

Another curious fact is that a certain substance will have the prop-
erty of an insulator when cold, but that of a conductor when heat-
ed. This property exists to a very small degree in the carbon lamp
filament which has a resistance when cold about twice that which it
has when heated to incandescense.

Since in every wire or conductor the electrical energy consumed in

setting up a flow of current (that is, in overcoming the resistance
of the conducting materials) is turned into heat, then it can be
said that some heat is produced in all kinds of electrical apparatus
when current is flowing. The heat generated in overcoming electric-
al resistance is comparable to heat generated by mechanical friction
in the moving parts of machinery.

Certain types of electrical equipment are made expressly for heat-

ing purposes such as electric soldering irons, toasters, percolators,
electric heaters and so on. In all equipment of this kind the heat
generated is put to a useful purpose. On the other hand, when heat
is generated where it is not needed it is wasteful and represents a
loss of energy. For instance, in an electric lamp which is used
only to produce light the heat set up is a loss, and in an electric
motor which is used to produce mechanical motion the heat developed
by the parts is just so much energy wasted. The function of any
resistor or rheostat which is used to regulate the flow of current
is to absorb a certain amount of electrical energy applied to a
circuit and this energy will be transformed into heat in this part,
and this reduces the amount of energy available to other parts for

V-10 #6
12
performing useful work. In any resistance device used for limiting
current the energy is wasted in heat instead of performing useful
work.

Most of the electrical energy in a circuit may go into heat energy,

or less of it may go into heat and more into other forms of energy.
In an electric lamp, as just mentioned, heat and light energy are
both present. In an active antenna system of a broadcast or comm-
ercial transmitter the electrical energy in the conductors is trans-
formed into heat energy and, besides, energy is given off in the
form of electromagnetic waves radiated into space. we can neither
feel nor see the effects of radio waves in space but our senses per-
mit us to detect the presence of heat and light energy.

Special care is exercised in manufacturing electrical apparatus to

keep the heat produced down to a safe value and in many installa-
tions provisions are made to carry off excessive heat in certain
parts by various means, as for instance, by employing special in-
sulating oil, fan blowers, cooling coils through which water cir-
culates, and so on. These precautions are necessary to prevent an
excessive rise in temperature of the parts that might be the poss-
ible cause of a breakdown of the equipment.
COOLING FINS

CAPACITOR FILTER POWER

PACK REACTOR TRANSFORMER

AU5N-PULL
INPOT
TRANSFORME0.

LOUDSPEAKER
FIELD SUPPLY
RECEPTACLE

UX.250
SOCKETS TRANSFORMER
TERMINAL STRIP UN -281
SOCKETS

. c.
NPUT PLUG
powea
FIG. 13 -HEAT IS DISSIPATED BY
MEANS OF THE COOLING FINS.
Figure 13 shows the units "T" of a dry metallic type rectifier used
in sound picture installations to change alternating current into
direct current. The passage of current through the unit causes
considerable heat to be developed, and the "fins" shown in the
photograph are used to quickly dissipate this heat by means of the
large surface which they present to the surrounding air.

Friction-Heat and the Electron. In support of the fact that con-

ductors do become warm when current flows and more heat is develop-
ed in some substances than in others, we have the electron theory
which tells us that there is friction between electrons and the atoms
among which they circulate in travelling through a material. It is
thought that heat is produced in a wire or other conductor when cur-
rent flows because of the countless numbers of collisions that occur
between the electrons and atoms as the electrons are forcibly moved
from atom to atom by the e.m.f., or pressure. Thus, an electron en-
counters friction and wherever there is friction present a certain

V-10 #b
 13

amount of heat will be generates. Also, if a comparatively small

current passes through a large sized wire then only a very small
amount of heat will be produced, perhaps not sufficient to be notice-
con-
able. The same current in a much smaller wire might produce
siderable heat. If the electrons had to travel through a long path
one would increase the total friction and the
rather than a short it
total resistance, hence, more heat would be generated.

as
Keep in mind that there is friction encountered by each electronatoms
it becomes attached to, and detached from, the large
number of
which make up the conducting materials in circuits. The possible
differences in the number and arrangement of the electrons gives us
set up between the moving elec-
a plausible reason why the friction
trons and atoms is greater in some substances than in others. In
course, only the property of a
this instance we are considering, of
its size, or cross-sectional area, as in the case
substance and not
of wires of different gauge.

Now consider the heat effects in two wires of equal length but one
having double the cross-section area of the other and the same num-
ber of electrons moving in each wire. For the purpose of explana-
tion assume that the electrons travel not only in the same direct-
ion but in sort of parallel rows. Electrons will be packed more
closely together in the small wire than in the large one, consequent-
ly the total friction resulting in the large wire will be only half
as great as in the small one.

EXAMPLES OF LOSS OF POWER DUE TO HEAT. Suppose a power transformer

(which has no moving parts and is used merely to transform an a -c
voltage of one value to an a -c voltage of either a higher or lower
value) is supplied with 50 kilowatts of electrical power at its in-
put side, and suppose that the transformer delivers from its output
side only 48.8 kilowatts of electrical power. For this particular
transformer operating under certain conditions the electrical power
in kilowatts that is lost in producing heat which is not wanted, is
5O-48.8 or 1.2 kilowatts.
Hence, we can conclude that in all electrical apparatus there is
a certain amount of wastage due to heat which is unavoidable and
this must be kept down to a minimum by careful design and proper
operation of the equipment.

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORSS

If we consider from the viewpoint of the electron theory what

happens in a material when it is subjected to an electric pressure
it will make it fairly easy for most anyone to understand what
causes the difference in electrical action between conductors and
insulators. It will also help to further impress one with the con-
venience of this theory in accounting for the actions that go on
unseen in electrical circuits. Once again, let us state that a
movement or so-called drift of electrons from one place to another
through any medium, whether it be a metal, a liquid, or air, in
every case the electron flow constitutes an electric current.

V-10 #6
14

According to the electron theory the atoms of one material natural-

ly possess more or less free electrons than the atoms of some other
material. Although the free electrons revolve rapidly about the
positive nucleus of the atom they are not so firmly bound to it as
are another group or inner circle of electrons which also whirl con-
stantly about the same nucleus and remain associated with it. In
each atom there are perhaps but one or two free electrons that can
be forced out of their usual positions away from their parent atom
by an e.m.f. After being detached from their parent atom these elec-
trons will be moved to some other atom and in turn one or two elec-
trons will be detached from that atom and will move to another atom,
and so on. This movement or exchange of electrons from atom to atom
occurs in the same direction as the pressure or e.m.f. which is forc-
ing them to move.

Since the electron itself is electricity then the conduction of cur-

rent through any substance is brought about by the movement of elec-
trons. Thus, it is easy to figure out that if the atoms of a certain
material have a sufficient number of free electrons available, then
under a properly applied pressure there will be a flow of current.
That is to say, electrons will move progressively from atom to atom
through the material from one end to the other, or between the points
where the pressure is applied. Hence, any material that is said to
pass an electrical current is called a conductor. Also, that is why
we call any metallic path, or other medium through which an electri-
cal current can be made to flow, a conductive circuit.

Now, on the contrary, if the atoms of a certain substance have prac-

tically no free electrons for the conduction of electricity then it
is reasonable to suppose that such a substance will offer a compara-
tively high opposition to the flow of current, or in other words its
resistivity will be high. In certain materials there is no conduc-
tion for all practical considerations, and such materials are called
non-conductors or insulators. Materials vary greatly in the amount
of requisite electrons for conduction purposes. This is what clas-
sifies materials with regard to their resistivity. A chart is shown
in the back of this lesson which gives the properties of materials
used for conduction.

From the foregoing statements you can easily reason out that conduc-
tors form one group of substances offering relatively low resistance,
whereas, insulators form another group that offer high resistance as
compare with conductors.

When speaking in relative terms about the differences between mate-

rials and in a case where the resistance of a certain wire is low and
its ability, therefore, to conduct electrons will be good, then in
referring to this wire we would say, "it is a good conductor." Con-
versely, if the resistance of some other kind of wire is high its
conductance will not be so good and for the latter wire we would say,
"it is a poor conductor."

An examination of the chart giving the resistivity of different mate-

rials will show that silver is the best conductor while copper is al-
most as good. However, German silver has a much greater specific re-
sistance than that of silver. The resistance of German silver, which
is an alloy consisting of a mixture of copper, zinc and nickel, varies
according to the method of manufacture and the materials used. De-
pending upon the percentage of nickel used in this alloy it can be

V-10 #6 ".:°
 15

made to have a resistance of from about 13 to 30 times, or more, the

resistance of copper.

To give a reason for this difference in materials, and to review what

we have already stated, we will compare silver and copper. It is as-
sumed that when an e.m.f. is applied to silver and copper, the elec-
trons are detached with less difficulty from the atoms to which they
belong in the case of silver, and will move more freely from atom to
atom than would those electrons that are detached and moved from atom
to atom in the copper. Thus, if an e.m.f. of 1 volt is applied across
two faces of a piece of silver having a mass an inch cube, the rate of
flow of electrons will be greater from face to face in this metal than
if the same voltage were applied to a piece of copper of similar size
and tested under like conditions.

Furthermore, let us make it clear that there is no fixed line of dis-

tinction between conductors and insulators; it is simply a question
of a material having the required electrons that can be forced to move
from atom to atom by a pressure, or that something which we call elec-
tromotive force. Whether a material is called a conductor, a partial
conductor, or an insulator is merely relative. Nothing but a perfect
insulator could block completely a flow of current. Tests prove that
an infinitesimal amount of current, so small as to be measureable only
with the most sensitive laboratory meters, pass through even the high-
est grade insulators known. At the present time there is no substance
known that has perfect insulating qualities any more than there is a
perfect conductor, or one without resistance.

CONDUCTORS. Carbons, all the metals, solutions of salts and acids

are conductors. A few substances are arranged below in the order
of their conductivity. Silver heads the list since it is the best
conductor.

Silver Zinc Lead Acid solutions

Copper Platinum Mercury Sea water
Aluminum Iron Carbon Moist earth

INSULATORS. Some of the well-known insulators are given in the

following list.

Dry air Shellac Wool and silk Oils

Glass Rubber Dry paper Slate
Mica Paraffin Wax Porcelain

Water, dry woods and the human body are examples of partial con-
ductors.

EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF INSULATORS. All types of insulators are

made for the purpose of preventing either short circuits or loss of
electrical energy through leakage to the ground. The first requis-
ite of an insulator is that it must block the passage of current at
the e.m.f. it will be subjected to under working conditions and,
besides, there should be a certain margin of safety for abnormal

V-10 #6
 16

conditions. We find insulators made in various shapes and forms and

of different materials. Just what particular type insulator is se-
lected is determined by the amount of voltage in the circuit in which
it will be used and whether it will be installed outdoors or indoors.

An insulator might be located at some point in a circuit where high-

er voltages are apt to be encountered than would be found in ordin-
ary service. Because of the abnormal conditions possible in any cir-
cuit insulators for a particular use should be capable of preventing
disruptive high voltages from breaking down the insulating qualities,
of course, within certain limitations.

FIG.14-CORRUGATIONS
INCREASE EFFECTIVE FIG.15 -
;;isi
.,
PYREX GLASS INSULATOR.
LENGTH OF INSULATOR.
The insulators shown in Figures 14 and 15 are two popular types used
in the erection of antennas, the latter type being Pyrex glass made
by the Corning Glass Works. Insulators of this kind for receiving
antennas are comparatively small, being only a couple of inches or
more in length and an inch or so in diameter. The small insulators
prove adequate because of the feeble signal currents that are carried
by receiving antenna conductors. However, when intended for use in
transmitting antennas they are made in large sizes of a foot or more
in length and several inches in diameter. This is necessary because
of the high voltages present in commercial radio transmitting an-
tennas and because of the Weight of the heavier wires which they must
support.

FIG.16-PORCELAIN CLEATS FIG.17-TYPE OF FIG.17-A-TUBE SHOWN

USED TO SUPPORT WIRES. PORCELAIN TUBE. INSERTED IN WALL.
Observe that the corrugations on the surfaces of the insulators make
their lengths along the outside much greater than the actual lengths
of the insulators measured from end to end. The increased surface
length gives an insulator better insulating qualities which is par-
ticularly advantageous when moisture or dampness collects on its sur-
face. Since water is more or less a conductor of electricity a cer-
tain amount of "surface leakage" occurs in damp and stormy weather.

Figure 16 shows a pair of porcelain cleats and how they are used to
hold two rubber covered wires in place, the cleats being screwed or
nailed to a ceiling, wall or support of some kind. Another type of
insulator is shown in Figure 17. This is a porcelain tube which
allows a wire to be passed through it as illustrated in the sketch
where the tube is shown installed in a wall or partition;17-A.

v-10 #6
 17
Figure 18 is a typical receiving antenna installation between an out-
building and the house where the radio set is located. Notice that
insulators of the types in Figures 14 and 15 are supporting the long
horizontal antenna wire at its opposite ends and an insulator tube of
the type in Figure 17 is used at the window casing where the lead-in
wire enters the house.

Figure 19 is a Pyrex glass deck insulator, the metal rod to which the
antenna conducting wire or lead-in is connected is carried through
the cup shaped glass and the assembly is provided with a flange for
mounting the insulator and making it watertight.
Insulators of the type in
Figures 20 and 21 are employed
in commercial radio transmit-
-INSULATOR ting equipment. These are made
ANTENNA (Cm,Ducroa) to be installed in decks, bulk-
INSULATOP:-y heads, or at any place where
the lead-in wire from the an-
cc tenna is carried indoors. These
types, in general, are called
"deck insulators" and they are
manufactured in various sizes
IN$ULPTOR
to resist puncture or breakdown
by e.m.f.'s which reach as high
FIG.18 - SHORING USE OF CON-
DUCTORS AND INSULATORS IN A as 30,000 volts in some antenna
RECEIVING ANTENNA. systems. In radio transmitter
antennas the working conditions
are quite severe because of the high frequencies at which the elec-
tric stresses alternate. Also, at times there may be considerable
heat developed by the high frequencies and this will have some effect
on the insulating qualities of the insulator.

Moisture reduces the dielectric strength of any insulating material.

Hence, when materials like porcelain are used they go through a
special process of baking in hot furnaces that gives them a smooth
glassy surface. If the glazed surface should become cracked or
chipped the material will absorb moisture and its effectiveness as an
insulator will be materially lowered and this will result in a reduc-
tion of the voltage at which a "flash -over" might occur. This simply
means that the insulation will be weakened to the extent that it will
allow current to pass through it at some particular voltage.

The insulator in Figure 20 consists of a heavy brass rod moulded into

the insulating material with connection terminals at either end. The
insulator is threaded at (A), and the upper half (B) carrying this
threaded portion is inserted in a hold of proper size cut in the deck
or bulkhead. The flange part (C) rests on rubber gaskets and when
collar (D) is slipped over the lower part and drawn up tightly with a
wrench a water -tight joint is provided. The type shown in Figure 21
serves the same purpose as the one in Figure 20.

MEASUHEMENENT AND CALCULATION OF RESISTANCE

Since the greater portion of radio and power circuits consists of

wire to conduct the electrical current we will devote the balance of
our lesson to the subject of wire.

v-10 #6
18
WIRE GAUGE TABLES. There are several standard wire gauge tables,
differing somewnat from one another, in general use for wire cal-
culations. The B. & S. gauge originated by the Brown & Sharpe Manu-
facturing Co. is the one in most common use in this country and
therefore it is often called the American gauge. The B.W.G. table
(Birmingham Wire Gauge) is considered the standard in Great Britain.
The table for the B. & S. or American gauge, will be found in the
back of this lesson. There it will be seen that a few relations
are given such as, diameter, area, weight, etc., for each size wire
from No. 000C (pronounced "four naughts") to No. 40, the latter being
a very fine wire not much larger than a coarse human hair. Notice
that the largest wire is given the smallest number and the numbers
increase up to 40 as the wire sizes decrease.

MICROHM. In measuring resistances it is often convenient to use as

a unit of value the one -millionth part of an ohm, which is called
the microhm. If any value of resistance is stated in ohms the same
value may be expressed in microhms by multiplying the given value in
ohms by 1,000,000. For example: If a certain conductor has a re-
sistance of 0.0058 ohms its equivalent value in microhms is 0.0058
x 1,000,000 or 5,800 microhms.

FIG.19- PYREX GLASS

DECK INSULATOR.
FIG.20- PORCELAIN
TYPE DECK INSULATOR.
FIG.21-A CANOPY PROTECTS
INSULATOR FROM ELEMENTS.

MEGOHM. When very nigh resistances are measured the unit called a
megohm is used. One megohm equals 1,000,000 ohms.

TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE. Refer to the table at the

end of the lesson headed "Properties of Metals". In order to com-
pare different metals in making up a table similar to this one a
standard unit is necessary and for this the Bureau of Standards has
adopted the resistivity of annealed copper standard which has a
temperature coefficient of 0.00393 at 20° Centigrade. You will see
this value in the second column opposite copper. Although "temper-
ature coefficient of resistance" appears to be a big term yet it is
easy to understand for it merely indicates a value which tells us
how much the resistance of a material will increase for every degree
rise in its temperature. The values of the temperature coefficients
are based upon a change in resistance from 20° C. If the original
temperature of the metal were something other than 20° C. when com-
piling a table then the temperature coefficient values would not be
the same as those given in this table.

V-10 ##6
 19

SPECIFIC RESISTAr'CE. Let us first mention that the opposition to

current flow by a substance is called its "resistivity" and the total
opposition offered by an electrical circuit is called its "resistance"
or "total resistance".

The resistivity of a unit length of material (as measured by the

distance the current must travel in passing between opposite faces
of the material) and a unit cross-sectional area at the predetermined
temperature is known as its "specific resistance". The table shows
that the resistivity values vary for different metals. Either a unit
centimeter, or a unit inch, may be used as the basis for this measure-
ment. If we have a block of copper 1 inch on all sides it is said to
be an "inch cube" in dimensions, and if it is 1 centimeter on all
sides it is a "centimeter cube".

CIRCULAR MIL. A circular mil is the area of a circle whose diam-

eter is one mil, or one -thousandth of an inch.
(Note: 1 mil = .001 inch and 1,000 mils =1 inch. Hence, mils
1,000 = inches.)
PARALLEL QUAKE OF AREA OF WIRES EQUALS
DIILM.*EA. 50110 WiR=. NE AREA OF 25 CIRCULAR
WIRES OF 1 CIRCULAR MIL
I MIL..001 INCA ACM', MIL WIRES,

- - \

¡S5 MILS +-I ------AREA OF MESS IS CONSIDERED SIMILAR

pIG.22- SHOWING RELATION BETWEEN

AREA
SQUARE MILS AND CIRCULAR MILS.
IN
SQUARE MIL. A square mil is the area of a square whose sides are
1 mil. long. A circular mil is used in measuring cross-sectional
area of a round wire instead of a square unit of area. In Figure
22 we have drawn a large circle inside of the square to show the
relation between area which is represented by square mils or by
circular mils.

Let us explain this relation in the following way: Suppose the

diameter of each small circle is 1 mil, or 0.001 inch. It is seen
that the length of each side of the square is 5 mils since there
are 5 circles on each side. The area of the square, with sides
measuring 5 mils, is 5 x 5, or 25 square mils. Now, the area of
the large circle is equal to the diameter multiplied by itself, or
d2. Since there are 5 small circles, 1 mil each, in the diameter
of the large circle then its diameter must be 5 mils, and the area
of the large circle expressed in circular mils is therefore, 5 x 5,
or 25 circular mils. Knowing that the area of the large circle
equals the sum of the areas of the 25 small circles it can be said
that the area of a wire in circular mils is equal to the diameter
squared expressed in mils.

To cite examples: If a certain wire measures 3 mils in diameter it

will have a cross-sectional area of 3 x 3, or 9 mils. A wire with
a diameter of 162.02 mils has an area of 162.02 x 162.02, or 26,250
circular mils. Refer to Wire Table.

Keep in mind the following difference: The area of a circle in

square mils is equal to the diameter squared multiplied by 0.7854
(or dz x 0.7854), whereas, the area in circular mils is equal only

V-10 #6
20
to the diameter squared (or (12). Since we use 0.7854 (which is a
value less than 1) in our calculation to find the area of a circle
but not of a square, it follows that the area of any circle is
0.7854 of the area of a square.

From this it is evident that the square mil is slightly larger than
the circular mil and, hence, there will always be a greater number
of circular mils in any given area than there are square mils.
Therefore, to convert a circular mil area into a square mil area we
have merely to multiply the circular mil area by 0.7854 and the
result will be in square mils.

(A) Area of a circle in circular mils= d2

(B) " " " " square mils = d2 x 0.7854

(C) Since 1 circular mil = 0.7854 square mils, then

(D) An area in square mils = circular mil area x 0.7854

In the expressions given in this work the letter "d" stands for
diameter in mils.

HOW 0.7854 IS DERIVED: Area of a circle= radius2 x it ,(1T = 3.1416).

If a circle has a diameter of 1 mil, its radius is .5 mil. Hence,
the area of such a circle is equal to r2 x 3.1416 = .25 x 3.1416,
or 1/4 x 3.1416 = 0.7854.

MEANING OF THE LETTER (K) USED IN FORMULAS. The letter (K) is used
to represent the quality of a material as a conductor. A certain
volume of the material must be considered, as for instance the vol-
ume of a mil -foot. A mil -foot is the volume of a wire which is one
foot long with a uniform sectional area equal to 1 circular mil.
For commercial copper the resistance of this particular volume, or
1 mil -ft., is 10.4 ohms at a temperature of 20° C. Hence, the (K)
value for copper at this temperature is 10.4. There are different
values for the constant (K) for various materials depending on their
qualities as conductors, as just explained, and on the temperature
selected as the basis for measurement. The (K) value for iron is
63.35 at a temperature of 68° F.

HOW TO FIND THE RESISTANCE OF WIRE. The resistance of a conductor

varies with the kind of material used, directly as the length and
inversely as the cross-sectional area. The letter (K) is the symbol
that represents the kind of material and its resistivity, or specific
resistance as mentioned before.

(1) TO FIND THE RESISTANCE OF A WIRE: Multiply the length in feet

by the specific resistance (that is, the resistance per mil -
foot) and divide this result by the cross-sectional area in

V-10 #6
 21

circular mils. Writing this down in the form of an equation

it would read:

R = K a L , or KL (Note: When two quantities

d2 77- are written together, as KL
for example, the multiplica-
tion of these quantities is
understood, hence, K x L
and KL are the same.)

In the above equation let R = resistance in ohms.

L = length of wire in feet.
d = diameter in circular mils.
Therefore, d2 = circular
mil area.
K = specific resistance of the
material. Commercial cop-
per at 20 C. has a specific
resistance of 10.4 ohms.

PROBLEM. What is the resistance of 1,000 feet of copper wire

having a cross-sectional area of 5,060 circular
mils?

SOLUTION. Substituting all of the known values in the above

formula, and solving, we have

R = 10.4 x 1,000 _10 400 _2.08 ohms. Ans.

5,000 5,000

(2) TO FIND THE LENGTH OF A WIRE wHEr THE RESISTANCE AND AREA IN
CIRCULAR MILS ARE KNOWN: Apply the following formula:
L = R x dz
K

PROBLEM. If the size of a certain iron wire conductor is a

No. 17 B. & S. gauge and its resistance is 15 ohms
what is its length?

SOLUTION. Substitute the known values in the formula just

given after first finding the value of dz from the
wire table for a No. 17 wire. The value for d2
is 2048, as given in the column marked, "Area -
Cir. mils".
Let K = 63.35 for iron.
d2= 2048.

Hence, L_ 15 x 2048 _ 30,720 - 484 ft. Ans.

63.35 63.35

(3) TO FIND THE CIRCULAR MIL AREA OF A WIRE WHEN THE LENGTH
AND RESISTANCE ARE KNOWN. Apply the following formula:

d_ L x K
R

=.:. v-iC #6
22

PROBLEM. Suppose the length of a coil of copper wire is

2,000 feet and its resistance is 20 ohms, find
the circular mil area of the wire.

SOLUTION. Substitute the known values in the above formula

and solve:

d2 = 2000 x 10.4 = 20,800 = 1,040 circular mils.

20 20 Ans.

(4) TO FIND THE AREA OF SQUARE OR RECTANGULAR CONDUCTORS. Some

conductors are made square or rectangular in shape and these
are measured in square mils. Suppose a certain conductor is
rectangular then it will be a simple matter to find its area
in square mils by multiplying its width by its thickness, or
if the wire is square its area is found by squaring its sides.
The dimensions, of course, must be expressed in mils.

EXAMPLE. If aconductor is square and 2 mils on each side its

area will be 2 x 2, or 4 sq. mils. Or, if rectang-
ular and 2 mils on one side and 4 on the other its
area will be 2 x 4, or 8 square mils.

HOW TO CONVERT SQUARE MILS TO CIRCULAR MILS AND VICE VERSA.

(5) If it is desired to change,the area of a wire when given in
square mils to an equivalent area in circular mils multiply
the square mil area by 1.2732 as illustrated in problem work-
ed out below.

PROBLEM. A flat ribbon wire is 1/5" thick on one side and

1/2" wide on the other. Find its equivalent area
in circular mils.

SOLUTION. Since the measurements are given in inches instead

of mils you must first change 1/5" and 1/2" to
mils. Thus, 1/5 x 1000=200 and 1/2 a 1000==
500. The square mil area is next found by taking
the product of these values, or 200 x 500=100,000
square mils. Now multiply the square mils just
found by 1.2732 as follows:

100,000 x 1.2732 = 127,320 circular mils. Ans.

(6) If it is desired to ccnvert the area of a wire expressed in

circular mils to an equivalent area in square mils multiply
the circular mil area by 0.7854 as shown in the following
worked out problem.

PROBLEM. Find the square mil area of a wire having a diam-

eter of 1/5 inch.

v-10 #6
 23

SOLUTION. First, change 1/5 inch to mils, or 1/5 x 1000==

200 mils. The circular mil area is equal to the
diameter in mils squared, or 2002, or 200 x 20C
40,000 C.M. (C.M. is the abbreviation for cir-
cular mils). Now multiply the circular mil area
by 0.7854 as follows:

40,000 x 0.7854 = 31,416 square mils. Ans.

HOW TO FIND THE CIRCULAR MIL AREA WHEN DIAMETER IS GIVEN IN INCHES
AND VICE VERSA.

(7) If the diameter of a round wire is expressed in inches its

circular area can be found by squaring the diameter when ex-
pressed in mils. The following equation represents the rela-
tion.

Area in C.M. (circular mils)= d2 (diameter in mils squared

PROBLEM. 'Whatis the circular mil area of a wire having a

diameter of 1/5 inch?

SOLUTION. The first thing to do is to change 1/5 inch to mils

as follows: 1 inch = 1,000 mils, then 1/5 inch
equals 1/5 x 1000, or 200 mils. Now find the area
as follows:

C.M. = d2= d x d=200 x 200=40,000 circular mils.

Ans.

(8) If the circular mil area of a wire is known and it is desired

to find its diameter expressed in mils you have simply to ex-
tract the square root of the known area. Thus:

d =
PROBLEM. What is the diameter in inches of a wire having an
area of 4107 C.M. (circular mils)? (Area of a No.
14 gauge wire is 4106.8 as given in Wire Table).

SOLUTION. Work out the problem by finding square root of 4107,

thus:

d= C.M. = 1/4107 = 64 mils, or 0.064 inch,

approximately. Ans.

V-10 #6
24

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. What is the function of a resistor?

2. What is the difference between a fixed resistor and a rheostat?

3. What is the difference between an insulator and a conductor?

4. (a) What are the three forms of opposition or resistance in an

a -c circuit?
(b) Is there more than one form of resistance in a d -c circuit?
Explain.

5. What does the coefficient of temperature mean?

6. (a) Is it possible for current to flow in a wire without pro-

ducing some heat and why?
(b) What is an alloy and why is it used in the manufacture of
certain kinds of wire?
(c) Name one alloy and give its composition.

7. How may the effective length of an insulator be increased?

8. If the resistance of a certain coil is known to be 0.06 ohms

what is its resistance expressed in microhms?

9. Find the resistance of 1500 feet of copper wire having a cross-

sectional area of 10,000 circular mils.

10. What is the square mil area of a wire 1/4 inch in diameter?

11. What causes substances to differ in their ability to conduct

or insulate?

12. Give two reasons why resistors are connected in electrical

circuits.

13. (a) How would you find the circular mil area of a square bus
bar which measures á inch on each side?
(b) Show how you would change the circular mil area of 2,400
feet of #40 copper wire to square mils.

14. Give the weight, circular mil area and resistance of two miles
of #6 copper wire.

V-10 #6
 RESISTANCE OP INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ANNEALED COPPED
American Wire Gauge (B. & 8.)

B. & S. Diameter AN. in oirou- Ohm per

Rppu in mil., lee mile, 10001t. at
Pounds psi
1000 ft.
No, d 0 I0' C. or 08' F.

0000 460.00 211,600 0.04901 640.5

000 409.64 167,810 0.06180 508.0
00 364.80 133,080 0.07793 402.8
0 324.95 105,530 0.09827 319.5

1 289.30 83,694 0.1239 253.3

2 257.63 66,373 0.1563 200.9
3 229.42 52,634 0.1970 159.3
4 204.31 41,742 0.2485 126.4
8 181.94 33,102 0.3133 100.2
6 162.02 28,250 0.3951 79.48
7 144.28 20,816 0.4982 63.02
8 128.49 18,509 0.6282 49.98
9 114.43 13,094 0.7921 39.63
10 101.89 10,381 0.9989 31.43
11 90.742 8,234.0 1.260 24.93
12 80.808 6,529.9 1.588 19.77
13 71.961 5,178.4 2.003 15.68
14 84.064 4,106.8 2.525 12.43
15 57.068 3,258.7 3.184 9.858
16 50.820 2,582.9 4.016 7.818
17 45.257 2,048.2 5.064 8.200
18 40.303 1,624.3 6.385 4.917
19 35.890 1,288.1 8.051 3.899
20 31.961 1,021.5 10.15 3.092
21 28.462 810.10 12.80 2.452
22 25.347 642.40 16.14 1.945
23 22.571 509.45 20.36 1.542
24 20.100 404.01 25.67 1.223
25 17.900 320.40 32.37 0.9699
26 15.940 254.10 40.81 0.7692
27 14.195 201.50 51.47 0.6100
28 12.641 159.79 64.90 0.4837
29 11.257 126.72 81.83 0.3838
30 10.025 100.50 103.2 0.3042
31 8.928 79.70 130.1 0.2413
32 7.950 63.21 164.1 0.1913
33 7.080 50.13 206.9 0.1517
34 6.305 39.75 260.9 0.1203
35 5.815 31.52 329.0 0.0954
36 5.000 25.00 414.8 0.0757
37 4.453 19.85 523.1 0.0600
38 3.965 16.72 659.6 0.0476
39 3.531 12.47 831.8 0.0377
40 3.145 9.89 1049 0.0299

PROPERTIES OF METALS
(Courtesy of the U.S. Bureau of Standards.)
Microhm- Tampysstteettuute
Bpedae Tensile Melting
Metal centimeter CO. Cleat
&revltr
meneth pMnt.
et 20 C at 20° C Iles./ x C

Advance. See Contentan.

A10m10000 . 2.820 0. 0039 2.70 30 000 659
Antimony .. ...... . .... i

41.7 .0036 66 630

Bismuth .. 120 .004 9.8 271
Braes 7 .002 8.6 70 000 900
Cadmium 7.6 0038 & 6 321
Celido. See Nlchremr.
Climax 87 .0007 & I 150 000 1250
Conetantan 49 .00001 8.9 120 000 1190
Copper, annealed 1. 7241 .00393 8.89 30 000 1083
Copper. herd -drawn 1.771 .00382 & 09 60 000 .........
Eureka. See Coastomae.
Excelle 92 .00016 8.9 95 000 1500
German silver. 18 per cent 33 . 0004 8. 4 150 000 1100
German silver, 30 per cent. See Conataotan
Gold 2.44 . 00342 19.3 20 000 1063
le L. See Coeetanton.
Ideal. See Conslonten.
Iran, 99.98 per cent pure 10 . 0050 7.8 1530
Iron. See Steel.
Leed 22 .0039 11.4 3 000 327
Maeneslum.. 4. e . 004 I. 74 33 000 651
Manganin 44 .00001 & 4 150 000 910
Mercury 95.783 .00089 13.546 0 -38.9
Molybdenum, drawn 5. 7 . 004 9.0 2500
Monet metal 42 . OC:O &9 160 000 1300
Nichrome 100 . 0004 &2 150 000 1500

Nickel 7.8 .006 &9 120 000 1452

Pelladtum 11 .0033 12.2 39 000 1550

Phosphor bronze 7.0 .0018 &9 25 000 750
Platinum 10 .003 21.4 50 000 1755
Silver 1.59 .0039 10. 5 42 000 960
Steel, E. B. B 10.4 .005 7.7 53 000 1510
Steel, B. B 11.9 .004 7.7 58 000 1510
Steel, Siemens -Martin 18 .003 7.7 100 000 1510
Sleet, m0000ne0e 70 .001 7.5 230 000 1260
Superior. See Climes.
Tantalum IS 5 .0031 16 6 2850
Merle 47 .00001 &2

Tin .... . 11.5 .0042 7.3 4000 232

Tumpten, drawn.......... ...... . .... .. . 5.6 .0045 19 500 000 3000
Zinc .. .I 5.0 .0037 7.1 10 000 419
.

V-10