CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

 The variables in the problem must be clear

 It should be limited in scope and should be specific,
 It must have a goal
 It should be free from ethical constraints
 Good research problem must be researchable.

Sources of Research problem

 Social problems like unemployment, crimes, female genital mutilation , etc

 Theory deduction
 Funding agencies
 Past researches and literature review
 Casual observation
 Related literature
 Current social and economic issues
 Personal interest and experience
 Replication of previous studies
 Clarification of contradictory research results

common errors in the research process:

 1. Population Specification
 This type of error occurs when the researcher selects an inappropriate population or universe
from which to obtain data.
 Example: Packaged goods manufacturers often conduct surveys of housewives, because they
are easier to contact, and it is assumed they decide what is to be purchased and also do the
actual purchasing. In this situation there often is population specification error. The husband
may purchase a significant share of the packaged goods, and have significant direct and
indirect influence over what is bought. For this reason, excluding husbands from samples
may yield results targeted to the wrong audience.

 2. Sampling
 Sampling error occurs when a probability sampling method is used to select a sample, but the
resulting sample is not representative of the population concern. Unfortunately, some
element of sampling error is unavoidable. This is accounted for in confidence intervals,
assuming a probability sampling method is used.
 Example: Suppose that we collected a random sample of 500 people from the general U.S.
adult population to gauge their entertainment preferences. Then, upon analysis, found it to be
composed of 70% females. This sample would not be representative of the general adult
population and would influence the data. The entertainment preferences of females would
hold more weight, preventing accurate extrapolation to the US general adult population.
Sampling error is affected by the homogeneity of the population being studied and sampled
from and by the size of the sample.

 3. Selection
 Selection error is the sampling error for a sample selected by a nonprobability method.
 Example: Interviewers conducting a mall intercept study have a natural tendency to select
those respondents who are the most accessible and agreeable whenever there is latitude to do
so. Such samples often comprise friends and associates who bear some degree of
resemblance in characteristics to those of the desired population.

 4. Non-responsive
 Nonresponse error can exist when an obtained sample differs from the original selected
sample.
 Example: In telephone surveys, some respondents are inaccessible because they are not at
home for the initial call or call-backs. Others have moved or are away from home for the
period of the survey. Not-at-home respondents are typically younger with no small children,
and have a much higher proportion of working wives than households with someone at
home. People who have moved or are away for the survey period have a higher geographic
mobility than the average of the population. Thus, most surveys can anticipate errors from
non-contact of respondents. Online surveys seek to avoid this error through e-mail
distribution, thus eliminating not-at-home respondents.

 5. Measurement
 Measurement error is generated by the measurement process itself, and represents the
difference between the information generated and the information wanted by the researcher.
 Example: A retail store would like to assess customer feedback from at-the-counter
purchases. The survey is developed but fails to target those who purchase in the store.
Instead, results are skewed by customers who bought items online.
What is a research problem?
A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of concern, a
condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in
scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that points to a need for meaningful
understanding and deliberate investigation. A research problem does not state how to do something,
offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question.

Follow These 5 Steps To Formulate Your Research Problem

1. SPECIFY THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

A clear statement defining your objectives will help you develop effective research.

It will help the decision makers evaluate the research questions your project should answer as well
as the research methods your project will use to answer those questions. It’s critical that you have
manageable objectives. (Two or three clear goals will help to keep your research project focused
and relevant.)

2. REVIEW THE ENVIRONMENT OR CONTEXT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

As a marketing researcher, you must work closely with your team of researchers in defining and
testing environmental variables. This will help you determine whether the findings of your project
will produce enough information to be worth the cost.

In order to do this, you have to identify the environmental variables that will affect the research
project and begin formulating different methods to control these variables.

3. EXPLORE THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM

Research problems range from simple to complex, depending on the number of variables and the
nature of their relationship. Sometimes the relationship between two variables is directly related to a
problem or questions, and other times the relationship is entirely unimportant.
If you understand the nature of the research problem as a researcher, you will be able to better
develop a solution to the problem.

To help you understand all dimensions, you might want to consider focus groups of consumers,
salespeople, managers, or professionals to provide what is sometimes much-needed insight into a
particular set of questions or problems.

4. DEFINE THE VARIABLE RELATIONSHIPS

Marketing plans often focus on creating a sequence of behaviors that occur over time, as in the
adoption of a new package design, or the introduction of a new product.

Such programs create a commitment to follow some behavioral pattern or method in the future.

Studying such a process involves:

 Determining which variables affect the solution to the research problem.

 Determining the degree to which each variable can be controlled and used for the purposes of
the company.
 Determining the functional relationships between the variables and which variables are
critical to the solution of the research problem.

During the problem formulation stage, you will want to generate and consider as many courses of
action and variable relationships as possible.

5. THE CONSEQUENCES OF ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION

There are always consequences to any course of action used in one or more projects. Anticipating
and communicating the possible outcomes of various courses of action is a primary responsibility in
the research process.

Research Problem

A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical
or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.In research process, research problem is the first
and foremost step.It can either be a real life situation or it may also refers to a set of opportunities.

3 Types of Research Problem

There are two types of Research Problem:Problems which relates to states of natureEg – Status of working
children in any Metropolitan city in 2012.Problems which relates to relationship between variablesEg – Lack of
chemical fertilizer in the main cause of low production of grain food.

4 Components of Research Problem

An individual or a group or an organisation that has some difficulty or problemSome objective to be
attainedAlternative means for attaining the objectivesSome doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the
selection of alternativesSome environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains

5 Selecting Research Problem

Subject which is overdone shall not be chosen.Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average
researcher.Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.Subject selected for research should be familiar
and feasible.Few factors to be considered are importance of the subject, the costs involved, the time factor, the
qualifications and the training of a researcherSelection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study in
case of new problems.

6 Technique Involved In Defining A Problem

Techniques involved are:Statement of the problem in a general wayUnderstanding the nature of the
problemSurveying the available literatureDeveloping the ideas through discussionsRephrasing the research
problem into a working proposition.

7 Research Design

8 What is Research Design

It is an important step after defining the research problem.Research design helps in deciding upon the issues
regarding what, where, when, how much and by what means, an inquiry or a research study constitute.Research
design refers to the plan, structure, and strategy of research--the blueprint that will guide the research process.

9 Parts of Research Design

The sampling designmethods of selecting items to be observedThe observational designconditions under which
the observations are to be madeThe statistical designhow many items are to be observedhow the information and
data gathered to be analysedThe operational designDeals with the procedures specified

10 Need for Research Design

It makes research as efficient as possible by yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of efforts,
time and money.Research design stands for advance planning of methods to be adopted for collecting the
relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis.

11 Highlights of Research Design

Nature of the studyPurpose of the studyLocation where the study be conductedNature of data requiredWhere the
required data be availableWhat time period the study would coverType of sample design to be chosenTechniques
of data collection would be usedMethods of data analysis to be adoptedStyle in which the report would be
prepared

12 Features of Good Research Design

FlexibleAppropriateEfficientEconomicalMinimises biasnessMaximises the reliability of the dataSmallest
experimental errorYield maximal information

13 Effective Research Design

Guiding principle for effective control in a research design is:The MAXMINCON PrincipleMAXimize
Systematic VarianceMINimize Error VarianceCONtrol Variance

14 Types of Research Design

Exploratory Research DesignConclusive Research DesignDescriptive Research designExperimental Research
DesignHypothesis-testing research DesignCausal Research Design

15 Exploratory Research Also termed as formulative research studies

This research studies the subject about which either their is no information or very little information is
available.The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights.

16 Purpose of Exploratory Research

Formulate a problem for more precise investigationEstablishing priorities for further researchGathering
information about the practical problemsIncreasing analyst’s familiarity with the problemClarifying the concepts

17 Exploratory Research Methods

Experience SurveyTechnique in which individuals who are knowledgeable about a particular research problem
are surveyed.Secondary Data AnalysisCase StudiesPilot StudiesFocus Group InterviewsUnstructured free
flowing interview with a small group of people.

18 Types of Research Design

Conclusive ResearchThis research provides the information that is useful in reaching conclusions or decision
making.Two TypesDescriptive ResearchIt is concerned with determining frequency with which something
occurs or how two variable vary together.Experimental ResearchIt is a process in which one or more variables
are manipulated under conditions which allow the collection of data which show the effects.

19 Types of Research Design

Causal ResearchThis types of research is concerned with finding cause and effect relationship.

20 Concepts related to Research Design

Dependent and Independent Variables Extraneous variableControlConfounded Relationship
Research problem and the most frequent mistakes in forming it
Research starts with delineating the research problem, i.e. what we want to solve and what questions we
want to answer.

It is not only forming the problem but also its selection which presupposes experience and overview in the
given area. The research problem should ripe and appear gradually. The final form of the problem must be
preceded by studying literature and mapping what has already been found out and how.

It is advisable to form the research problem as a question. It helps to decide about the way of research. The
whole research then presents an answer to the question.

After the problem has been delineated, it is necessary to define basic terms. Dictionaries and encyclopedias
are used to define terms (e.g. for pedagogy it is Průcha, Walterová, Mareš: Pedagogical Dictionary, 2001).
Terms must be defined in such a way so that they are allowed to be found and measured. They
are operation term definitions such family, quality of life, school maturity or indirect learning strategies.
For instance, family is a very broad term; everyone imagines a different meaning. It is necessary to define
the term in such a way to be able to work with it.

THE MOST FREQUENT MISTAKES WHEN FORMING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

The author specified the topic (area), not the research problem

The problem specification is too broad. What has been specified is only the area, not what we want to
explore and reach.

Example of a mistake: “Problematic teaching of biology”

It is not obvious what is going to be explored: whether the characteristics of the teacher (age, gender,
experience) can affect the use of problematic teaching; or the procedures of the teacher in problematic
teaching. Or how the students accept this teaching method etc.

The research problem must be formed precisely. The title of the paper can be broad; still, it must point out
what is going to be explored. It must also reflect the contents of the paper. A broader title can be more
comfortable for the reader’s orientation. It will be specified in greater detail anyway.

The research problem is not of a value or does not make sense

Exploring the problem does not deepen the knowledge on the issue and does not bring anything new.

Example of a mistake: “Does home reading help to develop a student?”

The answer is clear – yes, it is not necessary to prove this. To make it possible to further explore the
problem, it must be divided into smaller sub-questions (conditions under which it is performed, the aspects
of personality which should be developed…). It must also be specified what kind of literature is meant.
The research problem is trivial, too simple

The answer to the problem is either “yes” or “no”. The problem must be divided into several sub-questions –
problems usually cannot be solved with easy answers like “yes” or “no”.

Example of a mistake: “Are elementary school teachers creative?”

As the answer is either “yes” or “no”, it does not advance our knowledge. It is necessary to answer many
questions: How is creativity in teaching of a specific teacher manifested? What is its influence on students?
In what situations can teaching be creative and when is it routine? Etc.

TYPES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

It is good to know 3 basic types of research problems. It will assist in forming them. The type of a problem
also determines the use of research and statistical methods.

descriptive

A question of the following type is asked: “What is it like?” Then, we find out about and describe a
situation, condition or occurrence of a phenomenon.

Methods: questionnaire, observation, interview, scaling…

Example: What is the proportion of individual teaching activities of teachers of civics at elementary
schools?

=> frequency, duration of activity, the proportion of both (observation)

Example: What is the approach of parents whose child is about to fail towards to the teacher and school
management?

=> scale (assessing different aspects of the teacher’s professionalism – qualification, teaching style,
evaluation…)

Diagnostic-evaluative descriptive problem (for practice, it does not develop theory)

Example: What study results did students of alternative schools reach?

=> didactic tests

Example: What percentage of children from minority groups attends schools in this region?

relative

Two or more phenomena or agents are related. We ask if there is a relationship among the explored
phenomena and how close the relationship is. With this kind of problem, it cannot be stated exactly which
phenomenon is the cause of which. For instance, questionnaire cannot find out whether a certain opinion
was caused by reading a magazine, or whether the student’s opinion led to reading a certain magazine. The
cause can be found only in things which are absolutely clear – when we know it from the outside but not
because of data. Causal relationships can be verified by experiments.

Statistics: correlation, factor analysis…

Example: What is the relationship between the self-conception of a student and his/her results in key
subjects at a secondary school?

Example: What is the dependency between the result of an entrance test and the final result of studies at
university?

Example: What is the relationship between child drug addiction and the socio-economic status of the
family?

causal

It finds out about the cause which led to a certain consequence; about causal relationships.

Experiment with two groups of persons is carried out.

Statistics – finding the significance of differences: Student’s t-test, chi square…

Example: Is nondirective educational style more effective in creating positive opinions of students on a
teacher than a directive one?

Example: What is the influence of a change in break routine at a primary school on students’ ability to
work?

SUMMARY:

Most research topics allow us to form research problems of all three types.

Example: The teacher’s use of praise.

Descriptive: What kind of praise do teachers use?

Relative: What is the relationship between the kind of praise used by a teacher and the students’
performance?

Causal: What is the effectiveness of a postponed praise on the students’ performance in comparison with
immediate praise?

Scientific hypotheses may be formed only for relative and causal research problems. Why? Since hypothesis
is defined as a statement about a relationship between two variables.
The easiest one (time, means) is descriptive research problem. Then it is followed by relative and only then
by causal.

On the other hand, causal problem is of the greatest value in pedagogical theory. It is then followed by
relative and only then by descriptive problem.

Variables

A variable is a phenomenon, quality, condition or agent which is being explored; e.g. age, knowledge, IQ,
the length of practice or behavior. It is a unit of exploration which can get different values which must be
defined. For instance, gender is of two values (male – female); for our purposes, marital statues can be only
of two values (single – married), at a different time, however, it can be of four values (divorced, widowed),
still at a different place even more (separated).

Variables must be turned into operations – defined operatively – so that they could be measured, found and
observed. For instance, the ability to speak a foreign language can be defined as a result of a known test,
interest in history as a number of questions asked by a student in a history lesson, the number of books on
history read by a student or a membership in a history interest club. Therefore, we do not say “what it is” but
how we are going to observe it.

It is advisable to differentiate between two main kinds of variables; it is important also for statistical data
assessment. With measurable variables, it is possible to define number, degree of a certain phenomenon or
quality. Variables get values within a certain range (between – worse; more – less; sooner – later). Example:
knowledge, number of mistakes in spelling, favorability of a subject on a scale, a neurotic child according to
Eysenck questionnaire.

Categorical variables cannot be quantified; they only can be divided into classes, categories. They can be
dichotomy variables (sex: female – male; test result: passed – failed) or not (marital status, grade: 1-9,
school subject, method, parents’ education).

Independent variable – it is a cause of a change in the other variable.

Dependent variable – it is the one which changes being affected by a different variable. It is dependent on
the one which affects it (independent variable). Example: students’ results (they change under the influence
of teaching style).

Hypotheses

The research problem forms the basic focus of the research; however, it does not communicate sufficient
information to direct the research. Therefore, hypotheses are needed as they are more specific. Hypotheses
divide the research problem into smaller parts, they control the whole structure of the research, and they are
validated or invalidated.
Example: Formulating research problem

What is the influence of a teaching style on the student’s performance?

Formulating hypotheses:

H1 Elementary school students’ approach to a subject is more positive when it is taught by a teacher with
the non-directive teaching style than by a teacher with the directive teaching style.

H2 Elementary school students have lesser knowledge in a subject which is taught by a teacher with the
non-directive teaching style than in a subject taught by a teacher with the directive style.

Hypothesis is a scientific presupposition; it is drawn from a theory (which requires a lot of reading and
thinking). It is thus no any presupposition. Rarely is it based on personal experience and general knowledge;
this happens only when nothing has been known in such matter so far and the paper presents the first action
concerning the issue

Hypotheses broaden our knowledge and learning – they test parts of a theory empirically. On the basis of
new findings, theories can be broadened or modified.

Research is time-, effort- and money-consuming. Therefore, it is important to define such hypotheses which
are worth the effort, i.e. worthwhile hypotheses. The most valuable are creative hypotheses which are able to
advance our knowledge.

Hypothesis controls the research; therefore, it is not possible to start with collecting data and form
hypotheses only during collecting or even when it is finished!

Of course, there is a kind of research – descriptive, exploration – which is absolutely correct and still it does
not relate variables to anything and thus it does not work with hypotheses as they were described above.
Such research is used mainly when the theory about the given issue is poor and there is nothing to stick to,
the problem is only being mapped and own theory is being created. In such a case, hypotheses are formed
only after making the theory a system.

Forming hypotheses

To form hypotheses correctly, it is necessary to carefully follow three basic requirements (rules) for
formulating hypotheses (violating of the rules is the most frequent cause of mistakes):

Hypotheses are statements and they must be formulated as declarative sentences. They must not be
confused with research question (problem).

Hypotheses must express a relationship of at least two variables. Such relationship between two
phenomena must be clearly and explicitly expressed. It is good to compare and verify
variables: differences (more, more often, stronger, higher, different), relationships (positive, negative
relationship, correlation) or consequences (the more – the less, if – then, both – and).
Hypothesis must have the ability to be tested. It must be possible to validate or invalidate a hypothesis.
Variables must have the ability to be measured or classified (age: 16, 17…; sex: female, male; popularity:
degree of popularity on a scale; quality of life – it is necessary to find life quality indicators).

Correct examples:

Differences: Schoolchildren in the second grade like school education more than students schoolchildren
in the fifth grade.

Studying in a group supports the increase in students’ performance.

Relationships: There is a positive relationship between a child’s intelligence and the education of his/her
parents.

Consequences: The more the teacher praises the students, the more the students learn.

The more cohesive the group is, the bigger is its influence on individual members.

Correct examples (the hypotheses expresses the relationship of two variables):

Girls perform better in language tests than boys.

(Two levels of one variable – sex)

Authoritative style of raising children develops creativity less than democratic style.

(Variables: style of raising children (democratic vs. Authoritative) and creativity – would be measured with
a test)

The most frequent mistakes in forming hypotheses:

Formulation is too complicated and long. Complicated scientific formulations make the situation only
worse: stick to the rule than less is sometimes more; hypothesis must be clear, easy and simple.

Hypotheses contain too many variables the relationship between which are not clear.

More hypotheses which do not belong under any main hypothesis; insufficient relationship between the
hypotheses. It is often cause by insufficient overview in literature, ignorance of the findings so far or
inexperience in dealing with hypotheses.

Hypothesis was not validated which was caused by improper selection of the hypothesis. The theory on
which the hypothesis was based may not have been suitable, it should have been based on a different theory.
However, sometimes a theory may be valid only under certain conditions (age, size of the city, quality of the
teacher) and it is very much appreciated if this is specified.

Example of an incorrect hypothesis:

Music activity of elementary schoolchildren in the 2nd-7th grades increases when a set of music activities
anchored in current conception of teaching is fully used when using the set, teachers activate students in
a creative way, using methods, forms and means respective of their age which support effective
development of their relationship to music and the personalities of the students generally.

Even segmenting the complicated sentence does not help: none of the statements contain two variables:

If the set of music activities is fully used according to the current conception of teaching, music activity of
the students increases.

Teachers working in accordance with the current conception of teaching, activate students in a creative way.

When teaching music activities, the teachers used methods, forms and means respective of the students’ age.

These music activities support effective music development of a student.

These music activities support effective music development of students generally.

Example of correct forming of more hypotheses:

H: When teaching reading according to the book by Virgovičová, fewer mistakes appear in children’s
reading than when teaching according to the book by Němčíková-Němčík.

H1: ………..fewer mistakes in reading letters………

H2: …………………………………............... syllables ……

H3: …………………………………............... sentences …..

Examples of incorrect formation:

Czech daily press pays little attention to issues connected with schools.

(Comparison must be done. “Little” cannot be measured, press – one, how can we define attention??
Number of articles, their significance, number of fundamental ideas in the text? – the length does not need to
reflect this.)

Good teachers make use of humor in teaching.

It is a statement which must be transformed into hypotheses (express relationship): Teachers who make use
of humor in teaching get better teaching results than teachers who do not.

There are more students from secondary “grammar” schools at universities than students from other
types of secondary schools.

Clearly and explicitly define the relationship between two variables, find a suitable formulation! The
meaning here is biased: it can be the number of students in a classroom; it can mean a context whether they
are admitted to university; a number of students who have been admitted to university; it can mean that the
number of students is not the same => the initial groups are not the same.

We suppose that suitable forms of cooperation between school and parents are not alwaysused.

(2 variables – frequency, form of cooperation)

Rephrase: Suitable forms of cooperation between school and parents are less frequent than unsuitable
ones. (Then it would be necessary to define which forms are suitable and which are not – form it as an
operation.)

The ten important characteristics of a good research problem for a thesis are summarized bellow. The list enables one to
examine any research problem and see the extent to which it measures up. Obviously, few problems will achieve all ten
characteristics but good problems should fulfill most of these requirements. A few words are in order about each of them.

Characteristics of a good thesis research problem

1 The problem can be stated clearly and concisely.
2 The problem generates research questions.
3 It is grounded in theory.
4 It relates to one or more academic fields of study.
5 It has a base in the research literature.
6 It has potential significance/importance.
7 It is do-able within the time frame, budget.
8 Sufficient data are available or can be obtained.
9 The researcher’s methodological strengths can be applied to the problem.
10 The problem is new; it is not already answered sufficiently.
Fundamentals of Educational Research
1 The Problem Can Be Stated Clearly and Concisely
Unless the problem can be stated clearly and concisely it is probably a poor problem or a non-problem. The best way to test
the problem statement is to write it into a concise sentence or paragraph and to share it with others. If the problem cannot be
stated in a clear paragraph it has difficulties and will not endure as a suitable problem. Of course, it is not easy to express
complex issues in simplistic terms and it may take many weeks and countless drafts before the statement is satisfactory.
Good critics are essential. If your spouse or mother cannot understand it, it is probably flaky.

2 The Problem Generates Research Questions

The problem should generate a number of more specific research questions. These turn the problem into a question format
and represent various aspects or components of the problem. The research questions make the more general statement easier
to address and provide a framework for the research. Formulating these questions can be a challenge, particularly specifying
them at the right level of abstraction.

3 It Is Grounded in Theory
Good problems have theoretical and/or conceptual frameworks for their analysis. They relate the specifics of what is being
investigated to a more general background of theory which helps interpret the results and link it to the field.
4 It Relates to One or More Academic Fields of Study
Good problems relate to academic fields which have adherents and boundaries. They typically have journals to which
adherents relate. Research problems which do not have clear links to one or two such fields of study are generally in
trouble. Without such a field it becomes impossible to determine where, in the universe of knowledge, the problem lies.

5 It Has a Base in the Research Literature

Related to the former points, a well-stated problem will relate to a research literature. Tight problems often relate to a well-
defined body of literature, written by a select group of researchers and published in a small number of journals. With some
problems, it might at first be difficult to establish the connections and literature base, but there should be a base somewhere.

6 It Has Potential Significance/importance

This is the important ‘so what’ question: Who cares once you solve the problem? Assume that you have solved the problem
and answered the questions and then ask yourself if you are any further ahead. At the very least, the problem must have
importance to the researcher, but ideally it should also be of consequence to others.

7 It Is DoableWithin the Time Frame, Budget

There are logistic factors in terms of your ability actually to carry out the research. There is no point pursuing a problem
which is not feasible to research. Do not do a study of education in India unless you have the means to go there and collect
data ̶ which may require years to collect. This factor helps explain why few theses relate to longitudinal data. The only
exceptions come from research shops where there is a long history of collecting and studying data on a defined population.
Terman’s study of genius (1954) in which a defined sample was traced over 30 years, is a good example.

8 Sufficient Data Are Available or Can Be Obtained

In some cases, there are insufficient data to address the problem. Historical persons may have died, archival materials may
be lost, or there may be restrictions on access to certain environments. As noted, it is difficult to conduct research on a
distant country unless you can go there and collect local data. One under-used approach is to use an existing database. Some
data banks have been developed over many years and contain many opportunities for exploration of new questions and
issues.

Plagiarism is presenting someone else's work or ideas as your own, with or without their consent,
by incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement. All published and unpublished
material, whether in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this definition.

Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own, with or without their consent, by
incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement. All published and unpublished material,
whether in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this definition. Plagiarism may be
intentional or reckless, or unintentional. Under the regulations for examinations, intentional or reckless
plagiarism is a disciplinary offence.
Forms of plagiarism
Verbatim (word for word) quotation without clear acknowledgement
Quotations must always be identified as such by the use of either quotation marks or indentation, and with
full referencing of the sources cited. It must always be apparent to the reader which parts are your own
independent work and where you have drawn on someone else’s ideas and language.

Cutting and pasting from the Internet without clear acknowledgement

Information derived from the Internet must be adequately referenced and included in the bibliography. It is
important to evaluate carefully all material found on the Internet, as it is less likely to have been through the
same process of scholarly peer review as published sources.

Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing the work of others by altering a few words and changing their order, or by closely following
the structure of their argument, is plagiarism if you do not give due acknowledgement to the author whose
work you are using.

A passing reference to the original author in your own text may not be enough; you must ensure that you do
not create the misleading impression that the paraphrased wording or the sequence of ideas are entirely your
own. It is better to write a brief summary of the author’s overall argument in your own words, indicating that
you are doing so, than to paraphrase particular sections of his or her writing. This will ensure you have a
genuine grasp of the argument and will avoid the difficulty of paraphrasing without plagiarising. You must
also properly attribute all material you derive from lectures.

Collusion
This can involve unauthorised collaboration between students, failure to attribute assistance received, or
failure to follow precisely regulations on group work projects. It is your responsibility to ensure that you are
entirely clear about the extent of collaboration permitted, and which parts of the work must be your own.
Inaccurate citation
It is important to cite correctly, according to the conventions of your discipline. As well as listing your
sources (i.e. in a bibliography), you must indicate, using a footnote or an in-text reference, where a quoted
passage comes from. Additionally, you should not include anything in your references or bibliography that
you have not actually consulted. If you cannot gain access to a primary source you must make it clear in
your citation that your knowledge of the work has been derived from a secondary text (for example,
Bradshaw, D. Title of Book, discussed in Wilson, E., Title of Book (London, 2004), p. 189).

Failure to acknowledge assistance

You must clearly acknowledge all assistance which has contributed to the production of your work, such as
advice from fellow students, laboratory technicians, and other external sources. This need not apply to the
assistance provided by your tutor or supervisor, or to ordinary proofreading, but it is necessary to
acknowledge other guidance which leads to substantive changes of content or approach.

Use of material written by professional agencies or other persons

You should neither make use of professional agencies in the production of your work nor submit material
which has been written for you even with the consent of the person who has written it. It is vital to your
intellectual training and development that you should undertake the research process unaided. Under Statute
XI on University Discipline, all members of the University are prohibited from providing material that could
be submitted in an examination by students at this University or elsewhere.

Auto-plagiarism
You must not submit work for assessment that you have already submitted (partially or in full), either for
your current course or for another qualification of this, or any other, university, unless this is specifically
provided for in the special regulations for your course. Where earlier work by you is citable, ie. it has
already been published, you must reference it clearly. Identical pieces of work submitted concurrently
will also be considered to be auto-plagiarism.

Why does plagiarism matter?

Plagiarism is a breach of academic integrity. It is a principle of intellectual honesty that all members of the
academic community should acknowledge their debt to the originators of the ideas, words, and data which
form the basis for their own work. Passing off another’s work as your own is not only poor scholarship, but
also means that you have failed to complete the learning process. Plagiarism is unethical and can have
serious consequences for your future career; it also undermines the standards of your institution and of the
degrees it issues.

Why should you avoid plagiarism?

There are many reasons to avoid plagiarism. You have come to university to learn to know and speak your
own mind, not merely to reproduce the opinions of others - at least not without attribution. At first it may
seem very difficult to develop your own views, and you will probably find yourself paraphrasing the
writings of others as you attempt to understand and assimilate their arguments. However it is important that
you learn to develop your own voice. You are not necessarily expected to become an original thinker, but
you are expected to be an independent one - by learning to assess critically the work of others, weigh up
differing arguments and draw your own conclusions. Students who plagiarise undermine the ethos of
academic scholarship while avoiding an essential part of the learning process.

You should avoid plagiarism because you aspire to produce work of the highest quality. Once you have
grasped the principles of source use and citation, you should find it relatively straightforward to steer clear
of plagiarism. Moreover, you will reap the additional benefits of improvements to both the lucidity and
quality of your writing. It is important to appreciate that mastery of the techniques of academic writing is not
merely a practical skill, but one that lends both credibility and authority to your work, and demonstrates
your commitment to the principle of intellectual honesty in scholarship.

What happens if you are thought to have plagiarised?

The University regards plagiarism in examinations as a serious matter. Cases will be investigated and
penalties may range from deduction of marks to expulsion from the University, depending on the
seriousness of the occurrence. Even if plagiarism is inadvertent, it can result in a penalty. The forms of
plagiarism listed above are all potentially disciplinary offences in the context of formal assessment
requirements.

The regulations regarding conduct in examinations apply equally to the ‘submission and assessment of a
thesis, dissertation, essay, or other coursework not undertaken in formal examination conditions but which
counts towards or constitutes the work for a degree or other academic award’. Additionally, this includes the
transfer and confirmation of status exercises undertaken by graduate students. Cases of suspected plagiarism
in assessed work are investigated under the disciplinary regulations concerning conduct in examinations.
Intentional plagiarism in this context means that you understood that you were breaching the regulations and
did so intending to gain advantage in the examination. Reckless, in this context, means that you understood
or could be expected to have understood (even if you did not specifically consider it) that your work might
breach the regulations, but you took no action to avoid doing so. Intentional or reckless plagiarism may
incur severe penalties, including failure of your degree or expulsion from the university.

If plagiarism is suspected in a piece of work submitted for assessment in an examination, the matter will be
referred to the Proctors. They will thoroughly investigate the claim and call the student concerned for
interview. If at this point there is no evidence of a breach of the regulations, no further disciplinary action
will be taken although there may still be an academic penalty. However, if it is concluded that a breach of
the regulations may have occurred, the Proctors will refer the case to the Student Disciplinary Panel.

If you are suspected of plagiarism your College Secretary/Academic Administrator and subject tutor will
support you through the process and arrange for a member of Congregation to accompany you to all
hearings. They will be able to advise you what to expect during the investigation and how best to make your
case. The OUSU Student Advice Service can also provide useful information and support.

Does this mean that I shouldn’t use the work of other authors?

On the contrary, it is vital that you situate your writing within the intellectual debates of your discipline.
Academic essays almost always involve the use and discussion of material written by others, and, with due
acknowledgement and proper referencing, this is clearly distinguishable from plagiarism. The knowledge in
your discipline has developed cumulatively as a result of years of research, innovation and debate. You need
to give credit to the authors of the ideas and observations you cite. Not only does this accord recognition to
their work, it also helps you to strengthen your argument by making clear the basis on which you make it.
Moreover, good citation practice gives your reader the opportunity to follow up your references, or check
the validity of your interpretation.

Does every statement in my essay have to be backed up with references?

You may feel that including the citation for every point you make will interrupt the flow of your essay and
make it look very unoriginal. At least initially, this may sometimes be inevitable. However, by employing
good citation practice from the start, you will learn to avoid errors such as close paraphrasing or
inadequately referenced quotation. It is important to understand the reasons behind the need for transparency
of source use.

All academic texts, even student essays, are multi-voiced, which means they are filled with references to
other texts. Rather than attempting to synthesise these voices into one narrative account, you should make it
clear whose interpretation or argument you are employing at any one time - whose ‘voice’ is speaking.

If you are substantially indebted to a particular argument in the formulation of your own, you should make
this clear both in footnotes and in the body of your text according to the agreed conventions of the
discipline, before going on to describe how your own views develop or diverge from this influence.

On the other hand, it is not necessary to give references for facts that are common knowledge in your
discipline. If you are unsure as to whether something is considered to be common knowledge or not, it is
safer to cite it anyway and seek clarification. You do need to document facts that are not generally known
and ideas that are interpretations of facts.

Unintentional plagiarism

Not all cases of plagiarism arise from a deliberate intention to cheat. Sometimes students may omit to take
down citation details when taking notes, or they may be genuinely ignorant of referencing conventions.
However, these excuses offer no sure protection against a charge of plagiarism. Even in cases where the
plagiarism is found to have been neither intentional nor reckless, there may still be an academic penalty for
poor practice.

It is your responsibility to find out the prevailing referencing conventions in your discipline, to take
adequate notes, and to avoid close paraphrasing. If you are offered induction sessions on plagiarism and
study skills, you should attend. Together with the advice contained in your subject handbook, these will help
you learn how to avoid common errors. If you are undertaking a project or dissertation you should ensure
that you have information on plagiarism and collusion. If ever in doubt about referencing, paraphrasing or
plagiarism, you have only to ask your tutor.

Examples of plagiarism
There are some helpful examples of plagiarism-by-paraphrase and you will also find extensive advice on
the referencing and library skills pages.

The following examples demonstrate some of the common pitfalls to avoid. These examples use the
referencing system prescribed by the History Faculty but should be of use to students of all disciplines.

Source text

From a class perspective this put them [highwaymen] in an ambivalent position. In

aspiring to that proud, if temporary, status of ‘Gentleman of the Road’, they did not
question the inegalitarian hierarchy of their society. Yet their boldness of act and deed, in
putting them outside the law as rebellious fugitives, revivified the ‘animal spirits’ of
capitalism and became an essential part of the oppositional culture of working-class
London, a serious obstacle to the formation of a tractable, obedient labour force.
Therefore, it was not enough to hang them – the values they espoused or represented had
to be challenged.

(Linebaugh, P., The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century
(London, 1991), p. 213. [You should give the reference in full the first time you use it in a
footnote; thereafter it is acceptable to use an abbreviated version, e.g. Linebaugh, The
London Hanged, p. 213.]

Plagiarised

1. Although they did not question the inegalitarian hierarchy of their

society, highwaymen became an essential part of the oppositional
culture of working-class London, posing a serious threat to the
formation of a biddable labour force. (This is a patchwork of
phrases copied verbatim from the source, with just a few words
changed here and there. There is no reference to the original author
and no indication that these words are not the writer’s own.)
2. Although they did not question the inegalitarian hierarchy of their
society, highwaymen exercised a powerful attraction for the
working classes. Some historians believe that this hindered the
development of a submissive workforce. (This is a mixture of
verbatim copying and acceptable paraphrase. Although only one
phrase has been copied from the source, this would still count as
plagiarism. The idea expressed in the first sentence has not been
attributed at all, and the reference to ‘some historians’ in the second
is insufficient. The writer should use clear referencing to
acknowledge all ideas taken from other people’s work.)
3. Although they did not question the inegalitarian hierarchy of their
society, highwaymen ‘became an essential part of the oppositional
culture of working-class London [and] a serious obstacle to the
formation of a tractable, obedient labour force’.1 (This contains a
mixture of attributed and unattributed quotation, which suggests to
the reader that the first line is original to this writer. All quoted
material must be enclosed in quotation marks and adequately
referenced.)
4. Highwaymen’s bold deeds ‘revivified the “animal spirits” of
capitalism’ and made them an essential part of the oppositional
culture of working-class London.1 Peter Linebaugh argues that they
posed a major obstacle to the formation of an obedient labour force.
(Although the most striking phrase has been placed within quotation
marks and correctly referenced, and the original author is referred to
in the text, there has been a great deal of unacknowledged
borrowing. This should have been put into the writer’s own words
instead.)
5. By aspiring to the title of ‘Gentleman of the Road’, highwaymen did
not challenge the unfair taxonomy of their society. Yet their daring
exploits made them into outlaws and inspired the antagonistic
culture of labouring London, forming a grave impediment to the
 development of a submissive workforce. Ultimately, hanging them
was insufficient – the ideals they personified had to be discredited.1
(This may seem acceptable on a superficial level, but by imitating
exactly the structure of the original passage and using synonyms for
almost every word, the writer has paraphrased too closely. The
reference to the original author does not make it clear how extensive
the borrowing has been. Instead, the writer should try to express the
argument in his or her own words, rather than relying on a
‘translation’ of the original.)

Non-plagiarised

1. Peter Linebaugh argues that although highwaymen posed no overt

challenge to social orthodoxy – they aspired to be known as
‘Gentlemen of the Road’ – they were often seen as anti-hero role
models by the unruly working classes. He concludes that they were
executed not only for their criminal acts, but in order to stamp out
the threat of insubordinacy.1 (This paraphrase of the passage is
acceptable as the wording and structure demonstrate the reader’s
interpretation of the passage and do not follow the original too
closely. The source of the ideas under discussion has been properly
attributed in both textual and footnote references.)
2. Peter Linebaugh argues that highwaymen represented a powerful
challenge to the mores of capitalist society and inspired the
rebelliousness of London’s working class.1 (This is a brief summary
of the argument with appropriate attribution.)

1 Linebaugh, P., The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in

the Eighteenth Century (London, 1991), p. 213.
What is Plagiarism?
Published May 18, 2017

Many people think of plagiarism as copying another's work or borrowing someone else's original ideas. But
terms like "copying" and "borrowing" can disguise the seriousness of the offense:

According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, to "plagiarize" means:

 to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one's own
 to use (another's production) without crediting the source
 to commit literary theft
 to present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source

In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone else's work and lying about it
afterward.

But can words and ideas really be stolen?

According to U.S. law, the answer is yes. The expression of original ideas is considered intellectual property
and is protected by copyright laws, just like original inventions. Almost all forms of expression fall under
copyright protection as long as they are recorded in some way (such as a book or a computer file).

All of the following are considered plagiarism:

 turning in someone else's work as your own

 copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit
 failing to put a quotation in quotation marks
 giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
 changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without giving credit
 copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the majority of your work, whether you give
credit or not (see our section on "fair use" rules)

Most cases of plagiarism can be avoided, however, by citing sources. Simply acknowledging that certain
material has been borrowed and providing your audience with the information necessary to find that source
is usually enough to prevent plagiarism. See our section on citation for more information on how to cite
sources properly.
What about images, videos, and music?

Using an image, video or piece of music in a work you have produced without receiving proper permission
or providing appropriate citation is plagiarism. The following activities are very common in today’s society.
Despite their popularity, they still count as plagiarism.

 Copying media (especially images) from other websites to paste them into your own papers or websites.
 Making a video using footage from others’ videos or using copyrighted music as part of the soundtrack.
 Performing another person’s copyrighted music (i.e., playing a cover).
 Composing a piece of music that borrows heavily from another composition.

Certainly, these media pose situations in which it can be challenging to determine whether or not the
copyrights of a work are being violated. For example:

 A photograph or scan of a copyrighted image (for example: using a photograph of a book cover to represent
that book on one’s website)
 Recording audio or video in which copyrighted music or video is playing in the background.
 Re-creating a visual work in the same medium. (for example: shooting a photograph that uses the same
composition and subject matter as someone else’s photograph)
 Re-creating a visual work in a different medium (for example: making a painting that closely resembles
another person’s photograph).
 Re-mixing or altering copyrighted images, video or audio, even if done so in an original way.

The legality of these situations, and others, would be dependent upon the intent and context within which
they are produced. The two safest approaches to take in regards to these situations is: 1) Avoid them
altogether or 2) Confirm the works’ usage permissions and cite them properly.

Preventing Plagiarism when Writing

Published May 12, 2017

In a research paper, you have to come up with your own original ideas while at the same time making
reference to work that's already been done by others. But how can you tell where their ideas end and your
own begin? What's the proper way to integrate sources in your paper? If you change some of what an author
said, do you still have to cite that author?

Confusion about the answers to these questions often leads to plagiarism. If you have similar questions or
are concerned about preventing plagiarism, we recommend using the checklist below.
Planning Your Paper
Consult with Your Instructor
Have questions about plagiarism? If you can't find the answers on our site or are unsure about something,
you should ask your instructor. He or she will most likely be very happy to answer your questions. You can
also check out the guidelines for citing sources properly. If you follow them and the rest of the advice on
this page, you should have no problems with plagiarism.
Plan Your Paper
Planning your paper well is the first and most important step you can take toward preventing plagiarism. If
you know you are going to use other sources of information, you need to plan how you are going to include
them in your paper. This means working out a balance between the ideas you have taken from other sources
and your own, original ideas. Writing an outline or coming up with a thesis statement in which you clearly
formulate an argument about the information you find will help establish the boundaries between your ideas
and those of your sources.
Take Effective Notes
One of the best ways to prepare for a research paper is by taking thorough notes from all of your sources so
that you have much of the information organized before you begin writing. On the other hand, poor note-
taking can lead to many problems-- including improper citations and misquotations, both of which are forms
of plagiarism! To avoid confusion about your sources, try using different colored fonts, pens, or pencils for
each one, and make sure you clearly distinguish your own ideas from those you found elsewhere. Also, get
in the habit of marking page numbers, and make sure that you record bibliographic information or web
addresses for every source right away-- finding them again later when you are trying to finish your paper can
be a nightmare!
Writing Your Paper
When in Doubt, Cite Sources
Of course you want to get credit for your own ideas. And, you don't want your instructor to think that you
got all of your information from somewhere else. But if it is unclear whether an idea in your paper really
came from you, or whether you got it from somewhere else and just changed it a little, you should always
cite your source. Instead of weakening your paper and making it seem like you have fewer original ideas,
this will actually strengthen your paper by:
 showing that you are not just copying other ideas but are processing and adding to them,
 lending outside support to the ideas that are completely yours, and
 highlighting the originality of your ideas by making clear distinctions between them and ideas you
have gotten elsewhere
Also see: how to cite sources properly
Make it Clear Who Said What
Even if you cite sources, ambiguity in your phrasing can often disguise the real source of any given idea,
causing inadvertent plagiarism. Make sure when you mix your own ideas with those of your sources that you
always clearly distinguish them. If you are discussing the ideas of more than one person, watch out for
confusing pronouns. For example, imagine you are talking about Harold Bloom's discussion of James
Joyce's opinion of Shakespeare, and you write: "He brilliantly portrayed the situation of a writer in society at
that time." Who is the "He" in this sentence? Bloom, Joyce, or Shakespeare? Who is the "writer": Joyce,
Shakespeare, or one of their characters? Always make sure to distinguish who said what, and give credit to
the right person.
Know How to Paraphrase
A paraphrase is a restatement in your own words of someone else's ideas. Changing a few words of the
original sentences does NOT make your writing a legitimate paraphrase. You must change both the words
and the sentence structure of the original, without changing the content. Also, you should keep in mind that
paraphrased passages still require citation because the ideas came from another source, even though you are
putting them in your own words.
The purpose of paraphrasing is not to make it seem like you are drawing less directly from other sources or
to reduce the number of quotations in your paper. It is a common misconception among students that you
need to hide the fact that you rely on other sources. Actually it is advantageous to highlight the fact that
other sources support your own ideas. Using quality sources to support your ideas makes them seem
stronger and more valid. Good paraphrasing makes the ideas of the original source fit smoothly into your
paper, emphasizing the most relevant points and leaving out unrelated information.
Learn how to paraphrase properly.
Analyze and Evaluate Your Sources
Not all sources on the web are worth citing-- in fact, many of them are just plain wrong. So how do you tell
the good ones apart? For starters, make sure you know the author(s) of the page, where they got their
information, and when they wrote it (getting this information is also an important step in avoiding
plagiarism!). Then you should determine how credible you feel the source is: how well they support their
ideas, the quality of the writing, the accuracy of the information provided, etc. We recommend using the
"Web Page Evaluation Criteria" available through New Mexico State University's website.