CHAPTER

5 Limits of Functions

Limit Limits Using Expansion

Limit of a function f(x) is said to exist as x → a when, xlna x 2 ln 2 a x3ln3 a
x
lim f (a=
− h) lim f (a= + h) M some finite value M. (i) a = 1 + + + + …, a > 0
x→a− x→a+ 1! 2! 3!
(Left hand limit) (Right hand limit)
x x x 2 x3 x 4
Indeterminate Forms (ii) e =+
1 + + + +… , for −1 < x ≤ 1
1! 2! 3! 4!

0 ∞ x 2 x3 x 4
, , (∞) – (∞) (iii) ln (1 + x ) =x − + − +…. , for −1 < x ≤ 1
0 ∞ 2 3 4

∞×0 , (1)∞ , (0)0 , (∞)0 x3 x5 x 7  π π

(iv) sinx= x − + − +…, x ∈  − , 
3! 5! 7!  2 2
Standard Limits x 2 x 4 x6  π π
−1 −1 (v) cosx = 1 − 2! + 4! − 6! +…, x ∈  − 2 , 2 
sinx tanx tan x sin x  
lim
= lim = lim= lim
x
x →0x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x x3 2 x5  π π
x (vi) tanx= x + + +…, x ∈  − , 
e −1 ln (1 + x ) 3 15  2 2
= lim
= lim = 1,
x →0 x x →0 x
−1 12 3 12 ⋅ 32 5 12 ⋅ 32 ⋅ 52 7
 1
x
ax −1 (vii) sin x= x + x + x + x +…
lim(1 + x)1/ x = lim 1 +  = e, lim = log e a, a > 0, 3! 5! 7!
x →0 x →∞ x x →0 x
x3 x5 x 7
xn − an (viii) tan −1 x= x − + − +…
lim = na n −1. 3 5 7
x→a x − a
n n ( n –1)
(xi) For x < 1, n ∈ R, (1 + x) =1 + nx +
Fundamental Theorems on Limits 1.2

Let lim f ( x) = l and lim g ( x) = m . If l and m exists finitely then: n ( n –1)( n – 2 ) 3

x→a x→a
x2 +
x +…∞
1.2.3
(a) Sum rule: lim [ f ( x ) + g ( x )] =
l+m 1/ x
1
ln (1+ x ) x 11 2 21 3 
x→a (xii) (1 + x ) = e x = e 1 − + x − x + ... + ∞ 
 2 24 48 
(b) Difference rule: lim [ f ( x ) – g ( x )]= l − m
x→a Limits of form 1∞, 0°, ∞°.
(c) Product rule: lim [ f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x )] =
l.m Also for (1)∞ type of problems we can use following rules.
x→a
1/ x
f ( x) l (a) lim (1 + x ) = e,
(d) Quotient rule: lim = , provided m ≠ 0 x →0
x→a g ( x ) m
(b) lim [ f ( x )] g ( x ) , where f ( x ) → 1; g ( x ) → ∞ as x → a then
x→a
(e) Power rule: If m and n are integers, then lim { f ( x ) −1} g ( x )
g( x)
lim [ f ( x )] = e x→a
lim [ f ( x )]
m/ n m/ n
=l , provided l m/ n
is a real number. x→a
x→a
Sandwich Theorem or Squeeze Play Theorem
(f) lim
= f ( g ( x ) ) f=
x→a
lim g ( x ) ( x→a )
f ( m ) ; provided f(x) is If f(x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) ∀ x and lim f ( x )= l = lim h ( x ) , then
x→a x→a
lim g ( x ) = l
continuous at x = m. x→a
 CHAPTER

Continuity and Differentiability,

6 Methods of Differentiation

Properties of Continuous Functions Note:

Here we present two extremely useful properties of continuous (i) All polynomial, trigonometric, inverse trigonometric,
functions; logarithmic and exponential function are continuous and
differentiable in their domains, except at end points.
Let y = f (x) be a continuous function ∀ x ∈ [a, b], then following
(ii) If f (x) and g(x) are derivable at x = a then the functions
results hold true.
f (x) + g(x), f (x) – g(x), f (x). g(x) will also be derivable at
(i) f is bounded between a and b. This simply means that we x = a and if g(a) ≠ 0 then the function f (x)/g(x) will also be
can find real numbers m1 and m2 such m1 ≤ f(x) ≤ m2 ∀ x derivable at x = a.
∈[a, b]. In short, for a function ‘f’:
(ii) Every value between f (a) and f (b) will be assumed by the Differentiable ⇒ Continuous;

function atleast once. This property is called intermediate
Not Continuous ⇒ Not Differentiable

value theorem of continuous function.
Continuous  ⇒ May or may not be Differentiable


In particular if f(a) · f(b) < 0, then f(x) will become zero
atleast once in (a, b). It also means that if f(a) and f(b) have Derivability Over an Interval
opposite signs then the equation f(x) = 0 will have atleast (a) f(x) is said to be derivable over an open interval (a, b) if
one real root in (a, b). it is derivable at each and every point of the open interval
(a, b).
Types of Discontinuities
(b) f(x) is said to be derivable over the closed interval [a, b] if:
Type-1 : (Removable type of discontinuities) (i) f(x) is derivable in (a, b) and
(a) Missing point discontinuity: Where lim f ( x ) exists (ii) for the points a and b, f ′(a+) & f ′(b–) exist.
x→a

finitely but f(a) is not defined. Note:

(i) If f(x) is differentiable at x = a and g(x) is not differentiable
(b) Isolated point discontinuity : Where lim f ( x ) exists &
x→a at x = a, then the product function F(x) = f(x).g(x) can still
f(a) also exists but; lim f ( x ) ≠ f ( a ) . be differentiable at x = a.
x→a
(ii) If f(x) & g(x) both are not differentiable at x = a then the
Type-2 : (Non-Removable type of discontinuities) product function; F(x) = f(x).g(x) can still be differentiable
(a) Finite type discontinuity : In such type of discontinuity at x = a.
left hand limit and right hand limit at a point exists but are (iii) If f(x) & g(x) both are non-derivable at x = a then the sum
not equal. function F(x) = f(x) + g(x) may be a differentiable function.
(b) Infinite type discontinuity : In such type of discontinuity (iv) If f(x) is derivable at x = a ⇒ f ′(x) is continuous at x = a.
atleast one of the limit viz. LHL and RHL is tending to
infinity. Differentiation of Some Elementary Functions
(c) Oscillatory type discontinuity : Limits oscillate between d n d x
1. ( x ) = nx n −1 2. (a ) = a x ln a
two finite quantities. dx dx
d 1 d 1
Derivability of Function at a Point 3. (ln | x |) = 4. (log a x) =
dx x dx x ln a
If f  ′(a+) = f  ′(a–) = finite quantity, then f(x) is said to be derivable
or differentiable at x = a. In such case f  ′(a+) = f  ′(a–) = f  ′(a) and d d
5. (sin x) = cos x 6. (cos x) = − sin x
it is called derivative or differential coefficient of f(x) at x = a. dx dx
 d d Differentiation Using Substitution
7. (sec x) = sec x tan x 8. (cosec x) = –cosec x cot x
dx dx Following substitutions are normally used to simplify these
expression.
d d
9. (tan x) = sec 2 x 10. (cot x) = −cosec 2 x π π
dx dx 1. x 2 + a 2 by substituting x = a tan q, where − <θ<
2 2
Basic Theorems π π
2. a 2 − x 2 by substituting x = a sin q, where − ≤ θ ≤
d 2 2
1. ( f ± g )( x) = f ′( x) ± g ′( x)
dx π
3. x 2 − a 2 by substituting x = a sec q, where q ∈ [0, p], θ ≠
2
d d x+a
2. (k f ( x)) = k f ( x) 4. by substituting x = a cos q, where q ∈ [0, p].
dx dx a−x
d
3. )) f ( x) g ′( x) + g ( x) f ′( x)
( f ( x) ⋅ g ( x= Parametric Differentiation
dx
dy dy / d θ
If y = f (q) and x = g(q) where q is a parameter, then = .
d  f ( x)  g ( x) f ′( x) − f ( x) g ′( x) dx dx / d θ
4.  =
dx  g ( x)  g 2 ( x)
Derivative of one Function with Respect to Another
d
5. ( f ( g ( x)) ) = f ′( g ( x)) g ′( x) Let y = f (x); z = g(x) then
= =
dy dy / dx f ′( x)
.
dx
dz dz / dx g ′( x)
Derivative of inverse Trigonometric Functions f ( x) g ( x) h( x )
−1
d sin x 1 d cos x 1 −1
™ If F(x) = l ( x) m( x) n( x) , where f, g, h, l, m, n, u, v, w
= , =− , for − 1 < x < 1.
dx 1− x 2 dx 1 − x2 u ( x) v( x) w( x)

d tan −1 x 1 d cot −1 x 1 are differentiable functions of x then

= , =
− ( x ∈ R)
dx 1 + x2 dx 1 + x2 f ′( x) g ′( x) h′( x) f ( x ) g ( x ) h( x )
=F ′( x) l ( x) m( x) n( x) + l ′( x) m′( x) n′( x)
d sec −1 x 1 d cosec −1 x
= , u ( x) v( x) w( x) u ( x) v( x) w( x)
dx x x2 − 1 dx
f ( x ) g ( x ) h( x )
1
=− , for x ∈ (−∞, − 1) ∪ (1, ∞) + l ( x ) m( x ) n( x )
x x2 − 1 u ′( x) v′( x) w′( x)

P Continuity and Differentiability, Methods of Differentiation 13

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