Chapter 10

Loading and Hauling

10.1. Dozers
A tractor equipped with a front-mounted earthmoving blade is known as dozer or bulldozer. A dozer
moves earth by lowering the blade and cutting until a full blade load of material is obtained. It then pushes
the material across the ground surface to the required location. The material is unloaded by pushing it over
a cliff or into a hopper or by raising the blasé to form spoil pile.

Because of their excellent traction and low ground pressure (typically 41 to 62 kPa), crawler dozers
are well suited for use in rough terrain or areas of low trafficability. Crawler dozers can operate on steeper
side slopes and climb greater grades than can wheel dozers.
Wheel dozers, on the other hand, operate at higher speed than do crawler dozers. Wheel dozers are
also capable of operating on paved roads without damaging the surface. While the wheel tractor’s dozing
ability is limited somewhat by its lower traction and high ground pressure (172 to 241 kPa), its high ground
pressure makes it an effective soil compactor.
Either rubber-tired or crawler tractors may be equipped with attachments other than dozer blades.
These includes rakes used for gathering up brush and small fallen trees and plows, rippers and scarifiers
which are used to break up hard surfaces. Tractors are also used to tow construction equipment such as
compactors, scrapers, and wagons.

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Dozer-type utilization comparison.
Wheel dozer Crawler dozer
Good on firm soils and concrete and abrasive soils Can work on a variety of soils; sharp-edged pieces
that have no sharp-edged pieces not as destructive to dozer, though fine sand will
increase running gear wear.
Best for level and downhill work, wet weather Can work over almost any terrain.
causing soft and slick surface conditions will slow or Can work of soft ground and over mud-slick
stop operation. surfaces; will exert very low ground pressures with
special low ground pressure undercarriage and
track configuration.
The concentrated wheel load will provide
compaction and kneading action to ground surface.
Good for long travel distances Good for short work distances
Best in handling loose soils Can handle tight soils
Fast return speeds (8 – 26 mph) Slow return speeds (5 – 10 mph)
Can handle only moderate blade loads Can push large blade loads

10.2. Dozer Blades

The most commonly used type of dozer blades are:
 Straight blade (S)
The straight blade is designed for short and medium distance passes, such as backfilling,
grading, and spreading fill material. These blades have no curvature across their horizontal
length and are mounted in a fixed position, perpendicular to the dozer’s line of travel.
 Angle blade (A)
Angle blade is wider (face length) by 0.30 to 0.6 m than S blade. It is very effective for side-
casting material, particularly for backfilling or making sidehill cuts.
 Universal blade (U)
This blade is wider (longer horizontal length) than a straight blade and the outside edges of the
long-dimension are canted forward about 25 degrees. This blade is suited for lighter materials.
Typical usages are working stockpiles and drifting loose or non-cohesive materials
 Cushion blade (C)
Cushion blades are mounted on a large dozer when the machine is used primarily for push-
loading scrapers. It has a wear-resistant center liner plate and is shorter that S blade so to avoid
pushing the blade into cutting the rear tires of the scraper while push-loading.

10.3. Dozer Blade Adjustment

The three types of adjustments that may be made to dozer blades are:
 Tilting
Tilting the blade is useful for ditching and breaking up frozen or crusty soils.
 Pitching
Pitching the blade forward reduces the blade penetration and causes the loosened material to roll
in front of the blade, whereas pitching the blade backward increases penetration.

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  Angling
Angling the blade is helpful when side-hill cutting, ditching, and moving material laterally.

Note:
 All blades may be tilted except the cushion blade.
 Only the angle blade maybe angled

10.4. Estimating Dozer Production

A dozer moves earth by lowering the blade and cutting until a full load of soil is obtained in front of
the blade. The dozer then pushes the load across the ground to the desired location. Dozer productivity is
estimated by:

 Estimating the volume of earth that can be moved by the dozer during each operating cycle
 Estimating the number of operating cycles that can be completed during an operating hour

 Factors affecting productivity of a dozer:

 Size and configuration of the blade
 Size of the dozer
 Distance the material is to be moved
 Type and condition of material to be moved
 Working conditions (rolling resistance, grade resistance, coefficient of traction and elevation)

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 blade load (LCM) = 0.375WHL Where:
W = load widths

productivity 
 load volume  operational efficiency  W  W2
 1
2
cycle time
H = load heights

H1  H 2

2

Note:
 Total dozer cycle time is the sum of its fixed cycle time (time required to maneuver, change gears,
start loading, and dump) and variable cycle time (haul time and the time required to doze and return)
 The haul time and the travel time are determined by dividing the haul distance by the dozer speed.

Typical dozer fixed cycle times

Operating Conditions Time (min)
Power-shift transmission 0.05
Direct-drive transmission 0.10
Hard digging 0.15

Typical dozer operating speeds

Operating Conditions Speed (km/h)
Dozing
 Hard materials, haul 30 m or less 2.4
 Hard materials, haul over 30 m 3.2
 Loose materials, haul 30 m or less 3.2
 Loose materials, haul over 30 m 4.0
Return
 30 m or less Maximum reverse speed in second range (power
shift) or reverse speed in gear used for dozing
(direct drive)

 Over 30 m Maximum reverse speed in third range (power

shift) or highest reverse speed (direct drive)

10.5. Job Management for Dozer

Some techniques used to increase dozer production include:
 downhill dozing
By taking advantage of the force of gravity, downhill dozing enables blade load to be increased
or cycle time to reduced compared to dozing on the level.
 slot dozing
Slot dozing utilizes a shallow trench (slot) cut between the loading and dumping areas to increase
the blade capacity that can be carried on each cycle. Under favorable conditions, slot dozing may
increase dozer production as much as 50%. The slot dozing technique may be applied to the
excavation of large cut areas by leaving uncut sections between slots. These uncut sections are
removed after all the other material has been excavated.
 blade-to-blade dozing.
Blade-to-blade dozing involves two dozers operating together with their blades almost touching.
This technique results in a combined blade capacity considerably greater than that of two single
blades. However, this technique is not efficient for use over short dozing distances because of the
extra maneuvering time required.
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10.6. Cost and Time Analysis
To estimate the cost of performing a construction task with a dozer, it is first necessary to estimate the
hourly ownership and operating costs. These costs can be used in conjunction with the dozer productivity
to estimate the unit cost for the construction task. Multiplying the unit cost by the total quantity of work to be
performed provides an estimate of the total cost for performing the construction task. Dividing the total
quantity of work by the dozer productivity provides an estimate of the time required to perform the task.

10.7. Loaders
A tractor equipped with a front-end bucket is called a loader, front-end loader, or bucket loader.
Loaders are used for excavating soft to medium-hard material, loading hoppers and haul units, stockpiling
material, backfilling ditches, and moving concrete and other construction materials.
Wheel loaders possess excellent job mobility and are capable of over-the-road movement between
jobs at speeds of 40.23 kph or higher. While their ground pressure is relatively low, however, they do not
have the all-terrain capability of track loaders.

Track loaders are capable of overcoming steeper grades and side slopes than are wheel loaders.
Their low ground pressure and high tractive effort enable them to operate in all but the lowest trafficability
soils. However, because of their lower speed, their production is less than that of wheel loader over longer
haul distances.
Attachments available for the loader include augers, backhoes, cranes boom, dozer and snow blades,
and forklifts in addition to conventional loader bucket. Backhoe loader is a combination of backhoe and
loader.

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10.8. Estimating Loader Production
Loader production may be estimated as the average of bucket load multiplied by cycles per hour
(equation given Chapter 5, section 5.2). Basic cycle time for a loader includes the time required for loading,
dumping, making four reversals of direction, and traveling a minimum distance. Loader bucket capacity is
rated in heaped (loose) volume. Bucket capacity should be adjusted by a bucket fill factor to obtain the best
estimate of actual bucket volume.

productivity 
 bucket capacity  operational efficiency 
cycle time

The operating load for a loader is the maximum load (weight) the loader can safely carry. Industry
standards (SAE Standard J818) limit the maximum safe load to:

 50% of the static tipping load for wheeled loaders

 35% of the static tipping load for tracked loaders

The static tipping load is the minimum weight placed in the loader bucket that causes the front rollers
of a tracked loader to clear the tracks or the rear wheels of a wheeled loader to clear the ground.
Loader capacity, therefore, is limited by both a volume and a weight constraint. Volume generally
governs, but the weight criteria may govern when loading dense material.
Loader productivity is influenced by the following factors:
 Type of material being loaded
 Bucket capacity
 Maneuver area for loader operation
 Cycle time of loader
 Operational efficiency
Loader productivity is estimated by:
 Estimating the volume of material that can be moved by the loader during each operating cycle
 Estimating the number of operating cycles that can be completed during an operating hour
While manufacturers’ performance curves should be used whenever possible, typical travel-time
curves for wheel loaders are presented in the figure below.

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 Basic loader cycle time
Basic Cycle Time (min)
Loading Conditions
Articulated Wheel Loader Track Loader
Loose materials 0.35 0.30
Average materials 0.50 0.35
Hard materials 0.65 0.45

Fill factors for loaders

Material Fill Factor
Loose Material
Mixed moist aggregates 0.95–1.00
Uniform aggregates up to 1/8 inch dia 0.95–1.00
Uniform aggregates 1/8 to 3/8 inch dia 0.90–0.95
Uniform aggregates over 3/8 inch dia 0.85–0.90
Blasted Rock
Well-blasted rock 0.80–0.95
Average-blasted rock 0.75–0.90
Poorly-blasted rock 0.60–0.75
Other
Rock dirt mixtures 1.00–1.20
Moist loam 1.00–1.10
Soil, boulders, roots 0.80–1.00
Cemented materials 0.85–0.95

10.9. Cost and Time Analysis

To estimate the cost of performing a construction task with a loader, it is first necessary to estimate the
hourly ownership and operating costs. These costs can be used in conjunction with the productivity to
estimate the unit cost for using a loader to perform the task. Multiplying the unit cost by the total quantity of
work to be performed yields an estimate to the total cost for performing the task. This information is needed
by the contractor to develop a cost estimate for the entire project. Dividing the total volume of work to be
performed by the loader productivity provides an estimate of the time required to perform the task. This
information is needed by the contractor to develop a construction schedule.

10.10. Job Management for Loader

Cutting of tires is a major problem when loading shot rock with a wheel loader. Type L-5 tires (rock,
extra deep tread) should be used to increase tire life when loading rock. The pit must be kept well drained,
because water acts as a lubricant to increase the cutting action of rock on rubber tires.
Because of tipping load limitations, the weight of the material being handled may limit the size of the
bucket that may be used on a loader. In selection of a loader, consideration must also be given to the
clearances required during loading and dumping. Like excavators, optimum positioning of the loader and
haul units may minimize loading, maneuver, and dump times. Multisegment buckets (also called 4-in-1
buckets) and multipurpose buckets, are capable of performing as clamshell, dozer, or scraper, as well as a
conventional loader. Such buckets are often more effective than are conventional buckets in handling wet,
sticky materials. Blasting or ripping hard materials before attempting to load them will often increase loader
production in such materials.

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10.11. Scrapers
Scrapers are designed to load, haul, and dump loose material. The greatest advantage is their
versatility. They can be used for a wide variety of material types and are economical for a range of haul
distances and conditions.

10.12. Classification of Scrapers

 Conventional scrapers
 Single engine
A tractor pulling a bowl that can operate under its own power or be push-assisted. This is the
most common type of scraper on large earthmoving jobs.
 Tandem or twin engine
This type has a second engine mounted in the rear and can develop greater power. This is ideal
for steeper hauls at greater speeds.
 Push-pull scraper
This type is designed with a push block mounted on the rear and a bail mounted on the front to
assist other scrapers or be pushed by other scrapers. They are ideal for dense soil-excavating
projects when a dozer is not utilized for pushing.
 Self-loading scraper
 Elevating scraper
This type utilizes a ladder-type elevator to assist in cutting and lifting material into the scraper
bowl. Elevating scrapers are not designed to be push-loaded and may be damaged by pushing.
 Auger scraper
This is a self-loading scraper that uses a rotating auger located in the center of the scraper bowl
to help lift material into the bowl.

10.13. Economical use of scrapers

The most economical scraper to use for an operation depends on:
 the characteristics of the material to be removed,
 length of the haul road
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  haul road conditions, such as grade and rolling resistance
 pusher requirements.

Note:
a) Elevating scrapers should be considered if the haul distances are short and haul road conditions
are good.
b) If the material to be removed contains rocks that are too large to load by the elevator, conventional
scrapers or auger scrapers should be used.
c) If the haul road has high rolling resistance or steep grades, twin-engine scrapers should be
considered. Otherwise, single-engine scrapers usually are the most economical to use.

10.14. Scraper Production Cycle

The production cycle for a scraper consists of six operations:
1. Loading
2. Haul travel
3. Dumping and spreading
4. Turning
5. Return travel
6. Turning and positioning to pick up another load

The total cycle time is given by the equation:

Ts  loadt  hault  dumpt  turnt  returnt  turnt

10.15. Estimating Scraper Production

Scraper cycle time is estimated as the sum of fixed cycle time and variable time. Fixed cycle time in
this case includes spot time, load time, and maneuver time. Spot time represents the time required for a unit
to position itself in the cut and begin loading, including any waiting for the pusher.
Variable cycle time, or travel time, includes haul time and return time. Haul time and return times are
estimated by the use of travel-time curves or by using the average speed method with performance and
retarder curves.
In determining the payload per scraper cycle, it is necessary to check both the rated weight payload
and the heaped volume capacity. The volume corresponding to the lesser of these two values will govern.

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Scraper fixed time (min)
Spot Time
Conditions
Single Pusher Tandem Pusher Push-Pull Self-loading Elevator
Favorable 0.2 0.1 Negligible Negligible
Average 0.3 0.2 0.1 Negligible
Unfavorable 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2

Load Time
Conditions Single Tandem Elevating
Auger Push-Pull*
Pusher Pusher Scraper
Favorable 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.7 0.7
Average 0.6 0.5 1.0 0.9 1.0
Unfavorable 1.0 0.9 1.5 1.3 1.4
Maneuver and Dump Time
Conditions
Single Engine Twin Engine Push-Pull
Favorable 0.3 0.3 0.3
Average 0.7 0.6 0.5
Unfavorable 1.0 0.9 0.8

productivity 
 rated capacity  operational efficiency 
cycle time

Speed factors for scrapers

Increasing maximum Decreasing maximum
Length of Segment Starting from 0 or
speed from previous speed from previous
(m) coming to a stop
section section
46 0.42 0.72 1.60
61 0.51 0.76 1.51
92 0.57 0.80 1.39
122 0.63 0.82 1.33
153 0.65 0.84 1.29
214 0.70 0.86 1.24
305 0.74 0.89 1.19
610 0.86 0.93 1.12
915 0.90 0.95 1.08
1220 0.93 0.96 1.05
1525 0.95 0.97 1.04

average speed   maximum speed  speed factor 

10.16. Push-Loading
Except for elevating, pull-scrapers and push-pull scrapers, wheel scrapers require the assistance of
pusher tractors to obtain maximum production. The three basic methods of push-loading scrapers are:

 Back-track loading
Use the back-track push-loading technique where it is impractical to load in both directions.
However, this method is inefficient and the slowest method due to the time spent in backing up and
repositioning for the next load. It is the most commonly used since it permits all scrapers to load in
the same general area.

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  Chain loading
Use the chain push-loading technique where the cut is fairly long, making it possible to pick up two
or more scraper loads without backtracking. The pusher pushes one scraper, then moves behind
another scraper that is moving in the same direction in an adjacent lane. It is suitable for a long,
narrow cut area.

 Shuttle loading
Use the shuttle push-loading technique for short cuts where it is possible to load in both directions.
The pusher pushes one scraper, then turns and pushes a second scraper in the opposite direction. It
requires two separate fill areas for efficient operations.

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Note:
 A complete pusher cycle consists of maneuver time (while the pusher moves into position and
engages the scraper), load time, boost time (during which the pusher assists in accelerating the
scraper out of the cut), and return time.
 Tandem pushing involves the use of two pusher tractors operating one behind the other during
loading and boosting. The use of tandem pushers reduces scraper load time and frequently results
in obtaining larger scraper loads.
 The dual tractor is more efficient pusher than tandem tractors because the dual tractor is controlled
by a single operator and no time is lost in coordination between two operators.

10.17. Optimum Load Time

Optimum load time refers to the loading time which will yield the maximum production. Studies found
that the scraper loading time which yielded maximum scraper production in a given situation was usually
less than the loading time required to obtain the maximum scraper load.

10.18. Method for determining the optimum load time:

 To determine the optimum load time, it is necessary to plot the volume of scraper load versus loading
time.
 To do this, the scraper must be loaded for controlled periods of time and weighed each time
after loading.
 The load weight is then converted into scraper volume and plotted as a load growth curve
(the slope of the load growth curve at any loading corresponds to the rate of loading at that
time).

 Extend the horizontal axis of the load growth curve to the left of the origin.
 Locate a point A on the axis whose distance from the origin represents “total cycle time less loading
time.

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  Draw a tangent to the load growth curve from point A intersecting the curve at point B. The loading
time (C) corresponding to point B is the optimum load time.

Note:
 Distance AC represents the total scraper cycle time
 Distance BC represents the corresponding volume per cycle
 Slope of line AB represents the production (volume) per unit of time. When the slope of AB is at a
maximum, the scraper production per unit of time is maximized.

10.19. Calculating the Number of Pushers Required

The number of scrapers that can theoretically be handled by one pusher without a scraper having to
wait for a pusher can be calculated by the equation

scraper cycle time

No. of scrapers served = 1
Pusher cycle time

Typical pusher cycle time (min)

Loading Method Single Pusher Tandem Pusher
Back-track 1.5 1.4
Chain or shuttle 1.0 0.9

The number of pushers required to fully service a given scraper fleer may then be determined form the
equation
no. of scrapers
No. of pushers required =  2
no. served by one pusher

Note:
 The result obtained from equation 1 be rounded down to one decimal place before substituting
in equation 2.
 The result obtained from equation 2 must be rounded up to the next whole number to ensure that
scrapers do not have to wait for a pusher.

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  When the number of pushers actually used is less than the number required to fully serve the
scraper fleet, expected production is reduced to that obtained using the equation below. In
performing this calculation, use the the precise number of pushers required, not the integer
value.

 no. of pushers 
Production =    no. of scrapers  production per scraper 
 required no. 

10.20. Push-Pull Loading

In push-pull or twin-hitch scraper loading, two all-wheel-drive scrapers assist each other to load
without the use of pusher tractors. The scrapers are equipped with special push blocks and coupling
devices. The sequence of loading operations is as follows:

1. The first scraper to arrive in the cut starts to self-load.

2. The second scraper arrives, makes contact, couples, and pushes the front scraper to assist it in
loading.
3. When the front scraper is loaded, the operator raises its bowl. The second scraper then begins to
load with the front scraper pulling to assist in loading.
4. The two scrapers uncouple and make separate for the haul to the fill.

10.21. Job Management for Scraper

The type of scraper that may be expected to yield the lowest cost per unit of production is a function
of the total resistance and the haul distance as shown in the figure below. Elevating scrapers can use their
self-loading ability effectively for short hauls. however, their additional weight puts them at a disadvantage
on long hauls. Single-engine overhung units are best suited to medium distances on relatively flat haul roads
where maneurability is important and adequate pusher power is availability. Three-axle units are faster on
long hauls and uneven surfaces . All-wheel-drive tandem-powered units are favored for conditions of high
total resistance at all but the shortest haul distances.

Some techniques for maximizing scraper production include:

 Use downhill loading whenever possible to reduce the required pusher power load time.
 Use chain or shuttle loading methods if possible.
 Use rippers or scarifiers to loosen hard soils before attempting to load.
 Have pushers give scrapers an adequate boost to accelerate units out of the cut.
 Keep the cut in good condition by using pushers during their idle time or by employing other
equipment. Provide adequate drainage in the cut to improve trafficability.

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  Maintain the haul road in the best possible condition. Full-time use of a motor grader on the haul
road will usually pay off in increased scraper production.
 Make the haul road wide enough to permit high-speed hauling without danger. One-way haul
roads should be utilized whenever possible.
 Keep the fill surface smooth and compacted to minimize scraper time in the fill.
 Boost scrapers on the fill if spreading time is excessive.

Problem Set for Chapter 10:

1. A contractor is planning to use a tracked dozer with power shift transmission to excavate 1 146.43 bank
cubic meter for the foundation of a large house. The swell of the excavated material is estimated to be
25%. The dozer must push the excavated material up a 12% slope where it will be stockpiled for later
removal. The contractor has measured the pile of excavated material in front of the dozer’s universal
blade just before spillage occurs and has determined the pile length to be 3.8 m, the pile width to be 2.5
m, and the pile height to be 1.2 m. The dozer weighs 20 139.5 kg, and the coefficient of traction is
estimated to be 0.7. The average haul distance is estimated to be 91.4 m. What is the estimated
productivity of the dozer, if the contractor plans to average 50 minutes of operation per hour?
Performance characteristics of the dozer are shown in the figure below. The dozer will be operating in
first gear while digging and pushing a load and in second gear while backing from the stockpile.

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2. The contractor of Problem 1 estimates the hourly ownership cost for the tracked dozer to be ₱4 125, the
hourly operating cost to be ₱2 475, and the dozer operator’s wages to be ₱3 300 per hour.
a) What is the estimated unit cost for excavating the foundation per bank cubic meter?
b) What is the total estimated cost for excavating for the foundation?
c) What is the estimated duration for the excavating operation?
3. A power-shift crawler tractor has a rated blade capacity of 7.65 LCM. The dozer is excavating loose
common earth and pushing it a distance of 61 m. Maximum reverse speed in third range is 8 km/h.
Estimate the production of the dozer if job efficiency is 50 min/h.
4. A contractor has a wheeled loader with a 2.1 cubic meter bucket. The static tipping load for the loader
is 69.4 kN. What is the maximum load the loader can carry per cycle when loaded with:
a) moist loam weighing 11.6 kN per loose cubic meter?
b) wet gravel weighing 19.8 kN per loose cubic meter?
5. A contractor is planning to use a tracked loader to excavate for the foundation for a small building. The
loader bucket has a rated heaped capacity of 1.15 cubic meter. The static tipping load for the loader is
6531.7 kg. The contractor intends to use the loader to excavate for the foundation and stockpile the
excavated material for backfill and landscaping. The average haul distance for the loader is estimated
to be 30.5 m one way, the average speed when moving loaded is estimated to be 2.6 kph, and the
average speed when moving empty is estimated to be 3.9 kph. The material to be excavated is moist
loam weighing 1 305.2 kg per loose cubic meter. What is the estimated productivity of the loader, if the
contractor plans to operate 50 minutes per hour?
6. The contractor of Problem 5 estimates the hourly ownership cost for the loader to be ₱3 520, the hourly
operating cost to be ₱2 475, and the operator’s hourly wages to be ₱3 300. The project plans indicate the
required excavation to measure 1.8 m by 1.2 m by 13.7 m.
a) What is the estimated unit cost for excavating the foundation in bank cubic meter? The percent swell
for the soil is estimated to be 15%.
b) What is the total estimated cost for excavating for the foundation?
c) How long do you estimate it will take the loader to complete the excavation?
7. Estimate the hourly production in LCM of a 2.68 m 3 wheel loader excavating sand and gravel (average
material) from a pit and moving it to a stockpile. The average hauls distance is 61 m, the average effective
grade is 6%, the bucket fill factor is 1.00, and job efficiency is 50 min/h.
8. Estimate the production of a single engine two-axle tractor scraper whose travel time curves are shown
below based on the following information:
Maximum heaped volume = 24 LCM
Maximum payload = 34 020 kg
Material: Sandy clay, 1 898 kg/BCM, 1 571 kg/LCM
Rolling resistance = 50 kg/t
Job efficiency = 50 min/h
Operating conditions = average
Single pusher
Haul route:
Section 1: Level loading area
Section 2: Down a 4% grade, 610 m
Section 3: Level dumping area
Section 4: Up a 4% grade, 610 m
Section 5: Level turnaround, 183 m

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9. Solve problem 8 using the average-speed method and the performance curves.
10. The estimated cycle time for a wheel scraper is 6.5 min. Calculate the number of pushers required to
serve a fleet of nine scrapers using single pushers. Determine the result for both back-track and chain
loading methods.
11. Find the expected production of the scraper fleet of Problem 10 if only one pusher is available and the
chain loading method is used. Expected production of a single scraper assuming adequate pusher
support is 173 BCM/h

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