Strength of

Material
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

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Strength of Material

Elastic properties
 Modulus of elasticity / Young’s Modulus

 Modulus of rigidity / shear modulus

 Bulk modulus

 Poisson’s ratio

 Relation between elastic constants

Material No. of independent elastic constant

Isotropic 2

Orthotropic 9

Anisotropic 21

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Concept of stress and strain

 Stress

 Strain

 Application of Hooke’s law

Axially loaded prismatic bar

AE = Axial Rigidity

Area = A, Length = L, E = Young’s modulus, P = axial force

 Stepped bar

 Circular tapered bar

 Rectangular tapered bar

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 Composite bar in parallel

 Equivalent Young’s modulus,

Deflection due to Self-Weight

 Rectangular section,

 Conical section,

Bar of self-weight W, density of material , length L and young’s modulus E

 Effect of uniaxial loading

Strain along x-axis (loading axis),

Strain along y-axis and z-axis (non-loaded axis),

 Effect of tri-axial loading

Strain along x-axis,

Strain along y-axis,

Strain along z-axis,

 Volumetric strain

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 Thermal stress

Prismatic bar

Length = , Temperature rise = , Coefficient of thermal expansion =

Thermal stress,

Reaction force,

 Parallel composite bar

And by using force equilibrium,

Composite bars in series

By using compatibility equation

And by using force equilibrium

Impact loading

(ΔL)impact = (ΔL)static × I.F.

(ΔL)impact = Deformation under impact load, (ΔL)static = Deformation under static load

I.F. is integrating factor

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h is height from which mass is dropped

σimpact = σstatic × I.F.

σimpact = Stress induced due to impact load, σstatic = Stress induced due to static load

Torsion equation
 Torsion equation

T = Torque acting on the bar, J = Polar moment of inertia

= Shear stress developed at ‘r’ distance away from center

r = Radial distance from center O, G = Modulus of rigidity

θ = Angular twist, = Length of the bar

Rθ =

= Shear strain, R = Radius of the bar

 Polar section modulus

= Maximum shear stress

 Torsional stiffness

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 Power transmission

ω = Angular speed in radian per sec, N = Speed of shaft in rpm, T = Torque in N-m

 Shear stress distribution

Solid shaft

Hollow shaft

K = Ratio of inner diameter and outer diameter

D = The outer diameter

 Shaft in series

TAB = TBC = T

θAC = θAB + θBC

 Shaft in parallel

T = T A + TB

θA = θB = θ

 Statically indeterminate cases

Axially loaded member

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Net deformation = 0 (compatibility equation)

 Member under torsion

∑T=0

θAB + θBC = 0 ----- (compatibility equation)

Shear force and Bending moment

Relation between Bending moment and shear force

S.F = Shear force (N)

M = Bending moment (Nm)

ω = Load intensity (N/m)

Beams of uniform strength

Variable width and constant depth

(Left figure shows the front view and right figure shows the top view of the beam)

Width of beam as a function of x is given as:

Variable depth and constant width

(Left figure shows the front view and right figure shows the top view of the beam)

Depth of beam as a function of x is given as:

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Deflection
 Double integration method

Double integration method is suitable for cantilever beams

= slope of beam at that point

Mx-x is moment at any point x distance away from x = 0, y is the deflection at that point

E is modulus of elasticity, I is second moment of area

 Area moment method

Reference point = Point of zero slope (point A)

Origin point = Point where deflection/slope is to be determined (point B)

θorigin – θref = area of M/EI diagram between reference point and origin
point.

yorigin –yref = first moment of area of M/EI diagram between reference point and origin point, where
moment is taken from origin point.

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 Expression of strain energy

 Axial loading

 In case of constant axial load throughout the length:

 Under constant moment

 MXX is moment at a cross section x-x

 In case of constant moment throughout the cross section:

 Under constant torque

 In case of constant torque throughout the cross section:

 Under transverse shear load

 Under self-weight of prismatic bar

Y is weight density, A is area of cross section of prismatic bar

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L is length of the bar

Castigliano theorem (Strain energy method)

θA is slope at point A, YA is deflection at point A, MA is moment acting at A

PA is load acting at A, U is the strain energy of a beam

 Superposition method

 Propped beams

 Maxwell reciprocal theorem

WC × YCB = WB × YBC

YBC : deflection at point B due to load at C

YCB : deflection at point C due to load at B

 Deflection and slope in different cases

Loading condition Deflection Slope

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P = Concentrated load, M = Concentrated moment, w = Intensity of distributed load

L = Length of the beam, B = End point and C = Center point

Bending stress in beams

 Bending equation

M is bending moment

IN.A. is second moment of area about neutral axis

σb is bending stress induced at a fiber located at y distance from neutral axis

y is distance of a fiber on cross section from neutral axis

E is modulus of elasticity, R is radius of curvature of neutral surface

 Area moment of inertia of common section

Section Area Moment of inertia (IN.A.)

Rectangular

Triangular

Circular

Hollow circular

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 Section modulus (z)

is the maximum distance of the outer fiber from the neutral axis on the cross-section

 Maximum bending stress

Moment of resistance (MR)

∝Z

For same cross-sectional area, the order of decreasing strength of various cross sections is given as:

 Bending stress for various cross section

 Rectangular

 Triangular

 Circular

 Combined bending and direct stress

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Where, σ is total stress

is direct axial stress

is bending stress

A is cross sectional area

Shear stress in beams

 General equation

P is shear force on the cross section

INA is moment of area about neutral axis

is distance of centroid of selected cross section from neutral axis

A is area of selected cross section

b is the width of the targeted cross section

 Rectangular cross section

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At y = 0, is maximum

 Triangular cross section

At y = h/2, is maximum

 Shear stress distribution in various cases

Section / /
Rectangular or square 3/2 3/2

Circular 4/3 4/3

Triangle 3/2 4/3

Diamond 9/8 1
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Principal stress and strain

 Combined loading

Where, M is bending moment, T is torque and P is axial load acting on the member

is the normal stress in x direction due to combined effect of axial load and bending moment

Biaxial state of stress at a point

is normal stress in x-direction

is normal stress in y-direction

is shear stress in xy plane

 Important formulas

Normal stress at plane,

Centre of Mohr circle = ( , 0)

(Shear stress at a plane where normal stress is zero)

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 Stresses at any inclined plane

Location of principal plane,

Plane of maximum shear stress,

 Absolute and In-plane maximum shear stress

X-Y plane Y-Z plane Z-X plane

Here, σ1 > σ2 > σ3

In biaxial state of stress, σ3 = 0

 Principal strain

Maximum shear strain is denoted by diameter of Mohr’s circle

 Strain matrix:
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 Important formulas related to strain

and are normal strain and shear strain on a plane inclined at from the horizontal plane.

 Relation between principal stress and principal strain

Absolute maximum shear strain, = maximum of [(ε1 – ε2), (ε2 – ε3), (ε1 – ε3)]

Theory of column
Euler’s formula for critical buckling load

= critical load, E = modulus of elasticity, = minimum value of second moment of area

Le = Effective length of column (depends on end conditions)

Effective length of various end conditions

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End Condition Effective Length

Both ends hinged L

One end fixed and one end

hinged.

Both ends fixed L/2

One end fixed and one end free 2L

 Slenderness ratio

Radius of gyration (k) =

 Stress Induced due to buckling

Where, A is cross sectional area.

S is slenderness ratio.

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Pressure vessels
 Hoop stress

(Hoop stress)

Hoop stress

Where, p is internal pressure

d is diameter of cylinder

t is shell thickness

 Longitudinal stress

Longitudinal stress

 With joint efficiency

In case efficiency of joint is given:

Where, ηL is efficiency of longitudinal joint

Where, ηc is efficiency of circumferential joint

 Maximum shear stress

(In thin shell analysis, is considered to be 0)

In plane

In plane

In Plane
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Absolute

 Strain in thin cylinder

Hoop strain =

Longitudinal strain

Volumetric strain = (2 × hoop strain) + longitudinal strain

 Analysis of thin sphere

Radial stress will neglected (σr = 0)

In plane

In plane

In plane

 Strain in thin sphere

Hoop strain =

Volumetric strain = 3 × hoop strain

Theory of failure
 Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine’s theory)
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Suitable for brittle material

σ ≤ σ­permissible

σ1 is maximum principal stress

σyt is yield strength in tension

is yield strength in shear

N is factor of safety

 Maximum shear stress theory (Guest and Teresca’s theory)

Suitable for ductile material

Absolute τmax ≤ τpermissible

is yield strength in shear

N is factor of safety

 Maximum distortion energy theory (Von misses theory)

 Suitable for ductile material

 It cannot be applied for material under hydrostatic pressure.

is yield strength in shear

are principal stresses

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N is factor of safety

 Maximum principal strain theory (St. Venant theory)

is yield strength in shear

are principal stresses

N is factor of safety

Total strain energy theory (Haigh’s and Beltrami theory)

is yield strength in shear

are principal stresses

N is factor of safety

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