Intermediate Counting and Probability David Patrick Art of Problem Solving Art of Problem Solving Books e Online Classes e Videos ¢ Interactive Resources wwwaartofproblemsolving.com eS© 2007,2012,2015,2018 AoPS Incorporated. All Rights Reserved Reproduction of any portion of this book without the written permission of AoPS Incorporated is strictly 1 other noncommercial uses as defined in Sections 107 and 108 of the prohibited, except for “fair use US. Copyright Act Published by: AoPS Incorporated 10865 Rancho Bernardo Rd Ste 100 San Diego, CA 92127 (858) 675-4555 [email protected] ISBN-13: 978-1-934124-06-2 Visit the Art of Problem Solving website at http: //www.artofproblemsolving.com to view Scan this code with your mobile device to visit the Art of Problem Solving websi our other books, our free videos and interactive resources, our online community, and our ‘online school Cover image designed by Vanessa Rusczyk using KaleidoTile software. Printed in the United States of America Printed! in 2018,HOW TO USE THIS BOOK How to Use This Book Learn by Solving Problems We believe that the best way to learn mathematics is by solving problems. Lots and lots of problems. In fact, we believe that the best way to learn mathematics is to try to solve problems that you don’t know how to do. When you discover something on your own, you'll understand it much better than if someone had just told you. Most of the sections of this book begin with several problems. The solutions to these problems will be covered in the text, but try to solve the problems before reading the section. If you can’t solve some of the problems, that’s OK, because they will all be fully solved as you read the section. Even if you can solve all of the problems, it's still important to read the section, both to make sure that your solutions are correct, and also because you may find that the book's solutions are simpler or easier to understand than your own. Explanation of Icons Throughout the book, you will see various shaded boxes and icons Concept: This will be a general problem-solving technique or strategy. These are Q=se the “keys” to becoming a better problem solver! Important: This will be something important that you should learn. It might be a) J formula,a solution technique, ora caution WARNING! Beware if you see this box! This will point out a common mistake or a pitfall. iilHOW TO USE THIS BOOK This box will contain material which, although interesting, is not part of the main material of the text. It’s OK to skip over these boxes, but if you read them, you might learn something interesting! Sidenot Bogus Solution: Just like the impossible cube shown to the left, there’s something wrong with any “solution” that appears in this box. Exercises, Review Problems, and Challenge Problems Most sections end with several Exercises. These will test your understanding of the material that was covered in the section. You should try to solve all of the exercises. Exercises marked with a * are more difficult Most chapters conclude with several Review Problems. These are problems that test your basic understanding of the material covered in the chapter. Your goal should be to solve most or all of the Review Problems for every chapter—if you're unable to do this, it means that you haven't yet mastered the material, and you should probably go back and read the chapter again. All of the chapters (except for Chapter 1) end with Challenge Problems. These problems are generally more difficult than the other problems in the book, and will really test your mastery of the material. Some of them are very, very hard—the hardest ones are marked with a *. Don’t expect to be able to solve all of the Challenge Problems on your first try—these are difficult problems even for experienced problem solvers. If you are able to Solve a large number of Challenge Problems, then congratulations, you are on your way to becoming an expert problem solver! Hints Many problems come with one or more hints. You can look up the hints in the Hints section in the back of the book. The hints are numbered in random order, so that when you're looking up a hint to a problem you don’t accidentally glance at the hint to the next problem at the same time It is very important that you first try to solve each problem without resorting to the hints. Only after you've seriously thought about a problem and are stuck should you seek a hint. Also, for problems which have multiple hints, use the hints one at a time; don’t go to the second hint until you've thought about the first one. Solutions The solutions to all of the Exercises, Review Problems, and Challenge Problems are in the separate solutions book. If you are using this textbook in a regular school class, then your teacher may decide not to make this solutions book available to you, and instead present the solutions himyherself. However,HOW TO USE THIS BOOK if you are using this book to learn on your own, then you probably have a copy of the solutions book, in which case there are some very important things to keep in mind 1. Make a serious attempt to solve each problem before looking at the solution. Don’t use the solutions book as a crutch to avoid really thinking about the problem first. You should think hard about a problem before deciding to look at the solution. On the other hand, after you've thought hard about a problem, don’t feel bad about looking at the solution if you're really stuck. 2. After you solve a problem, it's usually a good idea to read the solution, even if you think you know how to solve the problem. The solutions book might show you a quicker or more concise way to solve the problem, or it might have a completely different solution method than yours. 3. If you have to look at the solution in order to solve a problem, make a note of that problem. Come back toit ina week or two to make sure that you are able to solve iton your own, without resorting, to the solution Resources Here are some other good resources for you to further pursue your study of mathematics © The Art of Problem Solving books, by Sandor Lehoczky and Richard Rusczyk. Whereas the book that you're reading right now will go into great detail of one specific subject area—counting and probability—the Art of Problem Solving books cover a wide range of problem solving topics across many different areas of mathematics. ‘© The www. artofproblemsol ving. com website. The publishers of this book are also the webmasters of the Art of Problem Solving website, which contains many resources for students: = a discussion forum — ontine classes = resource lists of books, contests, and other websites a BTgX tutorial a math and problem solving Wiki and much more! # You can hone your problem solving skills (and perhaps win prizes!) by participating in various math contests. For middle school students in the United States, the major contests are MOEMS, MATHCOUNTS, and the AMC 8. For U.S. high school students, some of the best-known contests are the AMC/AIME/USAMO series of contests (which are used to choose the U.S. team for the International Mathematical Olympiad), the American Regions Math League (ARML), the Mandel- brot Competition, the Harvard-MIT Mathematics Tournament, and the USA Mathematical Talent Search. More details about these contests are on page vii, and links to these and many other contests are available on the Art of Problem Solving website.HOW TO USE THIS BOOK A Note to Teachers We believe students learn best when they are challenged with hard problems that at first they may not ng philosophy behind this book know how to do, This is the motivat Rather than first introducing new material and then giving students exercises, we present problems at the start of each section that students should try to solve before new material is presented. The goal is to get students to discover the new material on their own. Often, complicated problems are broken into smaller parts, so that students can discover new techniques one piece at a time. After the problems, new material is formally presented in the text, and full solutions to each problem are explained, along with problem-solving strategies. We hope that teachers will find that their stronger students will discover most of the material in this book on their own by working through the problems. Other students may learn better from a more traditional approach of first seeing the new material, then working the problems. Teachers have the flexibility to use either approach when teaching from this book. ‘The book is linear in coverage. Generally, students and teachers should progress straight through the book in order, without skipping chapters. Sections marked with a * contain supplementary material that may be safely skipped. In general, chapters are not equal in length, so different chapters may take different amounts of classroom time. Links The Art of Problem Solving website has a page containing links to websites with content relating to material in this book, as well as an errata list for the book. This page can be found at: http: //www.artofproblemsolving.com/bookl inks/intermediate-counting —— Extra! Occasionally, you'll see a box like this at the bottom of a page. This is an “Extra!” and might be a quote, some biographical or historical background, or perhaps an interesting, idea to think about. viACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Acknowledgements Contests We would like to thank the following contests for allowing us to use a selection of their problems in this book: « The American Mathematics Competitions, a series of contests for U.S. middle and high school students. The AMC 8, AMC 10, and AMC 12 contests are multiple-choice tests that are taken by over 300,000 students every year. Top scorers on the AMC 10 and AMC 12 are invited to take the American Invitational Mathematics Examination (AIME), which is a more difficult short-answer contest. Approximately 10,000 students every year participate in the AIME. Then based on the results of the AMC and AIME contests, about 500 students are invited to participate in the USA Mathematical Olympiad (USAMO) and the USA Junior Mathematical Olympiad (USAJMO), a 2-day, 9-hour examination in which each student must show all of his or her work Results from the USAMO are used to choose the U.S. team for the International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO). More information about the AMC contests can be found on the AMC website at http://www maa.org/math-competi tions. © The Mandelbrot Competition, which was founded in 1990 by Sandor Lehoczky, Richard Rusezyk, and Sam Vandervelde. The aim of the Mandelbrot Competition is to provide a challenging, engaging mathematical experience that is both competitive and educational. Students compete both as individuals and in teams. More information can be found at www.mandelbrot . org ‘+ The USA Mathematical Talent Search (USAMTS), which was founded in 1989 by Professor George Berzsenyi. The USAMTS is a free mathematics competition open to all United States middle and high school students. As opposed to most mathematics competitions, the USAMTS allows students a full month to work out their solutions. Carefully written justifications are required for each problem. More information is available at www .usamts..org * The American Regions Math League (ARML), which was founded in 1976. The annual ARML competition brings together nearly 2,000 of the nation’s finest students. They meet, compete against, and socialize with one another, forming friendships and sharpening their mathematical ViiACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: skills, The contest is written for high school students, although some exceptional junior high students attend each year. The competition consists of several events, which include a team round, a power question (in which a team solves proof-oriented questions), an individual round, and two relay rounds. More information is available at www. arm] .com, © The Harvard-MIT Mathematics Tournament, which is an annual math tournament for high school students, held at MIT and at Harvard in alternating years. It is run exclusively by MIT and Harvard students, most of whom themselves participated in math contests in high school, More information is available at hmmt .mit . edu. Some other sources for problems in the book are listed below. MATHCOUNTS MATHCOUNTS, the premier national math contest for U.S. middle school students, Putnam The William Lowell Putnam Competition, an annual math competition for undergraduate students in North America. PSS Problem-Solving Strategies by Arthur Engel. (See the references on page 366 for the complete citation.) ToT The International Mathematics Tournament of Towns, a mathematical problem solving competition for students throughout the world. We have also included problems from various countries’ national math Olympiad contests. These problems are cited by country name in the text. How We Wrote This Book This book was written using the [ATX document processing system. We thank the authors of the various IsTRX packages that we used while preparing this book, and also the authors of The BTEX Companion for writing a reference book that is not only thorough but also very readable. The diagrams were prepared using METAPOST. About Us This book is a collaborative effort of the staff of the Art of Problem Solving. Richard Rusczyk wrote the original lecture notes for the online course that was the inspiration for this book; he also read several drafts of this book and made many, many helpful suggestions. Extensive proofreading of the manuscript was done by Greg Brockman, Chris Chang, Larry Evans, Sean Markan, Jeff Nanney, Adrian Sanborn, Nathan Savir, and Valentin Vornicu. Special thanks to Hyun Soo Kim for his assistance with selecting many of the problems, and to Ravi Boppana, Vahe Hagopian, Deven Ware, Laura Zehender, and many members of the APS online community for reporting errors in previous printings of the book. Vanessa Rusczyk designed the cover. vilCONTENTS Contents How to Use This Book Acknowledgements vii 1 Review of Counting & Probability Basics 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Basic Counting Techniques 2 1.3. Basic Probability Techniques 1 14 Expected Value 24 7 1.5. Pascal’s Triangle and the Binomial Theorem. 1.6 Summation Notation 17 Summary Q sets and Logic ae 21 Introduction 22 © Sets 23. Operations on Sets a3 24 Truth and Logic 37 25° Quantifiers i 26 Summary 6CONTENTS. 3 A Piece of PIE 49 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2. PIE With 2 Properties 49 3.3. PIE With 3 Properties 4 34 Counting Problems With PIE 58 3.5 PIE With Many Properties 65 3.6 Counting Items With More Than 1 of Something 68 3.7 Some Harder PIE Problems. 73 38 Summary 79 4 Constructive Counting and 1-1 Correspondences 83 41 Introduction 83 42 Some Basic Problems 84 4.3 Harder Constructive Counting Problems 86 44 1-1 Correspondence Basics 94 4.5 More Complicated 1-1 Correspondences 99 4.6 Clever 1-1 Correspondences 105 4.7 Summary 14 5 the Pigeonhole Principle 118 5.1 Introduction 18 5.2 It’s Just Common Ser . 118 5.3 Basic Pigeonhole Problems 2.0... 000. v ee eee eevee eee 19 54 More Advanced Pigeonhole Problems 122 55 Summary WwW 6 Constructive Expectation 130 6.1 Introduction - _ 130 6.2 Basic Examples 131 63 Summing Expectations Constructively 135 64x A Coat With Many Patches (Reprise) 140 65 Summary 142CONTENTS. 7 Distributions 145 7.1 Introduction . . . . 145 7.2. Basic Distributions eer 146 73 Distributions With Extra Conditions 149 74 — More Complicated Distribution Problems e959 154 75 Summary 2 5 158 8 Mathematical Induction 161 9 Fibonacci Numbers 172 8.1 Introduction 5 72 9.2 A Motivating Problem ‘ avege 172 9.3 Some Fibonacci Problems vee 175 94 A Formula for the Fibonacci Numbers con 183 95 Summary ee . 189 1 0 Recursion 192 10.1 Introduction 192 102 Examples of Recursions . 193 103 Linear Recurrences 3 200 104A Hard Recursion Problem - . 204 105 Problems Involving Catalan Numbers 206 106 Formulas for the Catalan Numbers Q 216 107 Summary 222 1 1 Conditional Probability 11.1 Introduction 11.2 _ Basic Examples of Conditional Probability 11.3 Some Definitions and Notation 114 Harder Examples 115 _Let’s Make a Deal! 116 SummaryCONTENTS: 1 2 Combinatorial Identities 243 12.1 Introduction 243, 12.2 Basic Identities 243 12. More Identities 254 124 Summary 261 1 3 Events With States 265 13.1 Introduction 265 13.2 State Diagrams and Random Walks 266 13.3 Events With Infinite States 277 134 Two-player Strategy G 284 13.5 Summary 294 1 4 Generating Functions 298 141 Introduction = 298 142 Basic Examples of Generating Functions 299 143. The Binomial Theorem (as a Generating Function) 305 144 Distributions (as Generating Functions) 307 145 The Generating Function for Partitions 314 14.6% The Generating Function for the Fibonacci Numbers 325 14.7 Summary 327 15 Graph Theory esi 15.1 Introduction 331 15.2 Definitions 332 153 Basic Properties of Graphs 334 154 Cycles and Paths 32 155 Planar Graphs 349 15.6 Eulerian and Hamiltonian Paths . 354 15.7 Summary . 360 1 6 Challenge Problems 363 xiCONTENTS References 366 Hints to Selected Problems 367 Index 383 Xi— Extra! Erné Rubik (1944-present) and his Magic Cube The diagrams at the start of each chapter depict a Rubik's Cube Erné Rubik was an inventor, sculptor, and architecture professor living in Budapest, Hungary, when in 1974 he invented a nifty little puzzle that would go on to sell hundreds ‘of millions of copies. It was originally called the “Magic Cube,” but when it became available worldwide in 1980, it was known simply as “Rubik’s Cube.” ‘The Cube itself is about 2 inches long on each side and is divided into a 3 x3 x 3.array of 27 smaller cubes. Each of the 6 faces can rotate independently of each other, which changes the configuration of the colors on the outside of the Cube. Initially, the Cube starts with a solid color on each of its 6 faces, but rotating the sides will cause the colors to become mixed, ‘There are exactly 43,252,003,274,489,856,000 different configurations of Rubik’s Cube! This is a very difficult number to count: for those of you keeping score at home, it is 8! x 12! x 3° x 2°. The goal of the puzzle is to first put the Cube into a random configuration, and then to try to return it to its original configuration, with each side a solid color. Rubik's Cube became incredibly popular worldwide in the early 1980s. According to the official Rubik's Cube website at www rubiks..com, over 100,000,000 cubes were sold in the period from 1980 to 1982 alone. In 1983, the immense popularity of the Cube even. led toa Saturday-morning cartoon called Rubik, The Amazing Cube, As if solving the Cube is not challenging enough, many people enjoy the further chal- lenge of trying to solve it as fast as possible, in some cases while blindfolded! The World Cube Association is the official keeper of Rubik’s Cube speed-solving records. The current world record (as of November 2018) is held by Yusheng Du, who solved a randomly-configured Cube in 3.47 seconds. A detailed list of records is on the WCA’s website, which is on the links page referenced on page vi If you don’t have a Rubik's Cube at home, there’s a Java applet allowing you to play with a virtual Cube; this applet is also available via our links page. xvA bad review is like baking a cake with all the best ingredients and having someone sit on it, ~ Danielle Steele CHAPTER re of Counting & Probability Basics 1.1 Introduction Before beginning with new material, we'll spend this chapter making sure that you have a good grasp of the basics of counting and probability. This chapter is basically a one-chapter review of the contents of Introduction fo Counting & Probability. Ifa lot of the material in this chapter is unfamiliar to you, then you should probably start with the Introduction book, before tackling this book Thechapter will consist of some problems selected from Introduction to Counting & Probability together with their solutions. Important: You should feel confident that you are able to solve most or all of the Y)__ Problems in this chapter before continuing on to the rest ofthe book, Itis important that basic counting and probability computations of the type that we do in this chapter are as natural and familiar to you as arithmetic and basic algebra are. Asa child, you wouldn't try to learn how to multiply three-digit numbers together without having absolutely mastered multiplication of I-digit numbers. In the same way, you shouldn't plunge into the more advanced counting techniques in this book without having the basics mastered Also, there is one brief section at the end of this chapter (namely, Section 1.6) that includes new material that is not in the Introduction book. This section discusses summation notation, an example of which is the left side of the equation below: Sry atlas) If you are not familiar with this notation, please make sure that you read this section before continuing on with the book.CHAPTER 1. REVIEW OF COUNTING & PROBABILITY BASICS 1.2 Basic Counting Techniques ae Problem 1.4: My city is running a lottery. In the lottery, 25 balls numbered 1 through 25 are placed in’ abin, Four balls are drawn one at a time and their numbers are recorded, The winning combination consists of the four selected numbers in the order they are selected. How many winning combinations are there, if. (a)_ each ball is discarded after it is removed? (b)_each ball is replaced in the bin after it is removed and before the next ball is drawn? Problem 1.2: On the island of Mumble, the Mumblian alphabet has only 5 letters, and every word in’ the Mumblian language has no more than 3 letters in it. How many words are possible? (A word can. use a letter more than once, but 0 letters does not count as a word.) Problem 1.3: The Smith family has 4 sons and 3 daughters. In how many ways can they be seated in [a row of 7 chairs, such that at least 2 boys are next to each other? Problem 1.4: How many 3-digit numbers have exactly one zero? Problem 1.5: Our math club has 20 members and 3 officers: President, Vice President, and Treasurer. However, one member, Ali, hates another member, Brenda. In how many ways can we fill the offices if Ali refuses to serve as an officer if Brenda is also an officer? Problem 1.6: How many possible distinct arrangements are there of the letters in the word BALL? Problem 1.7: In how many different ways can 6 people be seated at a round table? Two seating arrangements are considered the same if, for each person, the person to his or her left is the same in both arrangements. Problem 1.8: Consider a club that has people. What is the number of ways to form an r-person committee from the total of 1 people? Problem 19: Each block on the grid shown at right is 1 unit by 1 unit 2 ‘Suppose we wish to walk from A to B via a 7 unit path, but we have to stay on the grid—no cutting across blocks. How many different paths can we take? Problem 1.10: In how many ways can a dog breeder separate his 10 puppies into a group of 4 and a group of 6 if he has to keep Biter and Nipper, two of the puppies, in separate groups?1.2, BASIC COUNTING TECHNIQUES Problem 1.1: My city is running a lottery. In the lottery, 25 balls numbered 1 through 25 are placed in a bin. Four balls are drawn one at a time and their numbers are recorded. The winning combination consists of the four selected numbers in the order they are selected. How many winning combinations are there, if: (a) each ball is discarded after it is removed? (b) each ball is replaced in the bin after it is removed and before the next ball is drawn? Solution for Problem 1.1: (a) We have 25 choices for the first ball. After the first ball is drawn and discarded, there are 24 balls left in the bin, so there are 24 choices for the second ball, Similarly, there are 23 choices for the third ball and 22 choices for the fourth ball. Hence the number of winning combinations is 25 x 24 x 23 x 22 = 303,600. (b) We have 25 choices for each of the four ballls, since when each ball is drawn, all 25 balls are in the bin. Hence there are 25 x 25 x 25 x 25 = 25* = 390,625 winning combinations. 0 Concept: Inanevent with multiple stages, we multiply the number of choices at each| stage to get the total number of choices. | Concept: It is important to distinguish selecting without replacement from selecting with replacement. When choosing k items, in order, from a group of 1, with replacement, we have nt choices. When choosing k items, in order, from a group of 1, without replacement, we have | n(n ~ 1) = 2)---(9—k +1) choices. Selecting k items from a group of 1 items, without replacement, ‘where order matters, is called a permutation. The number of permutations of k items from a group of 1 items is sometimes denoted P(1,k) or yPs. Problem 1.2: On the island of Mumble, the Mumblian alphabet has only 5 letters, and every word in the Mumblian language has no more than 3 letters in it. How many words are possible? (A word can use a letter more than once, but 0 letters does not count asa word.) Solution for Problem 1.2: For this problem, it makes sense to divide the words into cases, based on the number of letters in each word, Case 1: 1-letter words There are 5 1-letter words (each of the 5 letters is itself a 1-letter word). Case 2: 2-letter words To form a 2-letter word, we have 5 choices for our first letter, and 5 choices for our second letter. Thus there are 5 x 5 = 25 2-letter words possible. Case 3: 3-letter words To form a 3-letter word, we have 5 choices for our first letter, 5 choices for our second letter, and 5 choices for our third letter. Thus there are 5 x 5 x 5 = 125 3-letter words possible.CHAPTER 1. REVIEW OF COUNTING & PROBABILITY BASICS To get the total number of words in the language, we add the number of words from each of our cases. (We need to make sure that the cases are exclusive, meaning they don’t overlap. But that's clear in this solution, since, for example, a word can’t be both a 2-letter word and a 3-letter word at the same time.) Therefore, there are 5 + 25 + 125 = 155 words possible on Mumble. © Concept: Casework is the general technique of breaking up the possibilities into’ CQ=s8 two or more categories. We can then add the possibilities of the various | cases to get the total number of possibilities. Concept: When using casework, itis important that the cases be exclusive, meaning, O=ABLy, and so on for every possible arrangement of BALL. We can see this in Figure 1.1 BALiL2,BALoL: > BALL BLoAL; ,BLAL? > BLAL BLiLoA,BlaL,A = BLLA ABLiLy,ABLoL, = ABLL LiBAL2,L2BAL, = LBAL LiBLA,L2BLiA > LBLA ALBLy, AL:BL; = ALBL L/ABL:,L2ABL, > LABL LiL2BA,L2LiBA = LLBA /ALaLiB = ALLB LiAL2B,L2AL,B = LALB 1,AB = LLAB Figure 1.1: BALL's with different L’s1.2. BASIC COUNTING TECHNIQUES ‘Thus, the number of arrangements of BAL; L» is exactly twice the number of arrangements of BALL So to get the number of arrangements of BALL, we have to divide the number of arrangements of BALjLa by 2 Therefore, the number of arrangements of BALL is 41/2 = 12.0 Concept: Often we can count outcomes by strategically overcounting the number ©=se of outcomes, and then correcting for the overcounting. One common use of this is in counting permutations with repeated items. Problem 1.7: In how many different ways can 6 people be seated at a round table? Two seating arrangements are considered the same if, for each person, the person to his or her left is the same in both arrangements. Solution for Problem 1.7: If the 6 people were sitting in a row, rather than around a table, there would be 6! arrangements. But this is clearly an overcounting, since several different row arrangements correspond to the same round table arrangement. For example, suppose we take a row of 6 people and sit them at the round table by putting the first person in the “top” seat and proceeding counterclockwise. Six row arrangements and their corresponding circular arrangements are shown in Figure 1.2 below. A B F c A D B ABCDEF : BCDEFA : CDEFAB c E D F E A D D E FE E ( 5 D A E DEFABC EFABCD : FABCDE F B A Ie B D A © Figure 1.2: Row and Circular Seatings All six arrangements of the people A through F shown in the diagram correspond to the same arrangement of the people seated around a round table The reason for this is that our problem has symmetry: each arrangement can be rotated 6 ways (one of them being no rotation) to make other arrangements. Hence, when we put our 6! arrangements of ABCDEF in a circle, we count each circular arrangement 6 times, once for each rotation. Therefore, we must divide our initial overcount of 6! by 6, to account for the fact that there are 6 row arrangements corresponding to each circular arrangement. So our answer is that there are — 7CHAPTER 1. REVIEW OF COUNTING & PROBABILITY BASICS 61/6 = = 120 ways to arrange the 6 people around the table. 0 Concept: Counting outcomes with symmetry usually means some sort of strategic CO sa overcounting, Problem 1.8: Consider a club that has people. What is the number of ways to form an r-person | committee from the total of peop! Solution for Problem 1.8: We start by counting the number of ways to choose r people if order matters. There are 1 choices for the first person, n ~ 1 choices for the second person, 1 ~ 2 choices for the third person, and so on, up ton ~r + 1 choices for ther!" person. So there are nx (n=1)x (n= 2) xs x(n +1) qa) ways to choose r people from a total of 1 people if order matters. (Recall that this is the quantity that is often denoted by P(n,7),) But we know that there are r! ways to order r people. Therefore, each unordered committee of r people will correspond to r! ordered choices of r people. So we need to divide our count in equation (1.1) by r! to correct for the overcounting. ‘Therefore our answer is ("\- nx (n=1)x(n=2)X-x(n=r +1) _ nt r 7 inn {Concept: If we don’t care about the order when choosing r items from a set of m) CQ=s2 _ items—for example, when choosing a committee—we have a combina- tion, The number of ways to choose r items from a set of n items, without ee (tl regard to order, is (") pronounced “nt choose r.” (Note: some sources denote this as C(1,r) or as ,C,.) | Important: The formula for combinations is: 71 (' nh _ nln =1Y(n 1) > =H ‘The first formula is more typically used in algebraic proofs involving combinations, whereas the latter formula is the one that we most often use to actually compute combinations. For example: r+) 1) _x10x9 | (3)- Bx2x1 7 1651.2. BASIC COUNTING TECHNIQUES Problem 1.9: Each block on the grid shown below is 1 unit by 1 unit. Suppose we wish to walk from A to B via a7 unit path, but we have to stay on the grid—no cutting across blocks. How many different paths can we take? B Solution for Problem 1.9: We know that we must take a7 unit path. If we look at the grid a little more. carefully, we can see that our path must consist of 4 steps to the right and 3 steps up, and we can take those steps in any order. So in order to specify a path, we must choose 3 of our 7 steps to be “up” (and the other 4 steps will thus be “right”). Hence the number of paths is 7) _7x6x5 _ 4. 3)" 3x2x1 If you are not convinced, we can describe a path by writing “r” for a right step and “u" for an up step. For every arrangement of 4 r’s and 3 u’s, we get a path from A to B, as shown in Figure 1.3. B A Path ruruurr is shown Figure 1.3: Example path from A to B Therefore, to count the number of paths from A to B, we need only to count the number of arrange- ments of “rrrruuu.” The number of arrangements is 7 (7) a () = Remember how we get the above expression: there are 7! arrangements of “1yrryrsuy uss,” where we think of each r and each u as different. However, we want to count the number of arrangements of “rerruuu,” where the r’s and u's are all the same, so we must divide by the 4! possible arrangements of the r’s and the 3! possible arrangements of the u's. ©CHAPTER 1. REVIEW OF COUNTING & PROBABILITY BASICS Concept: Counting paths on a grid is one application of combinations. ways can a dog breeder puppies into a group of 4 and |a group of 6 if he has to keep Biter and Nipper, two of the puppies, in separate groups? Solution for Problem 1.10: Let's first do the problem by complementary counting. If we have no restrictions on the groups, then we simply need to choose 4 of the 10 dogs to be in the smaller group, and the rest of the dogs will make up the larger group. There are (')) ways to do this, But we can’t have Biter and Nipper in the same group. So we have to subtract the number of ways that we can form the two groups with Biter and Nipper in the same group. This calls for a little bit of casework. Case 1: Biter and Nipper are both in the smaller group. If they are both in the smaller group, then we have to choo: complete the smaller group, and we can do this in (5) ways, 2 more dogs from the 8 remaining to WARNING! Don’t mistakenly count the possibilities in Case 1 as (5)(§), by reason-| . ing that we must choose 2 out of § dogs for the smaller group, and 6, out of 8 dogs for the larger group. These choices are not independent! Once we pick the 2 dogs for the smaller group, then we have no choice | but to put the remaining 6 dogs into the larger group. Case 2; Biter and Nipper are both in the larger group. If they are both in the larger group, then we have to choose 4 dogs from the 8 remaining to compose the smaller group, and we can do this in (3) ways. So to get the number of ways to form groups such that Biter and Nipper are both in the same group, we add the counts from our two cases, to get (5) + (5). But remember that these are the cases that we don’t want, so to solve the problem, we subtract this count from the number of ways to form the two groups without restrictions. Thus, our answer is (0) 2m-m oon The other way that we could solve this problem is by direct casework. There are two cases of possible groupings. Case 1: Biter is in the snualler group, Nipper is in the larger group. To complete the smaller group, we need to choose 3 more dogs from the 8 remaining dogs. We can do this in (°) ways. Case 2: Nipper is in the smaller group, Biter isin the larger group. Again, to complete the smaller group, we need to choose 3 more dogs from the 8 remaining. We can do this in (5) ways. 01.3. BASIC PROBABILITY TECHNIQUES ‘To count the total number of groupings, we add the counts from our two cases, to get (5) + (°) = 56 +56 = 112 as our final answer. 2 Concept: Many counting problems can be solved in more than one way. If it’s easy | ©=se todo, solving problems in more than one way is both good practice and a | good way to check your answer. 1.3. Basic Probability Techniques | cam Problem 1.11: What is the probability that when a fair 6-sided die is rolled, a prime number faces up? | Problem 1.12: A standard deck of cards has 52 cards divided into 4 suits, each of which has 13 cards | Two of the suits (° and 6, called “hearts” and “diamonds”) are red, the other two (@ and 4, called |"spades” and “clubs’) are black. The cards in the deck are placed in random order (usually by al Process called “shuffling”). What is the probability that the first two cards are both red? [Problem 1.13: We have a standard deck of 52 cards, with 4 cards in each of 13 ranks. We call a 5-card |poker hand a full house if the hand has 3 cards of one rank and 2 cards of another rank (such as 33355 | or AAAKK). What is the Probability that five cards chosen at random form a fall house? {Problem 1.14: A bag has 3 red and k white marbles, where kis an (unknown) positive integer. Two of |the marbles are chosen at random (rom the bag. Given that the probability that the two marbles are [the same color is}, find k Problem 1.15: Mary and James each sit in a row of 7 chairs. They choose their seats at random. What |is the probability that they don’t sit next to each other? _ | Exo —— Problem 1.16: The Grunters play the Screamers 4 times. The Grunters are the much better team, and are 75% likely to win any given game. What is the probability that the Grunters will win all 4 games? Problem 1.17: A bag has 4 red and 6 blue marbles. A marble is selected and not replaced, then a) second is seleéted. What is the probability that both are the same color? [Problem 1.18: Point C is chosen at random atop a 5 foot by 5 foot square table. A circular disk w radius of 1 foot is placed on the table with its center directly on point C. What isthe probability that the entire disk is on top of the table (in other words, none of the clisk hangs over an edge ofthe table)”, oa ee iCHAPTER 1. REVIEW OF COUNTING & PROBABILITY BASICS Solution for Problem 1.11: ‘There are 6 equally likely outcomes. Three of those outcomes are successful: CLE) or fl Therefore, the probability is Concept: If all outcomes are equally likely, then the probability of success is = rouccess) = Number of succesful outcomes (success) = “Number of possible outcomes Problem 1.12: A standard deck of cards has 52 cards divided into 4 suits, each of which has 13 cards. Two of the suits (9 and 6, called “hearts” and “diamonds”) are red, the other two (#and 4, called “spades” and “clubs”) are black. The cards in the deck are placed in random order (usually _by a process called “shuffling”). What is the probability that the first two cards are both red? Solution for Problem 1.12: ‘Method 1: For the total number of possibilities, there are 52 ways to pick the first card, then 51 ways to pick the second card, for a total of 52 x 51 possibilities. For the number of successful possibilities, there are 26 ways to pick a red card first (since there are 26 total red cards), then there are 25 ways to pick a second red card (since there are 25 red cards remaining after we've chosen the first card). Thus, there are a total of 26 x 25 successful possibilities. Therefore, the probability is Number of successful outcomes _ 26x25 _ 25 PAfirst two cards are red) =“ rsber of possible outcomes ~ 52X51 ~ 102" Method 2: For the total number of possibilities, there are () = 1326 ways to pick two cards (without regard to order) For the number of successful possibilities, there are ("$) = 325 ways to pick two red cards (without regard to order). ‘Therefore, the probability is Biliret two cas are red) = Number of moneaahal outcomiés: 325. _ 25 Number of possible outcomes 1326 102 Method 3: The probability that the first card is red is = }. If the first card is red, then the probability that the second card is red is 3. Therefore: x3 51 Pifirst two cards are red) = P(first card red) x P(second card red) = i Concept: There are often many ways to approach the counting within probability @=se problems. However you choose to approach a problem, make sure that you are consistent! For example, if you count possible outcomes without regard to order, don’t count successful outcomes with regard to order. In other words, don’t compare apples and oranges! 121.3. BASIC PROBABILITY TECHNIQUES. Problem 1.13: We have a standard deck of 52 cards, with 4 cards in each of 13 ranks. We call a 5-card poker hand a full house if the hand has 3 cards of one rank and 2 cards of another rank (such as 33355 or AAAKK). What is the probability that five cards chosen at random form a full house? Solution for Problem 1.13: The total number of outcomes is just the number of ways to choose 5 cards from a set of 52, which is (72) = 2,598,960. Notice that in this count, we don’t care about the order in which the cards are chosen. (Remember—apples and oranges!) To count the number of successful outcomes, we turn to constructive counting, thinking about how we'd construct a full house. To form a full house, we have to choose: (a) A rank for the 3 cards. This can be done in 13 ways. (b) 3 of the 4 cards of that rank. This can be done in (4) = 4 ways. (c) A rank for the other 2 cards. This can be done in 12 ways (since we can’t choose the rank that we chose in (a)), (d) 2 of the 4 cards of that rank. This can be done in (3) = 6 ways. Again, note that in each of the steps in our constructive count, we don’t care about the order in which the cards are chosen, So there are 13 x 4x 12 x 6 = 3,744 full houses. Thus, the probability is 37446 2,598,960 ~ 4165 o Concept: You will often have to use your toolbox of counting techniques (in this @=ze «ase, constructive counting) to solve probability problems. Problem 1.14: A bag has 3 red and k white marbles, where k is an (unknown) positive integer. Two of the marbles are chosen at random from the bag. Given that the probability that the two marbles are the same color is 3, find k. Solution for Problem 1.14: Here we compute the probability in terms of k that the two marbles are the same color, and then set that probability equal to $ To calculate the probability, we simply use our usual method of counting both the total number of outcomes and the number of successful outcomes. There are k +3 total marbles in the bag, so the number of ways to choose 2 of them, without regard to order, is (*5°). One type of successful outcome is to choose two red marbles. This can be done in (3) = 3 ways. The other successful outcome is to choose two white marbles. This can be done in (3) ways. Since these twoCHAPTER 1. REVIEW OF COUNTING & PROBABILITY BASICS cases are mutually exclusive, we can add our counts. So 3+@) 2) We set this equal to the given probability of 3, and then solve for k. Our equation is P(voth marbles are the same color) = In order to solve this, we'll need to first write out the combinations: 44 Serre reer ies a We can get rid of the 2’s in the denominators by multiplying the numerator and denominator of the left side by 2: 2 6+Kk-1) 1 (k + 3k +2) 2 and then we cross-multiply to get rid of the fractions: 12 + 2k(k - 1) = (k+ 3k +2). Multiplying out, we get 22 -2k412 =P + 5k+6, so ~7k-+ 6 = 0. This factors as (k ~ 6)(k ~ 1) = 0, so either k = 6 or k = 1. Both solutions work. 5 Concept: Many probability problems will require some algebraic manipulation in Q=s2 order to solve them. Don't be afraid to use algebra (in particular, to use variables) if you need to! in a row of 7 chairs. They choose their seats at random. that they don’t sit next to each other? Problem 1.15: Mary and James each What is the probabil Solution for Problem 1.15: There are (3) = 21 ways in which Mary and James can choose 2 chairs, if we don’t worry about the order in which they sit. Although we can use casework to count the number of ways they can choose chairs that are not next to each other, it is easier to use complementary counting. If we number the chairs #1, #2, ..., #7 in order, then there are 6 ways Mary and James can choose chairs next to each other: they can sit in the first two chairs, or chairs #2 and #3, or chairs #3 and #4, etc., up to chairs #6 and #7. Therefore Pthey sit next to each other) = and therefore P(they don’t sit next to each other) 41.3. BASIC PROBABILITY TECHNIQUES, Concept: Just as with counting, sometimes it’s easier to calculate the probability of an event not occurring than it is to calculate the probability of the event occurring. Problem 1.16: The Grunters play the Screamers 4 times. The Grunters are the much better team, and are 75% likely to win any given game. What is the probability that the Grunters will win all 4 games? Solution for Problem 1.16: ‘The following solution is incorrect Solution: Since each game has 2 possible outcomes, there are 24 = 16 possible oo ‘outcomes for the series. Only 1 of these outcomes is what we want, namely the Grunters winning all 4 games. Therefore the probability is &. ‘One clue that this is an incorrect solution is that we never used the "75%" information that was presented in the problem. The reason this solution is incorrect is that the outcomes described in the bogus solution are not all equally likely! We can only use this counting approach to probability when we have equally likely outcomes. So instead, we'll use multiplication of probabilities of independent events. (The games are inde- pendent, because the outcome of each game does not depend on what happened in the earlier games.) Each of the 4 games is independent of the others, and in each game, the Grunters have probability + of winning, Therefore, to get the probability that the Grunters will win all 4 games, we multiply the probabilities that the Grunters win each individual game. This gives: P(Granters win all 4 games) = P(Grunters win Game 1) x +. x P(Grunters win Game 4) Soe aaa 1 (8 Using the same logic, we can show that P(Screamers win all 4 games) = ( y = = ox "4 | Concept: When computing probability by counting outcomes and using, | ome Number of successful outcom: | P(wscoese) = “Fogiber of possible outcomes” this approach will work only if the outcomes are equally likely. Concept: In an event that is made up of multiple, independent, sequential sub- O=se _ events, we multiply the probabilities of the sub-events to get the probabil- ity of the overall event. 15OF COUNTING & PROBABILITY BASICS, CHAPTER 1. REVI Problem 1.17: A bag has 4 red and 6 blue marbles. A marble is selected and not replaced, then a second is selected. What is the probability that both are the same color Solution for Problem 1.17: We could solve this problem by counting the outcomes, but let's instead solve it by multiplying probabilities The probability that both marbles are red is given by. P(both red) = P(first red) x P(second red after first red is drawn) The probability that the first marble is red is ;f. After drawing a red marble, there are 3 red marbles S19 and 9 marbles total left in the bag, so the probability that the second marble is also red is 3. Therefore 43_2 Pboth red) = 75% 5 = 75 Similarly, the probability that both marbles are blue is given by P(both blue) = P(first blue) x P(second blue after first blue is drawn). The probability that the first marble is blue is 4. After drawing a blue marble, there are 5 blue marbles and 9 marbles total left in the bag, so the probability that the second marble is also blue is 3. Therefore 6 P(both blue) = + Since drawing two red marbles and drawing two blue marbles are exclusive events, we add the individual probabilities to get the probability of one or the other occurring. Therefore: Zz 2 3° B | both same color) = Ptboth red) + Ptboth blue) = 7 a Concept: When multiplying probabilities of dependent events, be sure to take the Q=52 _priorevents into account when computing the probabilities of later events. Problem 1.18: Point C is chosen at random atop a 5 foot by 5 foot square table. A circular disk with radius of | foot is placed on the table with its center directly on point C. What is the probability that the entire disk is on top of the table (in other words, none of the disk hangs over an edge of the| table)? Solution for Problem 1.18: The “total outcomes” region is easy: it’s just the surface of the table, so it’s a square region with side length 5. The “successful outcomes” region is trickier. We can draw a diagram as in Figure 14. 161.4, EXPECTED VALUE ‘Unsuccessful Region Tos cies cer ver outlethe Figure 1.4: Table and some disks We can see that the disk will be entirely on the table if and only if C is at least 1 foot away from each edge of the table. Therefore, C must be within a central square region of side length 3, as shown in Figure 1.4. So, now we can compute the probability: Area of successful outcomes region 3x3 _ 9 P(success) ‘Area of possible outcomes region 5x5 25 Concept: In geometry problems, or in other problems in which the possible out- @Q=se comes are continuous (as opposed to discrete, meaning that they can be counted), we need to use geometry to compute the probability: Size of successful outcomes region Pleucceee) = ea of posible oulcomesreginv 1.4 Expected Value i Proviems Problem 1.19: Suppose you have a weighted coin in which heads comes up with probability } and tails with probability 4. If you flip heads, you win $2, but if you flip tails, you lose $1. What is the expected value of a coin flip?CHAPTER 1. REVIEW OF COUNTING & PROBABILITY BASICS. [Problem 1.20: In an urn, I have 20 marbles: 2 red, 3 yellow, 4 blue, 5 green, and 6 black. | select one marble at random from the umn, and I win money based on the following chart: [ Color [| Red | Yeliow | Blue | Green | Black | [Amountwon |] sio[ $5 | $2 | si | $0 | What is the expected value of my winnings? Problem 1.21: Suppose I have a bag with 12 slips of paper in it. Some of the slips have a 2 on them, and the rest have a7 on them. If the expected value of the number shown on a slip randomly drawn from the bag is 3.25, then how many slips have a 2? J Recall that expected value is the notion of a “weighted average,” where the possible outcomes of an event are weighted by their respective probabilities. We can state this more precisely: Concept: Suppose that we have an event with a list of possible values of the out- CQ=s8 comes: x1,%9,...,%). Value x occurs with probability py, value x; occurs with probability p2, and so on. Note that Pit prt + Pa =I, | since the probabilities must total to 1, Then the expected value of the, ‘outcome is defined as the sum of the probabilities of the outcomes times the value of the outcomes: E= pity + Patz +00" + Pade Problem 1.19: Suppose you have a weighted coin in which heads comes up with probability } and tails with probability 4. If you flip heads, you win $2, but if you lip tails, you lose $1. What is the expected value of a coin flip? Solution for Problem 1.19: We multiply the outcomes by their respective probabilities, and add them up: 3482) + 1-81) = = (+82) + (SI) = $1.50 ~ $0.25 = $1.25. (Concept: Another way to think of the expected value in Problem 1.19 is to imagine @= q as "p implies q.” This is a true statement unless p is true and q is false, in which case it is false. For example, if pis the statement “4 is an odd number” and q is the statement “10 is prime,” then p = is the statement “If 4 is an odd number, then 10 is prime.” This is an example of a true statement, although some people find this a bit counterintuitive, and draw the following incorrect conclusion Bogus Solution: 4 is an even number, not an odd number, and 10 is composite, not op prime, so the statement “If 4 is an odd number, then 10 is prime” is a false statement. _ This is incorrect logic 4 is an even number, so “IF 4 is an odd number, then 10 is prime” is true. I the part following the “If” in an implication is false, then the implication is automatically true. For example, “If pigs can fly, then Lam a billionaire” is a true statement: pigs can’t fly, so we can put any statement we like after the “then” and get a true statement (even though, sadly, | am not a billionaire). aw2.4. TRUTH AND LOGIC We can also list the truth table of p = 4: pla|p=4 TTT] T TIF F(T T F\F| T ‘The only time that p = q is false is if pis true and q is false. For example, “If 9 is odd, then 28 is a perfect square” is false. We also have the two-way implication p «© q, which is a shorthand for (p = 4) A (q = p). In words, we would write “p if and only if q.” Some people abbreviate this to “p iff 9,” but this should be considered shorthand only, and not correct mathematical writing. Here's the truth table: pla|p>q|q>p|peq TIT] T T TIF] F | F FiT| T F Fi/F| T | T Note that p ¢ q is true whenever p and q have the same truth value (they’e either both true or both false), and p « q is false whenever p and q have different truth values (one is true and the other is false) ‘So we could have rewritten Problem 2.7 as: Problem 2.7: Prove that, for any statements p and q, the statement (pv g) & (Ap) A (9) is always true. There are two important logical operations that we can do to an implication. The first is to take its converse (Definition The converse of the statement p = q is the statement 4 => p. In other words, we swap the “if” and “then” parts. Note that the truth or falsehood of an inference gives us no information about the truth or falsehood of its converse. For example, the statement “If a man lives in Los Angeles, then he lives in California” is true, but its converse “If a man lives in California, then he lives in Los Angeles’ is false (since, for example, he might live in San Diego). We can also list a truth table to see that the truth values of p > q and q = p are not necessarily the same: {a sata amasCHAPTER 2. SETS AND LOGIC Important: A very common logical mistake that students often make when working Vv proof-style problems is to prove the converse of what the problem is asking. As we have seen, the converse of an implication can be true even if the original implication is false. The other common operation that we can do to an implication is to take its contrapositive. | Definition: The contrapositive of the statement p = q is the statement -q = =p. In other words, we swap the “if” and “then” parts and take the negation of both. In contrast to the converse, the contrapositive of an implication has the same truth value as the original implication. For example, the statement “If a man lives in Los Angeles, then he lives in California” is true, and its contrapositive “If a man does not live in California, then he does not live in Los Angeles” is also true. We can also see this in a truth table: Concept: Sometimes in proof-style problems, it’s easier to prove the contrapositive Cae of what the problem is asking than it is to prove the original problem statement. As we've just seen, this is logically valid: an implication is logically equivalent to its contrapositive. aa > 24.1 Which of the following are statements? (For any that are not statements, briefly explain why not.) (a) 2 isan odd number. (©) The author of this book has brown eyes. (©) Infinity is really cool (a) George Washington was the first president of the United States if and only if ((a touchdown in football is worth 11 points) and (8 + 3° = 2 + 1)). (e) Can you drive a car? () P4x-3 24.2 Prove that “p or (not p)” is always true for any statement p. 24.3 Prove that, for any statements p and q, the statements -(p A q) and (=p) V (=) are either both true or both false. (This is another of DeMorgan’s Laws.) a2.5. QUANTIFIERS 24.4 Prove that, for any statements p and q, the statement (p => q) € ((>p) V q) is always true. 24.5 For each of the following implications, state whether it is true or false. Then state the converse and contrapositive, and state whether they are true or false. (a) Ifx=3,thenx+2=5. (b) Ify?-3y+2=0, then () IfACB,thenANB=A (d) If Paris is the capital of France and London is the capital of Japan, then Washington is the capital of the United States, (e) If WXY is an equilateral triangle, then WX = XY = YW. 24.6 (a) Prove that, for any statements p, q, and r, the statement PV GAN) &(PYMA@YN) is always true. (This is known as the distributive property of V over A.) (b)« State and prove the distributive property of A over V. Hints: 58 24.7% Define a new operation T using the following truth table: Write a statement, using only the operation 1, that is equivalent to p vg. (The operation 7 is called a Sheffer stroke.) Hints: 139 2.5 Quantifiers Most statements that we work with depend on one or more quantifiers. For example, we wish to make statements like: @ All even integers are divisible by 2. @ There exists an integer x such that x? — 5x +6 = 0. ‘ For every positive real number x, there exists a positive real number y such that x = 7 The words “all,” “there exists,” and “every” in the above statements are examples of quantifiers. When we start making statements involving variables or other undetermined quantities, we will usually need to include quantifiers. There are two types of quantifiers: a3CHAPTER 2. SETS AND LOGIC * The universal quantifier is the equivalent of the words “for all” or “every.” It is sometimes. denoted by an upside-down “A”, like so: ¥. For example, we can write the (false) statement “All integers are divisible by 2” as vx € Z, 2x. In English, we would read this as “For all elements x of the set of integers, 2 divides x.” This means, naturally, that 2 divides every element of Z, the integers. Of course, this is false statement, but it isa legal statement nonetheless. « The existential quantifier is the equivalent of the words “there exists.” It is sometimes denoted by a backwards “B”, like so: 3. For example, we can write the statement “There exists an integer x such that 7 - 5x +6 =0" as Axe Z, 7 -5x+6=0. In English, this reads “There exists an element x in the set of integers such that x? ~ 5x + 6 = 0.” ‘This means that there is some element of Z. that makes the statement true. Here is the general description of the two quantifiers: Concept: If S isa set and p(x) is a statement that depends on an element x of S, then: O=e ‘* x € S, p(x) means that p(x) is true for all elements x of $ ‘¢ Ave S, p(x) means that p(x) is true for at least one element x of S. Important: The symbols are not that important, and you won't see them that often. Y_Themeaning ofthe quantifiers is what's important, Itis very importantto understand the difference between a statement being true forall elements ofa set, and merely that there exists an element of the set that makes the _ statement true | For example, the statement “All triangles are equilateral” is clearly false. But the statement “There exists an equilateral triangle” is clearly true, We can combine quantifiers in the same statement; for example, the statement: For every positive real number x, there exists a positive real number y such that x This statement can be written symbolically as Wx €R,x>0> (Aye R,(y>0)A(x= v7), Isaid that the statement car be written symbolically, but we almost never do so, because as you can see, it’s pretty unreadable. Just use English Note that the order of quantifiers is important! The following is wrong Bogus Solution: There exists some positive real number y such that for every positive | dp real number x, we have