International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100836

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International Journal of Thermofluids

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/international-journal-of-thermofluids

Study of impact of nano fluids on performance of microchannel heat

exchangers using CFD
Anjaneya G a, Sunil S b, Manjunatha N K c , Amith Santhosh a , Saikumar A Patil a,
C. Durga Prasad d, Adem Abdirkadir Aden e,*, Giriswamy B G b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, R V College of Engineering, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Controller of Examination, Sri Venkateshwara College of Engineering, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
c
Department of Chemistry, Sri Venkateshwara College of Engineering, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, RV Institute of Technology and Management, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560076, India
e
Mechanical Engineering, Bulehora University, Ethiopia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Addressing the critical issue of heat generation in electronic devices due to miniaturization and higher power
Nanofluids density is essential. As electronic components become more compact, they generate more heat flux, necessitating
Microchannel heat sinks efficient thermal management solutions. Traditional methods and fluids, such as water, struggle to meet the
Thermal conductivity
demand for efficient heat dissipation. To address this challenge, the utilization of nanofluids presents a promising
Heat transfer coefficient
Computational fluid dynamics
solution. The objective of this study is to use CFD methods to examine how a nanofluid can improve heat
Convective heat transfer transmission and lower the maximum temperature in a microchannel heatsink. This article presents the study of
microchannel heatsinks with two distinct channel counts (five and eight). A constant flow, incompressible,
laminar model was used to verify the findings. The working fluids used in the study were water in various
concentrations, water-based nanofluids of Fe3O4-water and MWCNTs. CFD simulations revealed that a MWCNT-
water nanofluid at 0.2 % concentration significantly improved cooling performance compared to water,
demonstrating the potential of nanofluids for efficient thermal management in electronic devices.

1. Introduction energy efficiency [15–17]. Furthermore, specific studies on ZnO and

TiO2 nanofluids have illustrated the significant influence of particle
Numerical analysis of microchannel heat sinks using nanofluids has concentration and shape on viscosity values and thermal conductivities,
been a focal point in recent research, holding immense potential for emphasizing the intricacies of nanoparticle size and its impact on ther­
revolutionizing cooling mechanisms and enhancing heat transfer effi­ mal conduction [18–20]. In the quest to optimize nanofluid perfor­
ciency in various applications [1–5]. It is impossible to overstate the mance, the use of specific surfactants has emerged as crucial, with
importance of microchannel heat sinks in controlling high heat flux Tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMH) for Fe3O4, Sodium dodecyl
ratios from concentrated power supply system’s [6–8]. Computational sulfate (SDS) for CNT, and Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS) for Fe3O4-CNT
fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis plays a pivotal role in optimizing heat nanofluids proving effective in ensuring stability, thermal conductivity
sink designs, offering cost-effective alternatives for enhancing thermal and viscosity criteria are met [21–25]. Investigation on Fe3O4-water
and hydraulic efficiency in applications such as wind turbines, effec­ nanofluids has elucidated the notable increase in dynamic viscosity with
tively replacing conventional experimental methods [9–11]. The utili­ rising nanoparticle volume, showcasing the correlation between con­
zation of microstructural patterns, including ribs, grooves or pin fins, centration and fluid behavior. Improvements in the flexural strength and
has been extensively explored for their ability to improve heat convec­ modulus of nanofluids have been demonstrated by the addition of fibres,
tion within microchannel heat sinks, ultimately leading to enhanced highlighting the importance of volume concentration in changing ma­
thermal characteristics and heat removal efficiency [12–14]. The terial properties [26–28]. The role of ultrasonication in managing
incorporation of carbon nanotube-based nanofluids has demonstrated nanofluid dispersion and thermal properties has been a topic of
remarkable potential in enhancing heat transfer rates and bolstering considerable interest, impacting thermal conductivity properties and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C.D. Prasad), [email protected] (A.A. Aden).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijft.2024.100836

Available online 2 September 2024

2666-2027/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
A. G et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100836

Table 1 Mohammed Faris et al., investigated microchannel heat exchangers in

Nomenclature. the condenser section of packaged units. Their research found that
CPU central processing unit microchannels with a grooved cross-section outperformed those with a
Fe3O4 iron oxide circular cross-section in terms of heat transfer efficiency and tempera­
MWCNT multi-walled carbon nanotubes ture reduction [53]. Additional research is needed to predict optimal
CFD computational fluid dynamics
nanoparticle sizes, develop accurate thermal conductivity models, and
ZnO zinc oxide
TiO2 titanium dioxide ensure the stability and cost-effectiveness of nanofluids for continued
TMH Tetramethylammonium hydroxide advancements in heat dissipation efficiency. The various nomenclatures
SDS Sodium dodecyl sulfate used in the manuscript are presented in Table 1.
CNT carbon nanotubes The incorporation of nanoparticles into water coolant enhances its
SLS Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS)
thermophysical properties, thereby improving heat transfer capabilities.
Al2O3 aluminum oxide
CuO cupric oxide While this approach offers potential benefits, the long-term use of such
CAD computer-aided design coolants can lead to particle deposition and scaling, which subsequently
MCHE microchannel heat exchangers diminishes heat transfer efficiency. To maintain optimal performance,
IC internal combustion
periodic coolant replacement is necessary to prevent system fouling.
PCHE printed circuit heat excghanger
Conversely, while adding solid particles to a coolant can boost heat
transfer, the risk of deposition and scaling is a significant concern. A
stability [29–31]. Research has demonstrated how nanofluids can meticulous evaluation of the specific application is crucial for selecting
improve thermal performance in a variety of applications, including suitable particles and coolant to optimize system performance and
heat exchangers, industrial processes, and electronic devices [32,33]. longevity.
Nanofluids have been shown to enhance the thermal performance of The rapid rise in heat flux within electronic components coupled
radiators, heat exchangers, and heat sinks [34–37]. The review by with the push for miniaturization poses a critical challenge in heat
Muhammad Usman Sajid and Hafiz Muhammad Ali’s work has under­ dissipation. Traditional methods and fluids, such as water, struggle to
scored the influence of nanoparticle concentration, size, shape, and flow meet the demand for efficient heat dissipation. To address this chal­
rate on heat transfer parameters, emphasizing the critical nature of lenge, the utilization of nanofluids presents a promising solution. The
stability and optimal nanoparticle concentration for effective applica­ investigation of microchannel heatsinks with different cross-sections
tion [38,39]. The application of nanofluids has proven to be instru­ and channel counts (five and eight) is presented in this article. Ac­
mental in significantly improving thermal performance in heat cording to the problem statement, the CPU’s IC area is fixed, so in order
exchangers. Nanofluids have the potential to transform cooling in to increase the amount of heat removed by the coolant, a certain number
electronic devices and industrial processes by increasing the thermal of channels 5 at first, then 8 later were tried in order to see if there was
performance of heat sinks [40,41]. Nanofluids, with their enhanced an improvement in heat transfer for the same heat flux. Increase in
thermal properties and stability, show efficiency in solar energy ab­ number of channels results in higher heat transfer rate, but increasing
sorption and various energy, mechanics, and biomedicine applications beyond certain range in a small area leads to Fluid Flow Resistance,
[42,43]. In specific applications, such as using Al2O3–water nanofluids higher pressure drops and Manufacturing Challenges, so that model
in heat exchangers, significant efficiency and effectiveness enhance­ cannot be realistically developed.
ments have been observed [44]. When compared to deionized water, To validate the results, a laminar, incompressible, steady flow model
CuO/water nanofluids in heat sinks, for example, have significantly was employed. Since most of the fluids used in microchannel heat ex­
enhanced heat transfer by demonstrating a considerable decrease in the changers are incompressible and have very small channel dimensions
interface temperature and an increase in the convective heat transfer and low flow rates, they frequently function under laminar and incom­
coefficient with larger volume flow rates and nanoparticle volume pressible flow conditions. In order to develop and assess these heat ex­
fractions [45]. TiO2 nanoparticles in distilled water have demonstrated changers, these assumptions simplify the analysis and computations.
improvements in heat transfer, leading to energy consumption savings The study employed different concentrations of water, Fe3O4-water, and
in processes like pasteurization [46]. Alumina nanofluids have shown MWCNT-water-based nanofluids as working fluids. Literature suggests
potential in reducing processor temperature, suggesting better cooling that both metal and metal oxide nanoparticles are commonly employed
performance for computer systems [47]. Furthermore, in heat pipes, to enhance heat transfer. Carbonaceous materials offer an alternative,
alumina-water nanofluids have significantly reduced total heat resis­ providing an environmentally friendly option due to their metal-free
tance, showcasing substantial heat transfer enhancements [48]. The composition. Among carbonaceous materials, multi-walled carbon
most significant heat transfer improvement in heat sinks has been ach­ nanotubes (MWCNTs) stand out due to their exceptional thermal con­
ieved using Al2O3–water nanofluid-cooled microchannel heat sinks, ductivity and cost-effectiveness. To provide a comparative analysis, iron
highlighting the capacity of alumina nanofluids to enhance the ther­ oxide (Fe3O4) nanoparticles, known for their magnetic properties,
mophysical properties of coolant fluids and improve heat transfer per­ biocompatibility, versatility, and affordability, were selected for this
formance [49]. Hanbing Ke et al., studied the consistency of fluid flow in study [54–56]. The analysis procedure involved mesh generation with
a printed circuit heat exchanger (PCHE). Their research found that the optimized skewness and aspect ratio to ensure accurate results in the
evenness of flow distribution could be enhanced, leading to a decrease in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis. The selection of appro­
pressure drop from the PCHE’s inlet to its outlet [50]. Zhichao Men priate boundary conditions and a summary of the governing equations
et al., developed a multi-channel radiator distribution header using a used during the analysis were discussed in detail. The outcomes of the
topological optimization technique. They conducted both experiments study of each finned channel have been carefully analyzed and delib­
and simulations to evaluate their design. A peach-shaped baffle was erated. Plots were generated to aid in better comprehension of the
found to be crucial for ensuring even fluid distribution. These results findings, allowing for a comparison between the performance of nano­
demonstrate the effectiveness and promise of topological optimization fluids and water as the base fluid reference in the 5-channel heatsink
in creating intricate fluid distribution networks for heat exchangers configuration. Through this comprehensive study, insights into the
[51]. Barhatte S et al studied the heat transfer efficiency of liquid impact of nanofluids on the thermal characteristics and heat transfer
flowing through microchannels with circular cross-sections using both efficiency of microchannel heatsinks were gained. This analysis sheds
analytical and numerical methods. The results from these two ap­ light on the potential benefits and implications of incorporating nano­
proaches were highly consistent, differing by less than 5 % [52]. fluids in cooling systems for improved heat dissipation.

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A. G et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100836

hydraulic diameter of the microchannels. In addition to altering the

number of channels, this adjustment affects the surface area where the
solid and fluid collide. In this work, the primary objective is to reduce
the surface temperature and investigate the effectiveness of a micro­
channel heat exchanger with varying channel counts, employing nano­
fluids to improve heat transfer in contrast to utilising water as the base
fluid. The heat-handling capabilities of two heat exchanger models were
examined. In the basic model water was used as base fluid, while the
other two models are analysed using nanofluids. The parameters such as,
hydraulic diameter, number of channels, and surface area in accordance
with our unique requirements were selected to solve the problem. Our
goal is to uncover significant increases in heat transfer efficiency uti­
Fig. 1. Five-channel heat sink. lising nanofluids and compare them to base coolant usage of water.
Using SolidWorks, a CAD model of the microchannel heat sinks was
developed, including a tiny pocket-like housing for the micro-electronic
components. The channels were designed underneath this housing. After
completing the model, we imported it directly into ANSYS platform for
simulations. With boundary conditions set to a constant mass flow rate
of 0.00623875 kg/s and a constant heat flux of 143,000 W/m2 for each
model, these simulations were carried out using ANSYS Fluent.

3. Microchannel heat sink geometry and meshing

The basic micro channel heat exchanger model’s wireframe geome­

Fig. 2. Five-channel heatsink front view.
try, measuring 45 mm × 45 mm × 7 mm overall, is used. The heat sink is
made of aluminium, and its liquid cooling media are water, Fe3O4, and
MWCNT water-based nanofluids. The 3D model of finned microchannels
of wireframe having five channels is shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The 3D solid
model of finned microchannels of wireframe having eight channels is
shown in Figs. 3 and 4. Fig. 5 shows details of the ANSYS mesh gener­
ation process and meshing procedure. After importing the microchannel
model into Ansys Workbench, meshing was completed by applying
boundary conditions.
Considering the assumptions of laminar and incompressible flow
conditions, a steady state CFD analysis was carried out. The part of a
flow where the velocity profile is changing along the length of the
channel is called developing flow. The flow development region has a
significant impact on a microchannel heat exchanger’s heat transfer
coefficient. In the developing zone, there is a greater velocity gradient
Fig. 3. Eight-channel heat sink. close to the wall because of the formation of a velocity boundary layer.
This increased velocity gradient enhances fluid mixing and turbulence,
leading to higher heat transfer rates. Once the flow becomes developed
the heat transfer coefficient becomes constant whereas in developing
region it will be slightly higher.
After the temperature is post-processed, pressure contours are
created and examined. The bulk mean temperature and average
convective heat transfer coefficient are further calculated in order to
compare the performance of the base model with modified cases of
microchannel heat sinks that employ nanofluids.

3.1. Governing equations

Fig. 4. Eight-channel heatsink front view.
Three basic equations, the conservation of mass, the conservation of
2. Methodology momentum, and the conservation of energy form the foundation of
computational fluid dynamics.
It is evident from the literature review that CFD analysis is an
effective method for assessing microchannel heat sink performance. 3.1.1. Conservation of mass: continuity equation
Numerous researchers have performed this analysis without altering the Continuity Equation gives us the mathematical model of conserva­
hydraulic diameter, and their findings demonstrate the high reliability tion of mass. For a compressible fluid, the continuity equation is rep­
of CFD performance analysis for microchannel heat sinks. Some studies resented by Eq. (1):
have looked at how these heat exchangers perform under different flow
∂ρ
rates. However, since we employ a single micro pump with a specific + ∇⋅(ρu) = 0 (1)
∂t
setting for constant flow rate, the flow rate has to remain constant for
cooling microelectronic components, as in our instance. Where,
To boost performance, one promising method is to change the ρ denotes fluid density t denotes time, u denotes flow velocity (vector
field).

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Fig. 5. Methodology of meshing.

Temporal derivative term expresses the system’s local buildup or loss 3.1.2. Conservation of momentum: Navier–Stokes equation
of mass. The term, on the other hand, reflects the amount of fluid going The Navier-Stokes equation provides the mathematical model for
in versus out. The continuity equation simplifies to volume continuity momentum conservation. It describes how viscous fluids move. The
when the fluid is in an incompressible flow as mentioned in Eq. (2). Navier-Stokes equation (which is proportional to the gradient of veloc­
ity) is obtained by applying Newton’s second law to fluid motion and
∇⋅u = 0 (2)
assuming that the fluid’s internal stress is the consequence of the addi­
tion of a pressure term and a diffusing viscous component. The solution
of the Navier-Stokes equations is a fluid velocity field. It is a field in the

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Fig. 6. Different domains in meshing.

Fig. 10. Surface temperature contour – five channels - water.

Fig. 7. Mesh generated for five channel model.

Fig. 11. Pressure contour – five channels - water.

Fig. 8. Mesh generated for eight channel model.

Fig. 12. Surface temperature contour – eight channels - water.

ζ is the second viscosity given by:

2
ζ ≡λ+ μ (5)
3
Fig. 9. Convergence graph.
3.1.3. Conservation of energy: first law of thermodynamics
sense that it is defined at every point in space and time. The first law of thermodynamics asserts that energy in an isolated
For a compressible fluid, the Navier-Stokes equation in a stationary system must be conserved, which means that it can change forms but the
frame of reference is as shown in Eq. (3) total energy in an isolated system must remain constant. It cannot be
( ) created or destroyed. In fluid mechanics, the equation that ensures en­
∂ρ 1 ergy conservation is shown in Eq. (6)
ρ + u⋅∇u = − ∇ρ + μ∇2 u + μ∇(∇⋅u) + ρg (3)
∂t 3 [ ( )] [ ( )]
∂ 1 1
Where, g denotes acceleration due to gravity,
ρ e + u2 + ∇⋅ ρu e + u2
∂t 2 2
μ is dynamic viscosity in fluid, = ∇⋅(k∇T) + ∇⋅(− pu + τ⋅u) + u⋅F + Q (6)
ρ ≡ ρ − ζ∇⋅u (4)
Where, e is the internal energy of the fluid, g denotes acceleration
due to gravity,
ρ is the thermodynamic pressure, whose relationship with mechanical
μ denotes dynamic viscosity of fluid, k denotes fluid thermal
pressure is,
conductivity,

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Fig. 13. Surface temperature contour – five channels. Fig. 14. Surface temperature contour – eight channels.

F denotes net body force on the fluid, There was a 3.2 mm global mesh provided. Tetrahedral dominance
Q denotes heat generation per unit volume. characterized the solid mesh method and hexahedral dominance char­
acterized the fluid mesh method. For this reason, organized mesh
3.2. Meshing (hexahedral) geometry is preferable than unstructured (tetrahedral)
geometry when there is a continuous flow. Table 3 shows the mesh
For meshing the heat sink model in ANSYS, a tetrahedral mesh was details for the five-channel and eight channel model. Figs. 7 and 8 show
used for the solid domain, while a hexahedral mesh was dominant in the the mesh generated five channel and eight channel models respectively.
fluid domain. This choice was made because structured meshes like The solid and fluid domains each received a different element size. This
hexahedral geometry are preferable for fluid domains with continuous is done in an effort to raise the quality of mesh.
flow, as they provide better accuracy compared to unstructured meshes Aspect ratio measures cell elongation, ideally not exceeding 5:1 in
like tetrahedral geometry. Individual element body sizing was used to bulk flow and 10:1 near boundaries, with higher limits for flow stability
enhance the mesh quality for both the fluid and solid domains. To get but below 35:1 for energy stability. In microchannel heat exchangers,
accurate simulation results, special emphasis was placed upon shrinking aspect ratio is crucial. Although a larger aspect ratio might enhance heat
the fluid mesh size close to the flux zone. The size optimization of transmission, it can also result in greater pressure drops and flow
meshing size obtained from trial and error with initial value. For the instability. A balance is needed, with limits of 5:1 for bulk flow, 10:1
base mesh, about 120499 elements were created overall. Different near boundaries, and 35:1 for energy stability [57,58]. Skewness in­
meshing domains are depicted in Fig. 6. dicates deviation from an ideal shape, with triangular meshes ideally

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Fig. 15. Maximum surface temperature (bar graph).

and elongated elements can introduce numerical instability. In the

Table 2 current study, with triangular meshes ideally having angles around 60◦
Key accomplishments in the field of micro channel heat exchanger. and skewness below 0.95 is opted to avoid convergence issues. Mesh
Year Accomplishment orthogonality measures the angle quality between adjacent faces, with
1960–1980 Microchannels’ potential for improved heat transmission is values near 1 being ideal and a minimum acceptable quality of 0.01.
investigated in the first theoretical and experimental research. Mesh orthogonality measures the angle quality between adjacent faces.
1980–1990 Applications in Electronics Cooling: To showcase microchannel heat Orthogonal elements are generally more stable and can lead to better
exchangers’ better thermal performance over traditional heat sinks, convergence. Mesh orthogonality values near 1 being ideal and a min­
high-power electronic components are cooled using them initially.
1990–2000 Extension of Applications: Microchannels are used in a number of
imum acceptable quality of 0.01. The below table shows the average
sectors, such as chemical processing, automotive, and aerospace, for values of aspect ratio, skewness and orthogonal quality of meshing for 5
applications that call for small designs and effective heat and 8 channels microchannel heat exchangers (MCHE). The meshing
transmission. quality values were obtained in ANASYS STUDENT version software.
2000–2010 Innovations in Materials and Design: To increase heat transfer
Table 4 represents the meshing qualities.
efficiency even more, new materials are being investigated,
including phase-change materials and nanofluids. inventive design
ideas, such as miniature
3.3. Boundary conditions
2010–2020 Integration with Renewable Energy: Fuel cell technology and solar
thermal energy systems also depend heavily on microchannel heat
exchangers, which help provide sustainable energy sources. Since the microchannel heat exchanger at the intake uses a single
2020 Emerging Trends: Research is on fine-tuning microchannel micropump, the mass flow rate was assumed to be constant during the
onwards performance for targeted applications, such energy-efficient data simulation’s boundary conditions. The inlet mass flow rate of
centres and electric vehicle thermal control.
0.00623875 kg/s was used, corresponding to a pump flow rate of 0.375
l/min. The inlet fluid temperature of 303 K and a heat flux of 143,000
W/m2 at the top of the microchannel heat exchanger, where the groove
Table 3 for mounting the IC is provided, were set as the thermal boundary
Mesh details of five and eight channel model. conditions. The IC of the CPU, with an area of 37.5 mm by 37.5 mm,
Property Value generates heat of 200 W, which was used to calculate the heat flux. The
Global Size 3.2 mm remaining region of the microchannel heat sink model was considered
Method Solid domain: Tetrahedral adiabatic.
Fluid domain: Hexahedral
Element size Solid 1 mm
Fluid 0.8 mm 3.4. Convergence

In CFD, convergence signifies that the numerical solution has

Table 4
reached a stable state where variables no longer change significantly
Meshing qualities. with further iterations, indicating that the solution accurately reflects
the physical behavior. When values converge for mass, momentum, and
5-channel MCHE Aspect Ratio 2.0017
Skewness 0.27858
energy conservation, it means the respective equations are balanced and
Orthogonal Quality 0.72149 stable: mass flow rates are consistent, velocities and pressures reflect the
8-channel MCHE Aspect Ratio 1.8893 physical flow, and temperature and heat flux distributions have reached
Skewness 0.24612 a steady state. Overall, convergence ensures the solution is reliable and
Orthogonal Quality 0.75256
satisfies the fundamental principles of mass, momentum, and energy
conservation, making the simulation results trustworthy for analysis and
having angles around 60◦ and skewness below 0.95 to avoid conver­ prediction. Using the same initialization across all zones, the steady state
gence issues. Skewness indicates deviation from an ideal shape. As per analysis was performed. 1e-6 was the residual convergence criterion.
the literature, Skewness is to be minimized, particularly in boundary After 72 iterations, all of the parameters converged. A 10th generation
layers and regions with high gradients to improve the accuracy. Skewed Intel Core i7 CPU running at 1.8 GHz with 16 GB of RAM was used for all
the simulations. The convergence outcome is displayed in Fig. 9.

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Fig. 16. Bulk mean temperature distribution along channel length.

Table 5
Thermophysical properties of nanofluids.
Fluid ρ (Kg / m3) µ (Pa.s) Cp (J/Kg.K) k (W/m.K)

Fe3O4 – 0.1 % 1003.31 0.000815 4174 0.6507

Fe3O4 – 0.2 % 1008.07 0.00085 4170 0.6740
MWCNT – 0.1 % 1057.39 0.00118 3667.14 1.1164
MWCNT – 0.2 % 1117.68 0.00159 3210.4 3.0027

4. Thermophysical properties of nanofluids

When it comes to heat sink performance optimization, changing

boundary conditions like fluid type can greatly increase efficiency
Fig. 17. Bulk mean temperature vs. displacement. beyond that can be achieved with water alone. Significant

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Table 6
Heat transfer coefficient. Table 7
Displacement Bulk mean temperature Wall temperature H Average heat transfer coefficient.

0 303.15 328.6 5618.86051 Type Fluid Avg Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2.K)
5 303.876 329.877 5499.78847 5 channels Water 5381.39
10 304.575 331.81 5250.596659 Fe3O4 (0.1 %) 5662.88
15 305.292 333.284 5108.602458 Fe3O4 (0.2 %) 5848.54
20 306.016 334.372 5043.024404 MWCNT (0.1 %) 13071.56
25 306.736 335.079 5045.337473 MWCNT (0.2 %) 21031.05
30 307.441 335.337 5126.182965 8 channels Water 8287.14
35 308.119 335.028 5314.207143 Fe3O4 (0.1 %) 8707.97
40 308.753 333.914 5683.398911 Fe3O4 (0.2 %) 8984.13
45 309.602 332.953 6123.934735 MWCNT (0.1 %) 19630.99
MWCNT (0.2 %) 31742.83

Fig. 18. Heat transfer coefficient vs. displacement.

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ρnf = ϕρp + (1 − ϕ)ρbf (9)

Where,
ρnf = Nanofluid Density
ρp = Nanoparticle Density
ρbf = Base fluid Density
ϕ = Volumetric fraction of nanofluid

4.4. Viscosity

The viscosity of the nanofluid is calculated using the following for­

mula represented by Eq. (10).
μbf
Fig. 19. h vs. displacement. μnf = (10)
(1 − φ)2.5
improvements in heat transfer rates within the heat sink can be achieved Where,
by choosing fluids with higher thermal conductivity. Nanofluids have μnf = Dynamic - Nanofluid
been considered for analysis. The fluids used are water, Fe3O4 water μbf = Dynamic viscosity - Base fluid
nanofluid, MWCNT (Multi-walled carbon nanotubes) water nanofluid. φ = Volumetric fraction - Nanofluid
Here, Fe3O4 and MWCNT are dispersed in base fluid which is water. This
may result in significant increase in thermal conductivity of the fluid 5. Results and discussion
compared to water. The nanofluids are taken at 0.1 % and 0.2 % volume
fraction. The characterized thermophysical properties of fluids shown in 5.1. Steady state analysis using water
Table 5 for Fe3O4 – water nanofluid and MWCNT water nanofluid which
were calculated by the formulae given below. The primary focus is to examine the temperature contour. This in­
volves creating a plane that cuts through a section of the channel,
encompassing both the fluid and solid domains. The temperature
4.1. Volume fraction
parameter is then mapped onto this plane to visualize the contour.
Fig. 10 shows surface temperature contour for five channels model
The volume fraction of nanoparticles is the ratio of the volume of
when water is used as the fluid. Only the topmost portion of the working
nanoparticles to the total volume of the nanofluid. It’s a dimensionless
fluid is heated, according to the contour, which indicates that the
quantity. The formula for the volume fraction of nanoparticles in a base
greatest temperature occurs in the solid domain. The fluid’s temperature
fluid is shown by the Eq. (7).
in the lower zone, on the other hand, varies relatively little. The highest
mass of nanoparticle
density of nanoparticle
surface temperature is roughly 64.55 ◦ C, or 337.7 K. Performance
Volume fraction (%) = mass of nanoparticle mass of base fluid
∗ 100 (7) following prolonged operation may be impacted by this high
density of nanoparticle
+ density of base fluid
temperature.
The subsequent outcome focuses on the reduction in pressure. This is
4.2. Thermal conductivity illustrated in the Fig. 11. The highest pressure is approximately 16 Pa
(gauge), measured at the outlet and inlet of pressure 0 Pa (gauge), as
The Hamilton-Crosser Model is used to calculate the thermal con­ specified in the provided boundary conditions. Therefore, the pressure
ductivity of a nanofluid, which is represented in Eq. (8). reduction is 43.7 Pa, which is notably low since these kinds of micro
( ( )) pumps can manage pressure drops as high as 20 kilo Pascals. Conse­
(n − 1)kf + (n + 1)kρ + (n − 1)ϕ kρ − kf quently, it can be deduced that, in this specific mass flow rate and flux
keff = kf ( ) (8)
(n + 1)kf + (n − 1)kρ − ϕ kρ − kf scenario, the pressure drop is not a particularly significant factor when
contrasted with other performance metrics that will be explored further.
Where, Similarly, for eight channels, the maximum surface temperature is
keff = Effective thermal conductivity of nanofluid approximately 329.5 K, or about 56.35 ◦ C, as shown in Fig. 12. There is a
kf = Base fluid Thermal conductivity reduction in the maximum temperature compared to the one in 5
kρ = Nanoparticle Thermal conductivity channels because the surface area is increased as the number of channels
ϕ = Volumetric fraction of nanofluid is increased.

4.3. Density 5.2. Steady state analysis using water base nanofluids

Density of nanofluid is calculated using Hamilton-Crosser Model, The surface temperature contour for five channels is shown in
which is represented in Eq. (9). Fig. 13.

Table 8
Comparative chart of all three fluids used with respect to performance.
Type Fluid/Parameter Water Fe3O4 (0.1 %) Fe3O4 (0.2 %) MWCNT (0.1 %) MWCNT (0.2 %)

5 channels Avg Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2.K) 5381.39 5662.88 5848.54 13071.56 21031.05
Maximum surface temperature (K) 337.7 336.5 335.7 323.6 320.9
Bulk Mean Temperature (K) 309.602 309.62 309.632 310.819 312.265
8 channels Avg Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2.K) 8287.14 8707.97 8984.13 19630.99 31742.83
Maximum surface temperature (K) 328.7 328.2 325.78 320.9 319.4
Bulk Mean Temperature (K) 309.602 309.714 309.728 311.012 312.525

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A. G et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100836

The maximum temperature of the heat sink model using coolants, the flow is developed, both thermally and hydrodynamically. Table 7
Fe3O4 (0.1 %), Fe3O4 (0.2 %), MWCNT (0.1 %) and MWCNT (0.2 %) are displays the average heat transfer coefficient values. These values are
336.5 K, 335.7 K, 323.6 K and 320.9 K respectively (Fig. 13). It is then used to plot bar graph Fig. 19.
observed that there is a gradual decrease in maximum temperature of Fe3O4 water nanofluid tends to show only a very little increase in
heat sink model. First Fe3O4 showed a reduction in temperature heat transfer coefficient when compared to water. But MWCNT – water
compared to water. Further reduction was observed when more volume nanofluid shows a very high increase compared to that of water. From
fraction is added and also when MWCNT – water nanofluid is used. Fig. 19, it can be observed that nanofluids 8 channels model show higher
Similarly, the surface temperature contour for 8 channels is shown in heat transfer coefficient compared to the 5 channels model.
Fig. 14. From all the observations it is evident that MWCNT -water nanofluid
The maximum temperature of the heat sink model using coolants of 0.2 % volume fraction of 8 channels model show the best performance
water, Fe3O4 (0.1 %), Fe3O4 (0.2 %), MWCNT (0.1 %) and MWCNT (0.2 compared to any other models. Table 8 shows a comparative chart of all
%) are 328.7 K, 328.2 K, 325.78 K 320.9 K and 319.4 K respectively three fluids used with respect to performance.
(Refer Fig. 15).
From Fig. 15, it is observed that, compared to five channels, the 6. Applications of micro channel heat exchangers
maximum temperature in eight channels show even more reduction in
maximum surface temperature of the heat sink model. The observed Microchannel heat exchangers’ capacity to deliver high heat transfer
decrease in temperature can be attributed to the increased thermal rates in a small package has led to their rising popularity. These are a few
conductivity of nanofluids in comparison to water. From the thermo­ of their most important applications:
physical properties, it is evident that MWCNT show higher thermal (1) Electronics cooling
conductivity compared to Fe3O4. This is also observed when volume
fraction is increased. Thus MWCNT – water nanofluid of 0.2 % volume • Data centres: cooling servers and other equipment effectively.
fraction show the highest reduction in the maximum surface tempera­ • Consumer electronics: laptops and cellphones that need cooling.
ture of the heat sink model (Table 2). • High-power electronics: controlling the heat produced by parts
such as power semiconductors.
5.3. Bulk mean temperature
(2) Refrigeration and air conditioning
The temperature at which the thermal energy transported by the
fluid’s real temperature profile is equivalent to the hypothetical tem­ • Commercial and residential systems: provide extremely efficient
perature at a specific fluid section is known as the bulk mean temper­ heating and cooling.
ature. In ANSYS Post-Processing, one can calculate the bulk mean • Heat pumps: increasing efficiency and lowering energy usage.
temperature by generating "user surfaces" at various axial positions.
Ensure the domain is set to fluid. To find the bulk mean temperature, use (3) Process industry
the function calculator in ANSYS, which features a "mass-average tem­
perature" function that calculates the mean temperature at a specific • Chemical reactors: managing the temperature of chemical
location on a surface. processes.
Graph is plotted after obtaining data (Fig. 16). It is observed that • Waste heat recovery: gathering and repurposing it.
Fe3O4 – water nanofluid not show much of an increase in bulk mean
temperature compared to water. There is only a very small difference in (4) Defence and aerospace
thermal conductivity of both the fluids. MWCNT on the other hand has
significantly high bulk mean temperature compared to water and Fe3O4 • Aircraft cooling: controlling the heat produced by other systems,
– nanofluid. This is because MWCNT nanoparticles have a higher surface such as avionics.
area compared to that of Fe3O4 nanoparticles. Also, the MWCNT (0.2 %) • Missile cooling: guarding against overheating and guaranteeing
shows higher value than that of MWCNT (0.1 %). As volume fraction peak efficiency.
increases, the nanoparticles in the base fluid increases, this would in­
crease the overall thermal conductivity of the nanofluid. From Fig. 17, it (5) Applications in biomedicine
is evident that the 8 channels show higher bulk mean temperature
compared to that of five channels model. As there is an increase in • Medical devices: cooling elements such as imaging apparatus and
surface area from five channels to eight channels, there is greater contact lasers.
between the solid and the fluid. • Tissue engineering: regulating the growth and development of
tissue at different temperatures.
5.4. Heat transfer coefficient
(6) Other applications
According to Newton’s Law of Cooling, the surface area and tem­
perature differential are directly related to the rate of heat transfer Solar thermal power: using the sun’s energy to transmit heat
across a body and its environment. Heat transfer is driven by tempera­ effectively.
ture differential, and is connected to it by a proportionality constant Microfluidic devices: regulating temperature in systems that are
called the heat transfer coefficient (h). The values are obtained and miniature versions of labs on a chip.
exported to excel where calculations are done, and graphs are made Fuel cells: controlling the heat produced by the electrochemical
(Table 6). reaction.
Temp = 30.15 K
Water 7. Conclusions
From Fig. 18, it is evident that the heat transfer coefficient is high just
when the fluid enters the channel because the temperature difference The objective of this study is to use CFD methods to examine how a
between the channel wall and the fluid is very high, as the viscous nanofluid can improve heat transmission and lower the maximum
boundary layer is still not fully developed. The heat transfer coefficient temperature in a microchannel heatsink. This article presents the
stabilizes and becomes constant further along the channels as and when study of microchannel heatsinks with two distinct channel counts

11
A. G et al. International Journal of Thermo uids 24 (2024) 100836

(five and eight). A constant flow, incompressible, laminar model was Data and material accessibility
used to verify the findings. The working fluids used in the study were
water in various concentrations, Fe3O4-water, and water-based Data accessibility is unrelated to this article because no new data
nanofluids based on MWCNTs. were created or analyzed for this investigation.

The primary conclusions derived from this study include CRediT authorship contribution statement

• The integration of nanofluids into the microchannel heatsink Anjaneya G: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
significantly enhanced its heat transfer rate. The results demon­ Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptu­
strated a considerable improvement in heat transfer coefficients, alization. Sunil S: Writing – original draft, Software, Resources, Formal
leading to superior cooling performance compared to water. analysis. Manjunatha N K: Project administration, Methodology.
• Using nanofluids resulted in a notable decrease in the maximum Amith Santhosh: Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Saikumar A
temperature of the heatsink. Patil: Visualization, Software. C. Durga Prasad: Writing – review &
• CFD analysis was done from the theoretically obtained thermo­ editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Investigation.
physical properties form papers. In 5 channels models, Maximum Adem Abdirkadir Aden: Software, Resources, Project administration,
surface temperature reductions were found for Fe3O4 (v .0.1 %), Methodology, Funding acquisition. Giriswamy B G: Visualization,
Fe3O4 (vol.0.2 %), MWCNT (v .0.1 %), and 4.9748 %, respectively. Resources.
These reductions were 0.355 %, 0.6 %, 4.175 %, and 4.9748 %. In
versions with eight channels, maximum surface temperature re­ Declaration of competing interest
ductions were noted for water, Fe3O4 (vol. 0.1 %), Fe3O4 (v. 0.2 %),
MWCNT (v. 0.1 %), and MWCNT (v. 0.2 %), in the following orders The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
of magnitude: 2.43 %, 2.67 %, 2.87 %, 4.975 %, and 5.42 %. It is interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
evident that MWCNT showed the best results in the 5 channels and 8 the work reported in this paper.
channels model. MWCNT (v. 0.2 %) of 8 channels was found to show
the best cooling of the model. Data availability
• MWCNT (v.0.2 %) of 8 channels model showed about 3◦ C rise in
fluid temperature at the outlet compared to the reference model. The authors do not have permission to share data.

The key findings can be summarised as:

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