UNIT-1: NETWORK & PROTOCOL

Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver via
form of transmission media such as a wire cable. Data communication is said to be local if
communicating devices are in the same building or a similarly restricted geographical area.

The meanings of source and receiver are very simple. The device that transmits the data is known
as source and the device that receives the transmitted data is known as receiver. Data communication aims
at the transfer of data and maintenance of the data during the process but not the actual generation of the
information at the source and receiver.

Components of data communication system-

A Communication system has following components:
1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers,
pictures, sound or video or any combination of these.
2. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message.
3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The location of receiver
computer is generally different from the sender computer. The distance between sender and
receiver depends upon the types of network used in between.
4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from sender
to the receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber- optic cable
or wireless like laser, radio waves, and microwaves.
5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices. Both sender
and receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.
A protocol performs the following functions:
1. Data sequencing. It refers to breaking a long message into smaller packets of fixed size. Data
sequencing rules define the method of numbering packets to detect loss or duplication of packets,
and to correctly identify packets, which belong to same message.
2. Data routing. Data routing defines the most efficient path between the source and destination.
3. Data formatting. Data formatting rules define which group of bits or characters within packet
constitute data, control, addressing, or other information.
4. Flow control. A communication protocol also prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a
slow receiver. It ensures resource sharing and protection against traffic congestion by regulating
the flow of data on communication lines.
5. Error control. These rules are designed to detect errors in messages and to ensure
transmission of correct messages. The most common method is to retransmit erroneous message
block. In such a case, a block having error is discarded by the receiver and is retransmitted by the
sender.
6. Precedence and order of transmission. These rules ensure that all the nodes get a chance to
use the communication lines and other resources of the network based on the priorities assigned
to them.
7. Connection establishment and termination. These rules define how connections are
established, maintained and terminated when two nodes of a network want to communicate with
each other.
8. Data security. Providing data security and privacy is also built into most communication
software packages. It prevents access of data by unauthorized users.
9. Log information. Several communication software are designed to develop log information,
which consists of all jobs and data communications tasks that have taken place. Such information
may be used for charging the users of the network based on their usage of the network resources.
The effectiveness depends on four fundamental characteristics of data
communications

1. Delivery:
The system must deliver data to the exact destination. Data must not be received by other devices
than the target device.

2. Accuracy:

The system must deliver data to the destination in a way that the target device receives the data
accurately. If the protocol needs to alter the while in transmission, it must alter it back to its
original form before representing it to the target device. The accuracy must be maintained.

1. Timeliness:
The system must deliver data in timely manner. Data delivered late can become useless. Data must
be delivered as they are produced, in the order they are produced and without any significant
delay.
2. Jitter:
Jitter refers to the variation of packet arrival time. Data is sent as packets, that is, a fixed amount
of the whole data is sent in each to turn. These packets get joined back in the target device to
represent the complete data as it is. Each packet is sent with a predefined delay or acceptable
amount delay. If packets are sent without maintaining the predefined delay then an uneven
quality in the data might result.
Data Representation-

Information can be in the form of text, numbers, images, audio, and video.

Text

Text symbols are represented with a sequence of bits 0 or 1. Each sequence is called a code, and
the process is called coding.

Number

Numbers are also represented with a sequence of 0 and 1. ASCII is not used for number
representation

Images

An image is also represented with a sequence of 0 and 1. A digital image is made up of small
units called pixels. Each pixel is assigned a bit pattern whose size depends on the nature of the
image.

Audio

A sound which lies within the human hearing frequency range of 20 to 20000 Hertz is called
audio. The sound is recorded with a microphone and then digitized to represent in the form of bit-
patterns. Its transmitted form is called an audio signal.

Video

Flashing a sequence of images on the display screen which gives us a sensation of moving
objects is called a video. A video is recorded with a camera and transmitted as a video signal.
Data Flow-

Data Flow in communication have the following types:

1. Simplex
2. Half duplex
3. Full duplex

1. Simplex:
In simplex data flow only in one direction. Its mean in simplex if two devices are
connected only one device will send data the other device will only receive data it cannot send.

In this type channel will use all of its capacity only in sending data.

Example of this type is: Mouse (it can only input data etc)
 Half duplex:
In this type of data flow, data will flow in both directions but not at the same time. For
example: If two devices are connected both of them can send information to each other but not at
the same time. When one device will send data the other will receive it cannot send back at the
same time after receiving it can send data.

In half duplex channel will use all of its capacity for each direction. So this type will be used in
the communication in which there is no need of response at the same time. Example of this type
is Walkie Talkies.

2. Full Duplex:

In Full Duplex data will flow in both directions at the same time. For Example: If two
devices are connected in communication both of them can send and receive data at the same time.

In Full Duplex channel will divide all of its capacity in both directions. Full Duplex is
used when communication is required in both directions at the same time. Example of Full
Duplex is calling on mobile phone etc.
NETWORK-

A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as
printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a
network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light
beams.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY-

The term topology refers that way in which the end points, or stations, attached to the network
are interconnected or it is the arrangements of systems in a computer network. It can be either
physical or logical. The physical topology refers that, how a network is placed in a physical way
and it will include the devices, installation and location. Logical topology refers that how a data
transfers in a network as opposed to its design.

Classification of Network Topology-

The network topology can be categorized into bus, ring, star, tree and mesh.

Hybrid networks (They are the complex networks, which can be built of two or more topologies
together).

Bus Topology

A bus topology is characterized by the use of a multi-point medium. A long and single cable acts
as a backbone to connect all the devices in a network. In a bus topology, all computers are
stations attaching through the tap (an interfacing hardware to connect to the network) and it
connects directly to the bus network. Data’s are transmitting and receiving to the bus, by the
duplex actions between the tap and the device. Devices in the bus topology send a
broadcast message to the other device for communications. But the proposed device can only accepts and
processes the messages.
Advantages

 Bus topology can install very easily on a network.

 Cabling will be less compare to other topologies because of the main backbone cable laid
efficiently in the network path.
 Bus topology suited for a small network.
 If one computer fails in the network, the other computers are not affected they will
continue to work.
 It is also less expensive than star topology.

Disadvantages

 The cable length will limited and there by limits the number of stations.
 The main cable (backbone cable) fails, and then the entire network will fail.
 It is very difficult to trouble shoot.
 Maintenance cost is very high in a long run.
 Terminators are required for both the ends of the cable.

Ring topology

The ring topology is the network consists of dedicated point to point connection. Signals passing
through ring in a single direction until they reach to its final destination. It may be clock wise or
anti clock wise. Data’s are transmitted in the form of frames. These topologies are used in school
campuses and some office buildings.
Advantages

 It performs better than star topology under heavy work load

 For managing the connection between the computers, there is no need for the
network server.
 It is cheaper than star topology because of less wiring.
 By adding the token ring in the network, can create large network.

Disadvantages

 A failure or break in the ring, it can disable the entire network.

 It is much slower than an Ethernet network with under normal load.
 Any changes of the devices can affect the network.
 Network connection devices like Network adapter cards and Media Access Unit are
much more expense than Ethernet cards.

Star Topology

Star topology is the network in which each station is directly connected to a central connecting
node called hub. In star topology all the devices are not directly connected to one another. All the
devices are connecting to the central server (switching hub). This topology does not enable the
direct traffic between the devices in the network. A controller act as the interface between the
devices. This type of topology is used in local area networks (LAN) and sometimes high speed
LAN often uses a star topology with central hub.
Advantages

 If anyone connection is fails in the network, it will not affect the entire network.
Only that connection or link affected.
 It is easy to identify the fault and fault isolation.
 Easy to expand the network in the star topology.
 No failure to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 It is very easy to manage because of its simplicity in the function.

Disadvantages

 In a star topology, if the central connecting device goes down, the entire network will
fails.
 It requires more cable length compared to the linear bus topology.
 Star topology is more expensive than bus topology because of the connection ports like
hub.

Tree Topology

The layout of the tree topology is beginning at the head end. These layouts have many branches
and these are quite complex layouts in the topology. Any transmission from the device is going
through the medium and it can receive by all other devices in the tree topology network. Tree
Topology will give the expansion of the existing network.

Advantages

 Tree topology is well supported by the hardware and software vendors.

 Point to point wiring for each and every segments of the network.
 It is the best topology for the branched networks.

Disadvantages

 It is more expensive because more hubs are required to install the network.
 Tree topology is entirely depends upon the backbone line, if it fails then the entire
network would fail.
  It is very difficult to configure and wire than other network topologies.
 In a tree topology, the length of network depends on the type of cable being used.

Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every device has connected to each other or a dedicated point to point link to
every other device. (Dedicated term means that the traffic links only between the two devices it
connects).

To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first
consider that each node must be connected to other node. Node 1 must be connected to n-
1nodes, node 2 must be connected to n-1nodes, and finally node n must be connected n-1 nodes.
If each physical link in the network can allow the communication in both directions, we can
divide the number of links by 2. In other words we can say that in a mesh topology, we need n
(n-1)/2.

Suppose if we are connecting 15 nodes in a mesh topology, then the number of cables required;

CN = n (n-1)/2 CN = Number of cables

= 15 (15 – 1)/2 n = Node

= 15*14/2

= 15*7

= 105

Therefore, the total number of cables required for connecting 15 nodes = 105.

Advantages

 There is no traffic problem because of the dedicated link in the mesh network.
 Mesh topology is very strong. If any link becomes not active it does not deactivate the
entire system.
 Point-to-point links make full identification and fault isolation easy.
 Security or privacy for data travels along the dedicated line.
 Network can be expanded without any disruptions to the users.
Disadvantages

 Installation and reconnection are difficult.

 Mesh topology required more cabling and the number of input/output ports
comparing with other network topologies.
 The hardware required to connect each link can be prohibitively expensive.

Hybrid Topology

It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example
if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used,
connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).

Advantages
 Reliable as Error detecting and troubleshooting is easy.
 Effective.
 Scalable as size can be increased easily.
 Flexible.
Disadvantages
 Complex in design.
 Costly.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Communication Networks can be of following 5 types:

• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
 • Personal Area Network (PAN)

Local Area Network (LAN)

It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of
buildings or a factory. LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot. Personal
computers and workstations are connected to each other through LANs. We can use different
types of topologies through LAN, these are Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.
LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and network
among each other while it can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building.
LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc.

Characteristics of LAN
• LAN's are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other regulatory controls.
• LAN's operate at relatively high speed when compared to the typical WAN.
• There are different types of Media Access Control methods in a LAN, the prominent
ones are Ethernet, Token ring.
• It connects computers in a single building, block or campus, i.e. they work in a
restricted geographical area.

Applications
• One of the computer in a network can become a server serving all the remaining
computers called clients. Software can be stored on the server and it can be used bythe
remaining clients.
• Connecting locally all the workstations in a building to let them communicate with each
other locally without any internet access.
• Sharing common resources like printers etc. are some common applications of LAN.

Advantages

1. Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers, modems, DVD-ROM drives and hard
disks can be shared with the help of local area networks. This reduces cost and hardware
purchases.
2. Software Applications Sharing: It is cheaper to use same software over network instead of
purchasing separate licensed software for each client a network.
3. Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and messages can easily be transferred over
networked computers.
4. Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be saved on hard disk of the server
computer. This will help users to use any workstation in a network to access their data. Because
data is not stored on workstations locally.
5. Data Security: Since, data is stored on server computer centrally, it will be easy to manage data
at only one place and the data will be more secure too.
6. Internet Sharing: Local Area Network provides the facility to share a single internet
connection among all the LAN users. In Net Cafes, single internet connection sharing
system keeps the internet expenses cheaper.

Disadvantages

1. High Setup Cost: Although the LAN will save cost over time due to shared computer
resources, but the initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high.
2. Privacy Violations: The LAN administrator has the rights to check personal data files of each
and every LAN user. Moreover he can check the internet history and computer use history of the
LAN user.
3. Data Security Threat: Unauthorized users can access important data of an organization if
centralized data repository is not secured properly by the LAN administrator.
4. LAN Maintenance Job: Local Area Network requires a LAN Administrator because, there are
problems of software installations or hardware failures or cable disturbances in Local Area
Network. A LAN Administrator is needed at this full time job.
5. Covers Limited Area: Local Area Network covers a small area like one office, one building or
a group of nearby buildings.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

It was developed in 1980s.It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN
and uses the similar technology as LAN. It is designed to extend over the entire city. It can be
means to connecting a number of LANs into a larger network or it can be a single cable. It is
mainly hold and operated by single private company or a public company.

Characteristics of MAN
It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)
Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.

Advantages of MAN
1. Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as fiber optic
cables.
2. It provides a good back bone for large network and provides greater access to WANs. The
dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of data in both directions simultaneously.
3. A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN
1. More cable required for a MAN connection from one place to another.
2. It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and industrial espionage (spying)
graphical regions.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased network. It is used for the
network that covers large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not easy to design and
maintain. Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite links.
WAN operates on low data rates.

Characteristics
1. It generally covers large distances (states, countries, continents).
2. Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are
connected by routers.

Advantages
1. It covers a large geographical area. Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different citythen
we can connect with them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we
can connect with another branch.
2. Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.
3. Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network. These messages can have
picture, sounds or data included with them (called attachments).
4. Expensive things (such as printers or phone lines to the internet) can be shared by all the
computers on the network without having to buy a different peripheral for each computer.
Disadvantages
1. Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network.
2. Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated. The bigger the network the
more expensive it is.
3. Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network supervisors and
technicians to be employed.
4. Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use information from
other computers. Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity and expense.
Personal Area Network

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically

within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simplyusing
wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

NEED FOR PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE

When computers, terminals and other data processing devices exchange data, the
procedures involved can be quite complex. Consider for example, the transfer of a file between
two computers. There must be a data path between the two computers, either directly or via a
communication network.
Typical task to be performed are as follows-
• The source system must either activate the direct data communication path or
inform the communication network of the identity of the desired destination
system.
• The source system must ascertain that the destination system is prepared to
receive data.
• The file transfer application on the source system must ascertain that the file
management program on the destination system is prepared to accept and store the
file for this particular user.
• If the file formats used on the two systems are different, one or the other system
must perform a format translation function.
Instead of implementing the logic for this as a single module, the task is broken up into
subtasks, each of which is implemented separately. In a protocol architecture, the modules
 are arranged in a vertical stack. Each layer in the stack performs a related subset of the functions
required to communicate with another system.
It takes two to communicate so the same set of layered functions must exist in two systems.
Communication is achieved by having the corresponding, or peer, layers in two systems
communicate. The peer layers communicate by means of formatted blocks of data that obey a set
of rules known as a protocol.
The key features of a protocol are as follows-
 Syntax: – Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order
in which they are presented.
 Semantics: – Semantics refer to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a
particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation?
 Timing: – Timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how
fast they can be sent.
STANDARDIZED PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURES
• Required for devices to communicate
• Vendors have more marketable products
• Customers can insist on standards based equipment
• Two standards:–
 OSI Reference model
 TCP/IP protocol suite
OSI Model

o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-
computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

 o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and
they are implemented only in the software.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link
layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical
layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The
physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.

Functions of the OSI Layers

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are given
below:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Physical layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one
node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-
duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.

Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
 o Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the
receiver that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the
header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control
layer and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets
known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The
header which is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source
address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the
header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no
data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher
processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occur, then the
receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control
over the link at a given time.

Network Layer

o It is a layer 3 of OSI model. It works for the transmission of data from one node to the
other located in different networks.
 o It takes care of packet routing i.e, selection of the shortest path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routers available.
o The sender and receiver’s IP address are placed in the header of the packet.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Logical Addressing: in order to identify each device, network layer defines an

addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best
optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts
them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet
protocol (IP).

Transport Layer

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in
which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: The transport layer adds the header that contains the address
known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer
is to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the
transport layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the
upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned
with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has
arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their
sequence numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services i.e, Connection-oriented
service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an
individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A
connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination
machine before delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets
travel in the single route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed
end-to-end rather than across a single link.
 o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures
that message reach at the destination without any error.

Session Layer

The session layer is a Layer 5 responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of

sessions, authentication and also ensures security. The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half duplex or full duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.

Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is a Layer 6 of OSI model. The processes in two systems exchange the
information in the form of character strings, numbers and so on.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. It converts the data from sender-dependent format
into a common format and changes the common format into receiver- dependent format
at the receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting
message over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such
as text, audio, video.

Application Layer

The application layer is a Layer 7 of OSI model. Application layer is implemented by the
network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over
the network.

Examples of applications-Browsers, Messengers etc.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user
to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to
manage the files in a remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and
storage.

TCP/IP-

TCP/IP model

o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.

o The TCP/IP model consists of four layers: the application layer, transport layer, internet
layer, network access layer (combination of data link layer and physical layer).
o The first three layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model.
o The last three layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the
application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them
provides specific functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more
lower-level protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

 o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in
the OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on
the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer

o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and
they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses.

The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to
provide internetwork routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be
transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport
layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it
encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by
data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP
datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into
smaller units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by
the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled
to form an original message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN,
WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant
network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing
the IP datagram through various devices such as routers.
ARP Protocol

o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP
address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the
device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and
process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its
physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical
address both to its cache memory and to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding
datagram problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is
unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a
device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the
sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct
them. The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers
because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the
router that it is passed to.

Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data
which is being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission
control protocol.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the
error to the sender that user datagram has been damaged.

o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

 o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the
duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged
frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged
before the transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is
discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as
segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for
reordering the frames to form an original message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on
sequence numbers.

Application Layer

o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer,
it forwards its data to the transport layer.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the
data over the World Wide Web.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used
for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that
supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to
send the data to another e-mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead
of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as
Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection
between the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal
appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.