Nuclear Astrophysics:

Supernova Evolution and Explosive Nucleosynthesis

Gabriel Martínez Pinedo

Advances in Nuclear Physics 2011

International Center Goa, November 9 – 11, 2011
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Outline

1 Introduction

2 Astrophysical reaction rates

3 Hydrostatic Burning Phases

Hydrogen Burning
Advanced burning stages

4 Core-collapse supernova
Neutrinos and supernovae

5 Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Neutrino-driven winds
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

A new Era for Nuclear Astrophysics

Improved observational capabilities Improved supernovae models

New radioactive ion beam facilities (RIBF, SPIRAL 2, FAIR, FRIB) are
being built or developed that will study many of the nuclei
produced in explosive events. Hydrostatic burning phases studied
in underground labs (LUNA)
We need improved theoretical models to fully exploit the potential
offered by these facilities.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

What is Nuclear Astrophysics?

Nuclear astrophysics aims at understanding the nuclear processes that

take place in the universe.
These nuclear processes generate energy in stars and contribute to the
nucleosynthesis of the elements and the evolution of the galaxy.

Hydrogen mass fraction X = 0.71 3. The solar abundance distribution

Helium mass fraction Y = 0.28
Metallicity (mass fraction of everything else) Z = 0.019
Heavy Elements (beyond Nickel) mass fraction 4E-6
D-nuclei Disk solar abundances:
Gap 12C,16O,20Ne,24Mg, …. 40Ca general trend; less heavy elements
B,Be,Li Elemental
0
10 Halo (and isotopic)
-1
10 composition
10
-2

-3
+ Sun + of Galaxy at
10 location of solar
-4
number fraction

10 r-process peaks (nuclear shell closures) Bulge system at the time

-5
10 of it’s formation
-6
10
-7
10 s-process peaks (nuclear shell closures)
-8
10
-9
10
-10
10
10
-11
Fe peak U,Th
-12 (width !)
10 Fe Au Pb
-13
10
0 50 100 150 200 250
mass number

K. Lodders, Astrophys. J. 591, 1220-1247 (2003)

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Cosmic Cycle

M~104...6 Mo 108 y

dense star formation (~3%)

molecular
condensation
clouds

interstellar 106-1010 y

medium
stars
star M > 0.08 Mo
s

infall
dust
dust
winds SN explosion

mixing SNR's & ~90%

hot
Galactic bubbles
compact
remnant
SNIa (WD,
halo 102-106y NS,BH)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Nucleosynthesis processes
In 1957 Burbidge, Burbidge, Fowler and Hoyle and independently
Cameron, suggested several nucleosynthesis processes to explain the
origin of the elements.

νp-process
“neutrino-proton process” s-process
“slow process” via chain 184
rp-process
Number of protons

“rapid proton process” of stable nuclei through

neutron capture 162
via unstable proton-rich nuclei
through proton capture
Pb (Z=82)

Proton dripline 126

(edge nuclear stability)

Sn (Z=50)

r-process
82 “rapid process” via
Ni (Z=28)
unstable neutron-rich nuclei

Neutron dripline
50 (edge nuclear stability)
28
Fusion up to iron
20
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
2 8 Number of neutrons
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Composition of the Universe after Big Bang

Mat t er Composit ion
80
76
after Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
70.683
in Solar System

60
Mass Fraction (%)

40

27.431

24

20

1.886
8.00E-08
0

H He Metals

Stars are responsible of destroing Hydrogen and producing “metals”.

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Star formation

Stars are formed from the

contraction of molecular clouds
due to their own gravity.
Contraction increases
temperature and eventually
nuclear fusion reactions begin. A
star is born.
Contraction time depends on
mass: 10 millions years for a star
with the mass of the Sun; 100,000
years for a star 11 times the mass
of the Sun.

The evolution of a Star is governed by gravity

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

What is a star?

A star is a self-luminous gaseous sphere.

Stars produce energy by nuclear fusion reactions. A star
is a self-regulated nuclear reactor.
Gravitational collapse is balanced by pressure gradient:
hydrostatic equilibrium.
mdm
dFgrav = −G = [P(r + dr) − P(r)]dA = dFpres
r2
dm = 4πr2 ρdr
mρ dP
−G 2 =
r dr
Further equations needed to describe the transport of
energy from the core to the surface, and the change of
composition (nuclear reactions). Supplemented by an
EoS: P(ρ, T ).
Star evolution, lifetime and death depends on mass. Two groups
Stars with masses less than 9 solar masses (white dwarfs)
Stars with masses greater than 9 solar masses (supernova explosions)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Core evolution
Hydrostatic equilibrium together with properties equation of state determines
the evolution of the star core.

red: transition from relativistic to non-relativistic electrons.

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Where does the energy come from?

Energy comes from nuclear reactions in the core.
41 H → 4 He + 2e+ + 2νe + 26.7 MeV

E = mc2

The Sun converts 600 million tons of

hydrogen into 596 million tons of helium
every second. The difference in mass is
converted into energy. The Sun will
continue burning hydrogen during 5 billions
years.
Energy released by H-burning:
6.45 × 1018 erg g−1 = 6.7 MeV/nuc
Solar Luminosity: 3.85 × 1033 erg s−1
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Nuclear Binding Energy

Liberated energy is due to the gain in nuclear binding energy.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Type of processes

Transfer (strong interaction)

15
N(p, α)12 C, σ ' 0.5 b at E p = 2.0 MeV

Capture (electromagnetic interaction)

3
He(α, γ)7 Be, σ ' 10−6 b at E p = 2.0 MeV

Weak (weak interaction)

p(p, e+ ν)d, σ ' 10−20 b at E p = 2.0 MeV

b = 100 fm2 = 10−24 cm2

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Types of reactions

Nuclei in the astrophysical environment can suffer different reactions:

Decay
56
Ni → 56 Co + e+ + νe
15
O + γ → 14 N + p
dna
= −λa na
dt
In order to dissentangle changes in the density (hydrodynamics) from
changes in the composition (nuclear dynamics), the abundance is
introduced:
na ρ
Ya = , n≈ = Number density of nucleons (constant)
n mu
dYa
= −λa Ya
dt
Rate can depend on temperature and density
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Types of reactions

Nuclei in the astrophysical environment can suffer different reactions:

Capture processes
a+b→c+d
dna
= −na nb hσvi
dt
dYa ρ
= − Ya Yb hσvi
dt mu
decay rate: λa = ρYb hσvi/mu
3-body reactions:
3 4 He → 12 C + γ
dYα ρ2
= − 2 Yα3 hαααi
dt 2mu
decay rate: λα = Yα2 ρ2 hαααi/(2m2u )
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Reaction rates
Consider na and nb particles per cubic centimeter of species a and b. The rate of
nuclear reactions
a+b→c+d
is given by:
rab = na nb σ(v)v, v = relative velocity
In stellar environment the velocity (energy) of particles follows a thermal
distribution that depends of the type of particles.
Nuclei (Maxwell-Boltzmann)
mv2
 m 3/2 !
2
N(v)dv = N4πv exp − dv = Nφ(v)dv
2πkT 2kT
Electrons, Neutrinos (if thermal) (Fermi)
g 4πp2
N(p)d p = 3 (E(p)−µ)/kT
dp
(2π~) e +1
photons (Bose)
2 4πp2
N(p)d p = dp
(2π~)3 e pc/kT − 1
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Stellar reaction rate

The product σv has to be averaged over the velocity distribution φ(v)

(Maxwell-Boltzmann)
Z ∞
hσvi = φ(v)σ(v)vdv
0

that gives:
 m 3/2 Z ∞ mv2
!
m1 m2
3
hσvi = 4π v σ(v) exp − dv, m=
2πkT 0 2kT m1 + m2

or using E = mv2 /2
!1/2 Z ∞
8 1  E
hσvi = σ(E)E exp − dE
πm (kT )3/2 0 kT
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Neutron capture (compound picture)

A+n → B+γ
σn ≈ πo2 |hB + γ|HII |CihC|HI |A + ni|2 ∝ o2 T γ (En + Q)T n (En )
T transmision coefficient, En neutron energy, Q = mA + mn − mB = S n (B),
Q  En .
σn ∝ o2n T n (En ), T n (En ) ∝ vn Pl (En )
Pl (En ), propability tunneling through the centrifugal barrier of momentum l.
Normally s-wave dominates and P0 (En ) = 1.
1 1
σn ∝ vn = , hσn vi = constant
v2n vn
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Charged-particle reactions
Stars’ interior is a neutral plasma made of charged particles (nuclei and
electrons). Nuclear reactions proceed by tunnel effect. For the p + p reaction
the Coulomb barrier is 550 keV, but the typical proton energy in the Sun is only
1.35 keV.

Cross section given by:

r
1 Z1 Z2 e2 m b
σ(E) = e−2πη S (E), η= = 1/2
E ~ 2E E
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

S factor

S factor makes possible accurate extrapolations to low energy.

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Gamow window
Using definition S factor:
!1/2 Z ∞ " #
8 1 E b
hσvi = S (E) exp − − dE
πm (kT )3/2 0 kT E 1/2
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Gamow window
Assuming the S factor is constant over the gamow window and approximating
the integrand by a Gaussian one gets:
!1/2 !
2 ∆ 3E0
hσvi = S (E0 ) exp −
m (kT )3/2 kT
with !2/3
bkT
E0 = = 1.22(Z12 Z22 AT 62 )1/3 keV
2
4 p
∆= √ E0 kT = 0.749 (Z12 Z22 AT 65 )1/6 keV
3
(A = m/mu and T 6 = T/106 K)
Examples for solar conditions (T = 15 × 106 K):
reaction E0 (keV) ∆/2 (keV) exp(−3E0 /kT ) T dependence
p+ p 5.9 3.2 1.1 × 10−6 T 3.6
14
N+ p 26.5 6.8 1.8 × 10−27 T 20
12
C+α 56.0 9.8 3.0 × 10−57 T 42
16
O + 16 O 237.0 20.2 6.2 × 10−239 T 182
Reaction rate depends very sensitively on temperature
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Rate Examples: (p, γ)

10 10
10 9 64
Ga(p,γ) np = 10 27 cm −3
8 65
10 Ge(γ,p)
10 7
Rate (s −1)

10 6
10 5
10 4
10 3
10 2
10 1
10 0
0.1 1 10
Temperature (GK)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Rate Examples: (α, γ)

10 3
94
10 2 Kr(α,γ) nα = 10 27 cm −3
98
Sr(γ,α)
10 1

10 0
Rate (s −1)

10 −1

10 −2

10 −3

10 −4

10 −5
0.1 1 10
Temperature (GK)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Rate examples: (n, γ)

10 10
10 9 130
Cd(n,γ) nn = 10 22 cm −3
8 131
10 Cd(γ,n)
130
10 7 Cd beta decay
Rate (s −1)

10 6
10 5
10 4
10 3
10 2
10 1
10 0
0.1 1 10
Temperature (GK)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Hertzspung-Russell diagram
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Hydrogen burning: ppI-chain

Step 1: p + p → 2 He (not possible)

p + p → d + e+ + νe
Step 2: d + p → 3 He
d + d → 4 He (d abundance too low)

Step 3: 3 He + p → 4 Li (4 Li is unbound)
3 He + d → 4 He + n (d abundance too low)
3 He + 3 He → 4 He + 2p

d + d not going because Yd is small and d + p leads to rapid destruction.

3 He + 3 He goes because Y
3He gets large as nothing destroys it.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

The relevant S-factors

p(p, e+ νe )d: S 11 (0) = (4.00 ± 0.05) × 1025 MeV b
calculated
p(d, γ)3 He: S 12 (0) = 2.5 × 10−7 MeV b
measured at LUNA
3 He(3 He, 2p)4 He: S 33 (0) = 5.4 MeV b
measured at LUNA

Laboratory Underground for Nuclear Astrophysics (Gran Sasso).

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Reaction Network ppI-chain

dY p ρ ρ ρ
= −Y p2 hσvi pp − Yd Y p hσvi pd + Y32 hσvi33
dt mu mu mu
2
dYd Y p ρ ρ
= hσvi pp − Yd Y p hσvi pd
dt 2 mu mu
dY3 ρ ρ
= Yd Y p hσvi pd − Y32 hσvi33
dt mu mu
dY4 Y32 ρ
= hσvi33
dt 2 mu
Stiff system of coupled differential equations.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

pp chains
Once 4 He is produced can act as catalyst initializing the ppII and ppIII chains.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

The other hydrogen burning: CNO cycle

4
2 He
1.7 MeV (max)

ν
1
1 H
+
+
e+ γ
+ + 11H 12
6 C +

e+ Electron (+)

15
7 N e- Electron (–) 13
7 N
γ Photon

ν Neutrino

Neutron

Proton

γ + 14
7 N + +
15
8 O 13
6 C e+
+ +
1
1 H ν
1
1 H
1.2 MeV (max)
+
γ

requires presence of 12 C as catalyst.

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Neutrino spectrum (Sun)

This is the predicted neutrino spectrum
Flux at 1 AU (cm−2 s−1MeV−1) [for lines, cm−2 s−1]
Gallium Chlorine SuperK
1012

pp
1010 ±1%

13N
108 7Be pep
15O
±10% ±1.5%

106 17F 8B
+20%
–16%

104

hep ±?
102

0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20

Neutrino energy (MeV)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Energy generation: CNO cycle vs pp-chains

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Consequences

Stars slightly heavier than the Sun burn hydrogen via CNO cycle.
CNO cycle goes significantly faster. Such stars have much shorter
lifetimes
Mass (M ) lifetime (yr)
0.8 1.4 × 1010
1.0 1 × 1010
1.7 2.7 × 109
3.0 2.2 × 108
5.0 6 × 107
9.0 2 × 107
16.0 1 × 107
25.0 7 × 106
40.0 1 × 106
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Helium Burning
Once hydrogen is exhausted the stellar core is made mainly of
helium. Hydrogen burning continues in a shell surrounding the core.
4 He + p produces 5 Li that decays in 10−22 s.

Helium survives in the core till the temperature become large

enough (T ≈ 108 K) to overcome the coulomb barrier for
4 He + 4 He. The produced 8 Be decays in 10−16 . However, the

lifetime is large enough to allow the capture of another 4 He:

3 4 He → 12
C+γ
Hoyle suggested that in order to account for the large abundance of
Carbon and Oxygen, there should be a resonance in 12 C that speeds
up the production.
12 C can react with another 4 He producing 16 O

12
C + α → 16 O + γ
These two reactions make up helium burning.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Hoyle State and tripple α reaction

Red giant structure
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Influence 12 C(α, γ) in nucleosynthesis

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

End of helium burning

Nucleosynthesis yields from stars may be divided into production by

stars above and below 9 M .
stars with M . 9 M These stars eject their envelopes during helium
shell burning producing planetary nebula and white
dwarfs. Constitute the site for the s process.
stars with M & 9 M These stars will ignite carbon burning under
non-degenerate conditions. The subsequent evolution
proceeds in most cases to core collapse. These stars make
the bulk of newly processed matter that is returned to the
interstellar medium.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Stellar Evolution
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Stellar life

Nuclear burning stages

(e.g., 20 solar mass star)

Main Secondary T Time Main

Fuel Product
Product (109 K) (yr) Reaction
CNO
H He 14N 0.02 107 4 H Æ 4He
18O, 22Ne 3 He4 Æ 12C
He O, C s-process
0.2 106 12C DJ)16O

Ne,
C Mg
Na 0.8 103 12C + 12C
20Ne JD)16O
Ne O, Mg Al, P 1.5 3 20Ne DJ)24Mg

Cl, Ar,
O Si, S K, Ca 2.0 0.8 16O + 16O

Ti, V, Cr,
Si Fe Mn, Co, Ni 3.5 0.02 28Si JD)…
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Supernova types
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

SN1987A

Type II supernova in LMC neutrinos Eν ≈ 2.7 × 1053 erg

50.0

(∼ 55 kpc) Kamiokande II
40.0 IMB

Energy (MeV)
30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
Time (seconds)

light curve

Egrav ≈ 1053 erg

Erad ≈ 8 × 1049 erg
Ekin ≈ 1051 erg = 1 Bethe
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Presupernova Star

Star has an onion like structure.

Iron is the final product of the
different burning processes.
As the mass of the iron core
grows it becomes unstable and 9
16
24
O
Mg
40
Ca
56
Fe 86
Kr 107
Ag 127
I 174
Yb 208
Pb
8 12
238
U
collapses when it reaches 7 He
4
C

around 1.4 M . 6
5
6
Li
Eb/A

4
3 3
He
2
2
1 H
0 1H
0 50 100 150 200 250
A
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Schematical Evolution
ν
Progenitor (~ 15 M ) M M
7 ν
(Lifetime: 1 ~ 2 10 y)
ν
ν − Sphere
M M
H O/Si Hot
13 cm Fe ν Extended Mantle
~10 00000
11111
00000
11111
He 00000
11111
Dense
00000
11111
7 m
10 c11111
00000
Core
11111
00000 ν
00000
11111
ν Early
ν ν Se
c. "Protoneutron"
1−1
~0. Star
0000
1111 M
6 1111
0000
10 cm 0000
1111
Dense
0000
1111
ν 0000
1111
Core
0000
1111 ν
0000
1111
ν ν
Late Protoneutron Star
(R ~ 20 km)

a
ov

Sh
rn

oc
pe

k
Su
3 10 8
νe cm
~1 Sec.

e +p n + νe Collapse of
and Core (~1.5 M )
Photodisintegration
of Fe Nuclei
"White Dwarf" 30000 − 60000 km/s
νe (Fe−Core) (R ~ 10000 km)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Early iron core

The core is made of heavy nuclei (iron-mass range A = 45–65) and

electrons. Composition given by Nuclear Statistical Equilibrium.
There are Ye electrons per nucleon.
The mass of the core Mc is determined by the nucleons.
There is no nuclear energy generation which adds to the pressure.
Thus, the pressure is mainly due to the degenerate electrons, with a
small correction from the electrostatic interaction between
electrons and nuclei.
As long as Mc < Mch = 1.44(2Ye )2 M (plus slight corrections for
finite temperature), the core can be stabilized by the degeneracy
pressure of the electrons.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Onset of collapse

There are two processes that make the situation unstable:

1 Silicon burning is continuing in a shell around the iron core. This
adds mass to the iron core increasing Mc .
2 Electrons can be captured by protons (free or in nuclei):

e− + A(Z, N) → A(Z − 1, N + 1) + νe .

This reduces the pressure and keep the core cold, as the neutrinos
leave. The net effect is a reduction of Ye and consequently of the
Chandrasekhar mass (Mch )
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Nuclear Statistical Equilibrium

At high temperatures compositium can be aproximated by Nuclear

Statistical Equilibrium.
Compositium is given by a minimum of the Free Energy:
F = U − T S . Under the constrains of conservation of number of
nucleons and charge neutrality.
It is assumed that all nuclear reactions operate in a time scale much
shorter than any other timescale in the system.
Nuclear Statistical Equilibrium favors free nucleons at high temperatures
and iron group nuclei at low temperatures. Production of nuclei heavier
than iron requires that nuclear statistical equilibrium breaks at some
point.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Nuclear Statistical Equilibrium

The minimum of the free energy is obtained when:

µ(Z, A) = (A − Z)µn + Zµ p

implies that there is an equilibrium between the processes responsible

for the creation and destruction of nuclei:

A(Z, N)  Z p + Nn + γ

Processes mediated by the strong and electromagnetic interactions

proceed in a time scale much sorter than any other evolutionary time
scale of the system.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Nuclear abundances in NSE

Nuclei follow Boltzmann statistics:

2
!3/2 
 n(Z, A)
2 2π~ 
µ(Z, A) = m(Z, A)c + kT ln  
GZ,A (T ) m(Z, A)kT
with GZ,A (T ) the partition function:

X π
GZ,A (T ) = (2Ji + 1)e−Ei (Z,A)/kT ≈ exp(akT ) (a ∼ A/9MeV)
i
6akT

Results in Saha equation:

!A−1 !3(A−1)/2
GZ,A (T )A3/2 ρ 2π~2
Y(Z, A) = Y pZ YnA−Z eB(Z,A)/kT
2A mu mu kT
Composition depends on two parameters: Y p , Yn . They are determined from
the conditions:
P
i Yi Ai = 1 (conservation number nucleons)
P
i Yi Zi = Ye (charge neutrality)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Composition
45 T= 9.01 GK, l= 6.80e+09 g/cm3, Ye=.0.433

40

35
Z (Proton Number) 30

25

20

15

10 Log (Mass Fraction)

5 ï5 ï4 ï3 ï2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
N (Neutron Number)

45 T= 17.84 GK, l= 3.39e+11 g/cm3, Ye=.0.379

40

35
Z (Proton Number)

30

25

20

15

10 Log (Mass Fraction)

5 ï5 ï4 ï3 ï2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
N (Neutron Number)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Composition
log X
0
50 T = 9.01 GK, ρ = 6.80 × 109 g cm-3, Ye = 0.433
-1

Proton number 40 -2

-3
30
-4

20 -5

-6
10
-7
0 -8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Neutron number
log X
0
50 T = 17.84 GK, ρ = 3.39 × 1011 g cm-3, Ye = 0.379
-1

40 -2
Proton number

-3
30
-4

20 -5

-6
10
-7
0 -8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
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Initial conditions

The dominant contribution to the pressure comes from the electrons.

They are degenerate and relativistic:

P ≈ ne µ e = ne ε F

µe is the chemical potential, fermi energy, of the electrons:

ρYe
µe ≈ 1.11(ρ7 Ye )1/3 MeV, = ne
mu

For ρ7 = 1 (ρ = 107 g cm−3 ) the chemical potential is 1 MeV, reaching

the nuclear energy scale. At this point is energetically favorable to
capture electrons by nuclei.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

How to determine the evolution

Composition determined by NSE, function of temperature, density

and Ye .
Weak interactions are not in equilibrium (µe + µ p , µn + µν ) .
Change of Ye has to be computed explicitly:
X
Ye = Yi Zi
i
X X
Ẏe = − λiec Yi + λiβ− Yi
i i
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Presupernova evolution

T = 0.1–0.8 MeV,
ρ = 107 –1010 g cm−3 .
R [km] Initial Phase of Collapse
(t ~ 0)
Composition of iron group nuclei.
RFe~ 3000
Important processes:
νe 0000000000
1111111111
111111111
000000000
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
electron capture:
1111111111
0000000000
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111

e− +(N, Z) → (N +1, Z −1)+νe

000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111

β− decay:
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
Si 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
νe 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111

(N, Z) → (N −1, Z +1)+e− + ν̄e

000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
Fe, Ni 000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
νe 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
Dominated by allowed transitions
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111

0.5 1.0 ~ MCh M(r) [M ] (Fermi and Gamow-Teller)

Si−burning shell
Evolution decreases number of
electrons (Ye ) and Chandrasekar
mass (Mch ≈ 1.4(2Ye )2 M )
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Laboratory vs. stellar electron capture

111111
000000
000000Laboratory
111111 00000
11111
111111
000000
15

00000
11111
15
000000
111111 15
000000
111111
00000
11111
000000
111111
000000
111111 00000
11111
000000
111111
Supernova
000000
111111
10

000000
111111 00000
11111
000000
111111
000000
111111 00000
11111
000000
111111
00000
11111
000000
111111
10
000000
111111
10 5

000000
111111Low−lying 00000
11111
000000
111111
00000
11111
000000
111111Strength 000000
111111
00000
11111
000000
111111
000000
111111
0

000000
111111 000000
111111 Gamow−Teller
000000
111111
5
000000 σ τ+
111111
5 Resonance

000000
111111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111 000000
111111
electron
distribution
0 000000
111111 (Z,A) 0 000000
111111
(Z−1,A)
(Z−1,A) (Z,A)

Capture of K-shell electrons to Capture of electrons from the high energy tail of
tail of GT strength distribution. the FD distribution. Capture to states with large
Parent nucleus in the ground GT matrix elements (GT resonance). Thermal
state ensemble of initial states.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Beta-decay
Electron capture

Beta decay 20
15

15

E (MeV)
10
E (MeV)

10
5
GT−
5
Finite T F
0
(Z,A) GT+
0
(Z+1,A)

GT + and GT − sum rules related by Ikeda sum rule:

S − − S + = 3(N − Z)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

GT in charge exchange reactions

GT strength could be measured in Charge-Exchange reactions:

GT− proved in (p, n), (3 He, t).
GT+ proved in (n, p), (t, 3 He), (d, 2 He).
Mathematical relationship (E p ≥ 100 MeV/nucleon):

dσ
(0◦ ) ≈ f (E x )B(GT )
dΩdE

g2A X
B(GT ) = |h f || σk t ±k ||ii|2
2Ji + 1 k
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Independent Particle Model

Independent particle model.

GT+ strength in 58 Ni measured in (n, p).
1.5 f5/2
58 p1/2
Ni (El-Kateb et al, 1994)
p3/2
FFN
f7/2
1.0 στ + ν π
GT Strength

f5/2
p1/2
0.5 p3/2 f5/2
f7/2 p1/2
ν π p3/2

0.0 58
Ni f7/2
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 ν π
E (MeV) 58
Co

The IPM allows for a single transition ( f7/2 → f5/2 ). It does not
correctly reproduce the fragmentation of GT strength (correlations).
To account for correlations, it is necessary to explicitly consider the
“residual” interaction between nucleons.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Gamow-Teller strength and rates

1.0 0.5 0
56
10 56
54 FFN 51
Fe V 10
-3 Fe Ni
0.8 Exp 0.4

0.6
SM 0.3 10
-6
10
-1

-9
0.4 0.2 10 LMP
-2
-12
FFN 10
0.2 0.1 10
ρ7=10.7 ρ7=4.32
-15
0.0 0.0 10 -3
55
10 59
56 55
Fe Mn 0
Co -1 Co
10
GT Strength

0.6 10
0.4 -2

λec (s )
10

−1
-1
10
0.4 -3
10
-2
0.2 10 -4
10
0.2 -3
10 ρ7=4.32 10
-5
ρ7=33
0.0 0.0 -4 -6
10 54
10 60
58 59
Ni Co Mn Co
0.6 -1 0
10 10
1.0
-2 -2
0.4 10 10
0.5
-3 -4
0.2 10 10
ρ7=10.7 ρ7=33
-4 -6
0.0 0.0 10 10
1 4 7 10 1 4 7 10
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
E (MeV) E (MeV) T9 T9

G2F Vud
2
σi, f (Ee ) = F(Z, Ee )Bi, f (GT )Eν2 + 1)e−Ei /kT λi,ecf
P
i, f (2Ji
Z ∞c ve
2π~ 4 3
λec = P −Ei /kT
1 i (2Ji + 1)e
λi,ecf = p2e f (Ee , T, µe )σi, f (Ee )dEe
π2 ~3 Qi f
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

KVI results using (d, 2 He)

10−2
C. Bäumer et al. PRC 68, 031303 (2003) LMP
10−3
0.4
B(GT+)

(d,2He)
51V(d,2He)51Ti 10−4
0.3

λ (s−1)
10−5 1.4
1.2
0.2 10−6 1
0.8
10−7 0.6
0.1 0 2 4 6 8 10
10−8
0 2 4 6 8 10
T (109 K)

Old (n, p) data

0.1 0.5
51
V(n,p) Alford et al. (1993)
0.2 0.4
B(GT+)

0.3 large shell model 0.3

B(GT+)
calculation
0.2
0.4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0.1
Ex [MeV]
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

GT strength in 48 Sc, 50 V, 58 Ni, 64 Ni also measured.

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Consequences weak rates

A. Heger et al., PRL 86, 1678 (2001)
8 1011
15 M⊙ 25 M⊙ T
T

ρ (g cm−3)
6 1010
T (109 K)

4 109
2
ρ ρ 108
0.50

0.48 WW
LMP
Ye

0.46

0.44

10−3
10−4
 (s )

LMP−EC
 dYe  −1

LMP−β −
10−5
 dt 

10−6
10−7
10−8
106 105 104 103 102 101 100 105 104 103 102 101 100
Time till collapse (s) Time till collapse (s)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Collapse phase

R [km] Neutrino Trapping Important processes:

δ
(t ~ 0.1s, c ~10¹² g/cm³)
RFe Neutrino transport
νe (Boltzmann equation):
1111111111
0000000000
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
ν + A  ν + A (trapping)
νe
ν + e−  ν + e− (thermalization)
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
~ 100 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111 Si
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
cross sections ∼ Eν2
Fe, Ni
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111 νe
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
electron capture on protons:
0000000000
1111111111

e− + p  n + νe
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
M(r) [M ]
0.5 Mhc 1.0 electron capture on nuclei:
heavy nuclei
Si−burning shell e− +A(Z, N)  A(Z−1, N+1)+νe
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

(Un)blocking electron capture at N=40

Independent particle treatment g9/2

g9/2 Unblocked
Correlations
N=40 Finite T
f5/2
Blocked GT GT
f5/2 p1/2
p1/2 p3/2
p3/2
f7/2
f7/2 neutrons protons
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
neutrons protons
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111 000000000000
111111111111
Core
000000000000
111111111111
Core 000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Electron capture: nuclei vs protons

Electron capture rates Energetics

106 40
5
10
104
103 30
102
µe
λec (s−1)

(MeV)
101 1
H
68 20
100 Ni
69
10-1 Ni
76
Ga
10-2 79
89
Ge 10 〈Q〉 = µn−µp
10-3 Br
10-4
1010 1011 1012 Qp
ρ (g cm−3) 0
1010 1011 1012
Abundances ρ (g cm−3)
100

10−1 Yn
Yh
Abundance

10−2
Rh = i Yi λi = Yh hλh i
P
Yα
10−3
R p = Y p λ p , Yi = ni /n
Yp
10−4

10−5
1010 1011 1012
ρ (g cm−3)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Effects Realistic calculation

With Marek, Rampp, Janka & Buras (Approx. General Relativistic model)
15 M presupernova model from A. Heger & S. Woosley
0.45 106

Bruenn
105 LMSH
0.40

Eν−emission (MeV s−1)

104 0.5
s11-SLMS
Ylep s15-SLMS
0.35
Ye,c, Ylep,c

3
10 0.4 s20-SLMS
s25-SLMS

Ye
50
102 40 0.3 Ylep + 0.03
0.30

〈Eν〉 (MeV)
30 Ye
101 20 0.2
109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015
0.25 10 ρ [g/cm3]

Bruenn Y 100
0
e 1010 1012 1014
LMSH ρc (g cm−3)
0.20 10 10−1 10
10 1011 1012 1013 1014 10 1011 1012 1013 1014
ρc (g cm−3) ρc (g cm−3)
Electron capture on nuclei dominates over capture on protons
All models converge to a “norm” stellar core at the moment of
shock formation.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Neutrino interactions in the collapse

Bruenn and Haxton (1991)
Based on results for 56 Fe

Elastic scattering:
ν + A  ν + A (trapping)
Absorption:
νe + (N, Z)  e− + (N − 1, Z + 1)
ν-e scattering:
ν + e−  ν + e− (thermalization)
Inelastic ν-nuclei scattering:
ν + A  ν + A∗
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Neutrino trapping in supernovae

During the collapse of the core of a massive star the densities become so
large that even neutrinos become dynamically trapped in the collapsing
core at densities ∼ 1012 g cm−3 .
The neutrino mean free path (λν = 1/nσ) can be estimated from the
expression for the cross section (assume matter composed of nuclei with
A = 110 Z = 40).

G2F 2
h
2
i2
σ(Eν ) = E ν N − (1 − 4 sin θW )Z
4π~4 c 4

ρG2F
1/λν = E 2 N 2 ≈ 2.5 × 10−9 ρ12 Eν2 N 2 /A
4π(~c)4 Amu ν
λν ≈ 220 m (Eν = 20 MeV)
The diffusion time for a distance of 30 km is:
3L2
t= ≈ 41 ms
cλν
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Importance trapping

After trapping and thermalization, neutrinos becomes degenerate.

They are described by a Fermi-Dirac distribution with chemical
potential µν given by the weak equilibrium condition:

µν = µe − (µn − µ p )

The presence of neutrinos stops electron capture processes and a

sizable electron fraction survives the collapse.
The inner core collapses as a homologous unit.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Homologous collapse

R [km] Neutrino Trapping

δ
RFe (t ~ 0.1s, c ~10¹² g/cm³)

νe
1111111111
0000000000
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
νe
0000000000
1111111111
~ 100 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
Si
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
Fe, Ni
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111 νe
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111

0.5 Mhc 1.0 M(r) [M ]

heavy nuclei
Si−burning shell

After thermalization an inner homologous core forms in which the

local sound velocity is larger than the infall velocity.
Matter in the outer core falls at supersonic velocities.
0000000000
1111111111
1111111111
0000000000
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
 000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
1111111111
0000000000
111111111
000000000
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
Hydrostatic Burning Phases 0000000000
1111111111
Core-collapse supernova
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
1111111111
0000000000
0000000000
1111111111
Nucleosynthesis heavy elements
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111

Bounce and νe burst

R [km] Bounce and Shock Formation
δ
(t ~ 0.11s, c <∼ 2 o )
δ
RFe

radius of νe
shock
formation 000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
Collapse continues until central density
1111111111
0000000000
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
1111111111
0000000000 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
becomes around twice nuclear matter
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
1111111111
0000000000
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
~ 10
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
Si νe 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
density. 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
Fe, Ni 000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111 νe 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
Sudden increase in nuclear pressure stops
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111

0.5 1.0
0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
M(r) [M ] the collapse and a shock wave is launched
0000000000
1111111111

nuclear matter
( >∼ ο )
δ δ nuclei
Si−burning shell at the sonic point. The energy of the
shock depends on the Equation of State.
Shock Propagation and νe Burst
R [km]
(t ~ 0.12s)
The passage of the shock dissociates
RFe
Rs ~ 100 km νe nuclei into free nucleons which costs
∼ 8 MeV/nucleon. Additional energy is
Rν
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
1111111111
0000000000
νe
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
position of 0000000000
1111111111
νe
shock
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
Si lost by neutrino emission produced by
formation 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
νe
free n,
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
Fe
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
electron capture (νe burst).
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
p 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
Ni νe
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
Shock stalls at a distance of around
0000000000
1111111111

0.5 1.0 M(r) [M ] 100 km.

nuclear matter
nuclei
Si−burning shell
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Spherical simulation
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Spherical simulation
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Spherical simulation
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Spherical simulation
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Spherical simulation
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Spherical simulation
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Spherical simulation
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Spherical simulation
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Neutrino burst
400

s11-SLMS
300
s15-SLMS
Lνe [1051 erg/s] s20-SLMS
200
s25-SLMS

100

0
-10 0 10 20 50 100 150 200
t [ms]

Burst is produced when shock wave reaches regions with densities

low enough to be transparent to neutrinos
Burst structure does not depend on the progenitor star.
Future observation by a supernova neutrino detector. Standard
neutrino candles.
 000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
000000000
111111111 0000000000
1111111111
111111111
000000000 0000000000
1111111111
1111111111
0000000000
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates
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Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova
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Nucleosynthesis heavy elements
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111111111 1111111111
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Delayed explosion mechanism: neutrino heating

Shock Stagnation and ν Heating,
R [km]

Rs ~ 200
Explosion (t ~ 0.2s) Main processes:
νe,µ,τ ,νe,µ,τ νe + n  p + e−
ν̄e + p  n + e+
Rg ~ 100 free n, p Si

p
R ν ~ 50 νe Concept of gain radius due to Bethe.
n νe,µ,τ ,νe,µ,τ
νe Corresponds to the region where cooling
PNS 1.3 gain layer 1.5 M(r) [M ]
(electron positron capture) and heating
cooling layer (neutrino antineutrino absorption) are equal.
!6
kT
Cooling: 143 MeV/s
2 MeV

 Lνe ,52 ν2e Lν̄e ,52 ν̄2e 

 
Heating: 110  Yn + Y p
 MeV/s
r72 r72

Gravitational energy of a nucleon at 100 km: 14 MeV

Energy transfer induces convection and requires
multidimensional simulations.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Nucleosynthesis beyond iron

The stable nuclei beyond iron

can be classified in three
categories depending of their
Charge Number

origin:
s-process
r-process
p-process (γ-process)

Neutron Number
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Nucleosynthesis beyond iron

Three processes contribute to the nucleosynthesis beyond iron:

s-process, r-process and p-process (γ-process).
102
80
101 s
r s
100

Abundances [Si=106]
70 p-drip r
-1
10
60
10-2
Z

50
10-3 115
Sn 180
n-drip W p
138
40 10-4 La
152
-5 Gd
10
30 164 180 m
Er Ta
10-6
40 60 80 100 120 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
N A

s-process: relatively low neutron densities, nn = 1010−12 cm−3 , τn > τβ

r-process: large neutron densities, nn > 1020 cm−3 , τn < τβ .
p-process: photodissociation of s-process material.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

The r-process
The r-process is responsible for the synthesis of half the nuclei with
A > 60 including U, Th and maybe the super-heavies.

0
25
Known mass

s
ce
Known half−life
an
nd
r−process waiting point (ETFSI−Q)
bu
ra

0
100

20
98

96
lar

94

92

90
So

88
86

84 188 190
186
82

80

78 184
180 182
76 178
176
0

74 164 166 168 170 172 174

15

68
72

70
158
160
162

N=184
66 156
154
64 152
150
62 140 142 144 146 148
1

60 138
134 136
10

58 130 132
128
0

56
10

54 126
−1

124
52 122
120
10
−2

50 116 118

N=126
0

48 112 114
10

110
10
−3

46 108
106
10

44 104
100 102
42 98
96
40 92 94

36
38

82
84
86
88 90
r−process path
34 80
78
32 74 76

30 72
70
28

26
28
30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58
60
62
64
66 68
N=82

Main parameter determining the nucleosynthesis is the neutron-to-seed ratio n s .

A f = Ai + n s
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

r-process and metal-poor stars

Cowan & Sneden, Nature 440, 1151
(2006) Stars rich in heavy r-process elements (Z > 56)
and poor in iron (r-II stars, [Eu/Fe] > 1.0).
0
Robust abundance patter for Z > 56,
consistent with solar r-process abundance.
Relative log ε

−2

These abundance seems the result of events

−4
that do not produce iron. [Qian & Wasserburg,
−6
Phys. Rept. 442, 237 (2007)]
Astrophysical scenario is unknown. It should
−8
30 40 50 60 70
Atomic Number
80 90 involve ejection of very neutron-rich matter.
0.5
(b)
Sr Zr translated pattern of CS 22892-052 (Sneden et al. 2003)
0
Stars poor in heavy r-process elements but Ru
-0.5 Mo
with large abundances of light r-process Pd
-1
elements (Sr, Y, Zr) Y

log ε (Z)
-1.5
Nb
Production of light and heavy r-process -2
Ag
elements seems to be decoupled. -2.5

-3 HD 122563 (Honda et al. 2006)

Possible astrophysical scenario: Eu

-3.5
neutrino-driven wind in core-collapse 40 50 60
Atomic Number (Z)
70 80

supernova Honda et al, ApJ 643, 1180 (2006)

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Evolution composition: assuming NSE

Adiabatic expansion from high temperatures:

s = 50, T = 10 GK, ρ = 8.47 × 106 g cm−3 , Ye = 0.48

log Y
50 0
-2
40 -4
-6
Proton number

30 -8
-10
20 -12
-14
10 -16
-18
0 -20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Neutron number
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Evolution composition: assuming NSE

Adiabatic expansion from high temperatures:

s = 50, T = 8 GK, ρ = 3.78 × 106 g cm−3 , Ye = 0.48

log Y
50 0
-2
40 -4
-6
Proton number

30 -8
-10
20 -12
-14
10 -16
-18
0 -20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Neutron number
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Evolution composition: assuming NSE

Adiabatic expansion from high temperatures:

s = 50, T = 6 GK, ρ = 1.44 × 106 g cm−3 , Ye = 0.48

log Y
50 0
-2
40 -4
-6
Proton number

30 -8
-10
20 -12
-14
10 -16
-18
0 -20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Neutron number
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Evolution composition: assuming NSE

Adiabatic expansion from high temperatures:

s = 50, T = 4 GK, ρ = 3.76 × 105 g cm−3 , Ye = 0.48

log Y
50 0
-2
40 -4
-6
Proton number

30 -8
-10
20 -12
-14
10 -16
-18
0 -20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Neutron number
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Evolution composition: assuming NSE

Adiabatic expansion from high temperatures:

s = 50, T = 2 GK, ρ = 3.47 × 104 g cm−3 , Ye = 0.48

log Y
50 0
-2
40 -4
-6
Proton number

30 -8
-10
20 -12
-14
10 -16
-18
0 -20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Neutron number
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Impact of light nuclei

Nuclei with A = 5 and A = 8 are not stable.

Nuclei heavier than A = 7 can only be produced by 3-body reactions:

3 4 He → 12 C + γ
2 4 He + n → 9 Be + γ
suppressed due to low densities (Probability ∼ ρ2 ) and high temperatures
(destruction ∼ ρT 3 ).
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

α-rich freeze out

Previous discussion assumes that nuclear reactions responsible for the

build up of heavy nuclei proceed faster than the expansion timescale.
It needs to be compared with the timescale for destruction of alpha
particles by the 3α reaction:

1 1 dYα ρ2 2
= = Y hαααi
τα Yα dt 2m2u α

T = 6 GK, hαααi/m2u = 7.6×10−11 cm6 g−2 s−1 , ρYα = 2.5×105 g cm−3

τα = 0.4s

For faster expansions build up of heavy nuclei is suppressed leaving

substantial amounts of free protons or neutrons.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Sensitivity to entropy and Ye

sγ ∼ 7 photon-to-baryon ratio (B. S. Meyer, Phys. Rept. 227, 257 (1993))
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Contours constant Qα

α separation energies determine the heaviest nuclei that are build before
α-rich freeze out.

From Woosley & Hoffman, Astrophys. J. 395, 202 (1992).

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Evolution Abundances

Calculation assuming: s = 250 k, Ye = 0.4, τdyn = 8 ms, T (t) = T 0 e−t/τdyn

10 0 3
2
10 −1 1
0
−2
10

log(Yn/Yseed)
−1
Abundance

−2
10 −3
−3
−4
10 −4
neutrons −5
alpha −6
10 −5
heavy
−7
10 −6 −8
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Temperature (GK) Time (s)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Evolution Abundances

10 0 3
2
10 −1 1
0
−2
10

log(Yn/Yseed)
−1
Abundance

−2
10 −3
−3
−4
10 −4
neutrons −5
alpha −6
10 −5
heavy
−7
10 −6 −8
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Temperature (GK) Time (s)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Neutron to seed in adiabatic expansions

1 10 20 50 100 150 250

0.48 0.48

0.46 0.46
Electron Abundance

0.44 0.44

0.42 0.42

0.4 0.4

0.38 0.38

0.36 0.36

0.34 0.34

0.32 0.32

0.3 0.3

100 200 300 0 1 2

Entropy (linear scale) Entropy (log scale)

FIG. 9.ÈY /Y in a contour plot as a function of initial entropy S and Y for an expansion timescale of 0.05 s as expected from SNe II conditions
n seed e

From Freiburghaus et al., Astrophys. J. 516, 381 (1999)

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Neutron to seed in adiabatic expansions

n s ∼ s3 /(Ye3 τdyn ), T (t) = T 0 e−t/τdyn

0.5

τdyn = 0.0039 s 0.039 s 0.195 s

0.4
Ye

0.3

0.2
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
S

Combinations Ye , s, and τdyn necessary for producing the A = 195 peak.

From Y.-Z. Qian, Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys. 50, 153 (2003)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Nuclear physics needs

Fission rates and distributions:

• n-induced
• spontaneous
E-delayed n-emission • E-delayed
branchings
(final abundances)

E-decay half-lives
(abundance and
process speed) n-capture rates
• for A>130
in slow freezeout
• for A<130
maybe in a “weak” r-process ?

Q-physics ?
Seed production
rates (DDD,DDn, D2n, ..) Masses (Sn)
(location of the path)

figure from H. Schatz

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Classical r-process, (n, γ)  (γ, n) equilibrium

Need: • mix of suitable heavy seed nuclei (A=56-90) and neutrons

• sufficient large number density of neutrons (max at least ~1e24 cm-3)
• sufficient large neutron/seed ratio (at least ~100)

Temperature: ~1-2 GK
Density: 300 g/cm3 (~60% neutrons !) neutron capture timescale: ~ 0.2 µs
Proton number

Rapid neutron
capture β-decay

Seed

Equilibrium favors
(γ,n) photodisintegration “waiting point”
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

(n, γ)  (γ, n) equilibrium

If the r-process occurs in (n, γ)  (γ, n) equilibrium:

µ(Z, A + 1) = µ(Z, A) + µn
!3/2 !3/2
2π~2
" #
Y(Z, A + 1) A+1 G(Z, A + 1) S n (Z, A + 1)
= nn exp
Y(Z, A) mu kT A 2G(Z, A) kT
The maximum of the abundance defines the r-process path:
!
T9 3
S n0 (MeV) = 34.075 − log nn + log T 9
5.04 2

For nn = 5 × 1021 cm−3 and T = 1.3 GK corresponds at S n = 3.23 MeV,

S 2n = 6.46 MeV
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Dynamical r-process calculations

Dynamical calculations show that the r-process can occur under two different
regimes with quite different demands from nuclear physics. [A. Arcones, GMP,
Phys. Rev. C 83, 045809 (2011)]
High temperature “hot” r-process [classical (n, γ)  (γ, n) equilibrium]
Low temperature “cold” r-process [competition between (n, γ) and β− ,
Blake & Schramm, ApJ 209, 846 (1976)]

unmodified 10
4
2.0 Trs =1GK 3
no Rrs 10
temperature [10 K]

2
1.5
density [g/cm ]
10
9

3
1
10
1.0 0
10
-1
0.5 10 unmodified
-2 Trs =1GK
10 no Rrs
-3
0.0 -2 -1 0 10 -2 -1 0
10 10 10 10 10 10
time [s] time [s]
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

hot vs. cold r-process

Hot r-process Cold r-process
3 3
10 10 photodissiociation
1 1
10 10
time scale [s]

time scale [s]

-1 beta decay -1 beta decay
10 10
-3 -3
10 photodissociation 10 neutron capture
-5 -5
10 neutron capture 10
-7 -7
10 -2 -1 0 10 -2 -1 0
10 10 10 10 10 10
time [s] time [s]
-4
-4 10
10

-5
-5 10
10

-6
-6 10
abundance

10 abundance

-7 -7
10 10

-8 -8
10 FRDM 10 FRDM
ETFSI-Q ETFSI-Q
HFB-14 HFB-14
-9
Duflo Zuker Duflo Zuker
-9
10 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 10 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210
A A
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Why such a large differences?

Currently available mass models show big differences in the predicted
masses before and after the neutron shell closures, where one expects
transitions from deformed to spherical nuclei.
FRDM
12 ETFSI−Q
r-process region

Data

FAIR reach 10 −4
S2n (MeV)

8 Impact on abundances
Cd (Z=48) Isotopes 10 −5
4

0
125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160
Abundance 10 −6
Mass Number

16 10 −7
r-process region

FAIR reach

12 Solar Abundances
10 −8 FRDM
S2n (MeV)

8
ETFSI−Q
Er (Z=68) Isotopes
10 −9
110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210
4 FRDM
ETFSI−Q Mass Number
Data
0
160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 200 205
Mass Number
(A. Arcones & GMP, Phys. Rev. C 83, 045809 (2011))
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

FAIR: a new era in our understanding of the r-process

the FAIR reach for nuclear masses.

82

masses measured at the

FRS-ESR

65 r-process
126
path
58

50
rp-process
path Will be measured with
SUPER-FRS-CR-NESR
82

28

50 stable nuclei
20

8 nuclides with
28 known masses
20
8
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Neutrino emission from the proto-neutron star

Neutrino detection from SN1987A
50.0
νµ, ν−µ, ντ, ν
−
000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111111111111 −
τ
Kamiokande II
000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111111111111
νe 40.0 IMB

000000000000000
111111111111111
111111111111111
000000000000000
νe

Energy (MeV)
000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111111111111
30.0

000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111111111111 20.0
000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111111111111 10.0
000000000000000
111111111111111
T ~ 1/R
0.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
Time (seconds)

Gravitational binding energy: Egrav ≈ GM 2 /R ∼ 1053 erg.

Neutrino emission lasts around 10 s with energies Eν ∼ 10 MeV.
Enormous neutrino fluxes around the neutron star surface:
Φν = 1043 cm−2 s−1 at 20 km. Gravitational binding energy
nucleon ∼ 100 MeV.
With Eν ∼ 10 MeV the typical neutrino-nucleon cross section is
10−41 cm−2 . This results in interaction times of 10 ms.
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Influence of neutrinos on nucleosynthesis

Main processes:
νe + n → p + e − Early times (up to 1-2 seconds):
ν̄e + p → n + e+ proton-rich ejecta (νp-process).
Neutrino interactions determine the proton Later times:
to neutron ratio, the ejecta are proton rich if: neutron-rich ejecta (r-process)??
ν̄e − νe < 4(mn c2 − m p c2 ) ≈ 5.2MeV
20
Marek & Janka, ApJ 694, 664 (2009)
18
average energy [MeV]

16
2.5 MeV
14

12

10
νe
8 ν̄ e
6 νµ , ν τ

0 200 400 600

time [ms]
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Long term evolution neutrino luminosities and average energies

Long-term simulations of the collapse and explosion of an 8.8 M
ONeMg core,

0
4 10
L/10 Accretion Phase Cooling Phase νe

L [10 erg s ]
-1
3 νe
νµ/τ -1
2 10

52
1
-2
0 10

<ε> [MeV]
12
10
10

8 5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 2 4 6 8
Time after bounce [s]

Hüdepohl et al., PRL 104, 251101 (2010)

Fischer et al, A&A 517, A80 (2010)

Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Neutrino driven wind

Neutrino cooling and

Neutrino-driven wind
At T = 10 GK starts the formation 105
of α-particles (4 He).
Between T = 8 GK and T = 3 GK, 104
νe,µ,τ , νe,µ,τ

the formation of seeds occurs.

R in km
Dominating reactions are: Ni
103
3α  12 C + γ Si
(proton-rich ejecta)
He
2α + n  9 Be + γ 102 νp-process
9 Be + α → 12 C + n r-process νe,µ,τ , –νe,µ,τ
O
Rns ~10
(neutron-rich ejecta).
Rν
At lower temperatures proton PNS
1.4 α, p α, p, nuclei 3
(νp-process) or neutron (r-process) n, p α, n α, n, nuclei
M(r) in M

captures take place.

GMP, Physik Journal 7, 51 (2008)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Impact of neutrino interactions on proton-rich ejecta

Once neutrino interactions are consistently included in the

nucleosynthesis network, nuclei with A > 64 are produced.
10 4
Without ν
With ν
10 3
Yi/Yi,⊙

10 2

10 1

10 0
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Mass Number A
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

The νp-process

Without neutrino interactions

proton-rich ejecta form N = Z
iron-group nuclei with A < 64. 65 As

However, nucleosynthesis occurs

at the presence of substantial (p, γ )
Sp= −90(85) keV
neutrino fluxes.

64 Ge

β+
63.7 s

64 Ga
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

The νp-process

Without neutrino interactions

proton-rich ejecta form N = Z
iron-group nuclei with A < 64. 65 As 66 As

However, nucleosynthesis occurs

at the presence of substantial (p, γ )
neutrino fluxes.
Antineutrino absorption and 64 Ge 65 Ge
expansion time scales are similar
(∼ 1 s)
(n,p ) (p, γ )
Neutrinos speed-up the matter flow ~ 10 ms
ν̄e + p → e+ + n
n + 64 Ge → 64 Ga + p 64 Ga
64
Ga + p → 65 Ge . . .
These reactions constitute the νp-process
C. Fröhlich, et al., PRL 96, 142502 (2006)
Introduction Astrophysical reaction rates Hydrostatic Burning Phases Core-collapse supernova Nucleosynthesis heavy elements

The νp-process

Without neutrino interactions

proton-rich ejecta form N = Z
iron-group nuclei with A < 64.
However, nucleosynthesis occurs
at the presence of substantial
neutrino fluxes.
Antineutrino absorption and 10 2
Ru
Sr
Kr
expansion time scales are similar Mo
Se Pd
(∼ 1 s) 10 1

Mi/(M ejXi,⊙)
Zr
Neutrinos speed-up the matter flow Zn Ga
Ge Br Rb Nb Cd
As Y
ν̄e + p → e+ + n 10 0 Cu
n + 64 Ge → 64 Ga + p
Ga + p → 65 Ge . . .
64 Rh

10 −1
60 70 80 90 100 110 120
These reactions constitute the νp-process Mass number A
Trajectories from supernova simulation (Janka)
C. Fröhlich, et al., PRL 96, 142502 (2006)