PROF. LINGE P. S.

ELECTRICAL POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

UNIT- III
EXTRA HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION
3.1 EHVAC TRANSMISSION LINE:
Define EHV line:-
• EHV line means transmission voltage between 400 KV To 765 KV is known as EHV line
• We know that, P = √3 VL IL cos ɸ
• For,
➢ Same power to be transferred
➢ At same power factor
1
➢ At same transmission line distance 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉 from This Equation It is clear that due

to High Transmission Voltage

3.1.1 NECESSITY OF EHV TRANSMISSION LINE:-
EHV AC transmission line becomes necessary for bulk power to be transmitted over a long
distance because of following advantages:-
1
• As Transmission voltage increases, current decreases. ( as 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉 )

• As current decreases, cross section of conductor decreases. [as c/s of conductor α I]

• As cross section of conductor decreases, its weight decreases.
• As weight of the conductor decreases, design of tower becomes lighter in weight.
• As current decreases, cross section of bus bar and size of switch gear contact etc. reduces.
• Due to above advantages, Transmission cost per KM decreases
• As transmission voltage increases. A current decreases, so copper losses in transmission
line reduces.(as Cu losses α I 2 )
• As copper losses reduces, transmission efficiency increases 9. As current reduces, voltage
possible than low voltage.
• Generating Stations are generally located away from load centre.

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3.1.2 COMPONENTES OF EHVAC SUBSTATION:

1. Power Transformer
• The main purpose of the power transformer is to step-up the transmission voltage at the
generation unit & step-down the transmission voltage at the distribution unit.
• Generally for rating up to 10MVA (Mega-volt-Amperes) oil immersed, naturally cooled
and 3-phase transformers are used.
• Similarly, for more than 10MVA (Mega-volt-Amperes), air blast cooled transformers are
used.
2. Instrument Transformer
• The main purpose of an instrument transformer is to decrease high current as well as
voltages for a secure & realistic value.
• These values can be calculated with conventional devices. The range of voltage and
current are 110 V, and 1A (or) 5A.
• This transformer is also used for triggering the protective relay (AC type) by providing
the current as well as voltage.
• These transformers are classified into two types namely a voltage transformer and a
current transformer.
3. Voltage Transformer
• This transformer can be defined as it is an instrument transformer used for changing the
voltage from a superior value to the minor value.
4. Current Transformer
• A current transformer is an electrical device, and the main function of this is to change
the value of current from a superior value to the minor value.
• This type of transformer is applicable in meters, control apparatus and parallel by AC
instruments.
5. Lightning Arrester
• This is the first component in an electrical substation, and the main function of these
components is to protect the components of the substation from passing high voltage as
well as stops the amplitude and duration of the flow of current.
• The light arrestor components are connected among the earth as well as a line which
mean parallel to the components under defense at the electrical substation.

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• These components divert the flow of current to the ground and therefore protect the
system’s conductor as well as insulation from harm.
6. Wave-Trapper
• The wave-trapper is located on incoming lines to trap the high-frequency signal.
• This signal (wave) comes from the remote station which interrupts the current and
voltage signals.
• This component trips the high-frequency signal and redirects them to the telecom board.
7. Circuit-Breaker
• This is a type of electrical switch, used to open or close the circuit when an error arises in
the system. It includes two moving parts that are usually closed.
• When an error happens in the system, then the relay transmits the signal to the circuit-
breaker & therefore their parts are moved separately. Therefore, errors occur in the
system turns into clear.
8. Bus Bar
• The bus bar is a very important component in an electrical substation. It is a kind of
current carrying conductor where many connections are made.
• In other terms, it can be defined as it is one type of electrical connection where the
incoming current and outgoing current take place.
• As the fault takes place in this component, then all the circuit components associated to
the section ought to be tripped-out for giving entire isolation in the quick time so that the
fault is neglected to the fitting because of conductors heating.
9. Isolator in Substation
• The isolator is one type of electrical switch, used to isolate the circuit whenever the flow
of current has been disrupted.
• These switches are named as disconnected switches, and it works under a no-load
condition. Isolators are not inbuilt by arc-quenching apparatus, and they don’t have any
particular current-making or current-breaking capacity.
• In some situations, it is used to break the current charging of the line of transmission.
10. Batteries
• In large power stations or substations, the operation of lighting, relay system, or control
circuits are powered by batteries.

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• These batteries are connected to a particular accumulator cell based on the operating
voltage of the particular DC circuit.
• The batteries are classified into two types namely acid-alkaline as well as lead acid. Lead
acid batteries are applicable for substations, power stations due to their high voltage &
very economical low voltage.
11. Switchyard
• The switchyard is the inter-connector among the transmission as well as generation, &
equal voltage is maintained in this device.
• Switchyards are used to transmit the power which is generated from the substation at the
preferred level of voltage to the near transmission line or power station.
12. Relay
• The relay is an electrical device, and the main role of this device in the substation is, it
guards the grid component against the irregular conditions like faults.
• This is one type of detecting device, used to detect and determine the fault location, and
then it sends the signal to the circuit breaker.
• After receiving the signal from the relay, the circuit breaker will detach the faulted part.
Relays are mainly useful for protecting the devices from hazards, damages.
13. Capacitor Bank
• This device is inbuilt with capacitors that are connected either in series or else parallel.
The main function of this is to store the electrical energy in electrical charge form.
• This bank draws primary current which amplifies the PF (power factor) of the system. As
a source, the capacitor bank works for reactive-power, and the phase-difference among
the current as well as the voltage will be decreased.
• They will enhance the capacity of ripple current of the power supply, and it removes the
unnecessary characteristics within the system.
• The capacitor bank is an efficient method for preserving power factor as well as power-
lag problem correction.
14. Insulator
• The insulator is used for insulating as well as fixing the bus-bar systems in substations.
Insulators are separated into two types namely post type & bushing type.

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• A post type insulator comprises of the ceramic body and the cap of this insulator is
designed with a cast iron material. It is straightly connected to the bus bar.
• The second type of insulator (bushing) includes ceramic shell body, higher & lower
locating washes which are useful for fitting the bus-bar position.
3.1.3 EHVAC TRANSMISSION LINE ADVANTAGES:-
1
• As Transmission voltage increases, current decreases. ( as 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉 )

• As current decreases, cross section of conductor decreases. [as c/s of conductor α I]

• As cross section of conductor decreases, its weight decreases.
• As weight of the conductor decreases, design of tower becomes lighter in weight.
• As current decreases, cross section of bus bar and size of switch gear contact etc. reduces.
• Due to above advantages, Transmission cost per KM decreases
• As transmission voltage increases. A current decreases, so copper losses in transmission
line reduces.(as Cu losses α I 2 )
• As copper losses reduces, transmission efficiency increases 9. As current reduces, voltage
possible than low voltage.
• Generating Stations are generally located away from load centre.
3.1.4 DISADVANTAGES OF EHVAC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM:
• Skin effect is present due to which effective resistance of conductor increases which
causes more power loss and voltage drop in the line.
• It requires 3 conductors which increases conductor material. Ultimately cost of
transmission increases.
• Corona effect is more than DC transmission
• Due to presence of inductance, drop in voltage increases.
• Height of tower has to be increased in order to provide sufficient clearance between earth
and conductor.
• Due to EHV, design of switches, circuit breakers, CT, PT becomes complicated.
• Due to increase in line voltage, insulator has to be increased and also insulation of all
components connected to the system should be increased.
• Transmission line must be made wind resistant to avoid damage of conductors, insulators,
frame work etc. in case of storms.

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3.1.5 LIMITATIONS OF EHVAC TRANSMISSION:

• Insulation cost increases as voltage increases
• Skin effect is more
• Proximity effect is more.
• Corona loss increases.
• Radio interference increases
• String efficiency is less than100%
• Ground return not possible.
• Voltage control is not easily possible.
• Power flow cannot be easily controlled.
• Short circuit current level is more11. In case of EHVAC, Intermediate substation is
required at every 250 km to improve the performance of transmission line
• If power is to be transmitted of EHVAC through underground cable then there is
limitation on the length of cable due to charging current. e.g. for 400 KV line limitation
on length of cable is 25 Km
• Asynchronous tie not possible.
• Stability of EHVAC is very low because of presence of inductance.
• Transient performance is poor.
• There is limitation on power transfer due to presence of inductance of transmission line &
power angle.
• To improve the performance of transmission line additional equipments such as series &
shunt reactor & capacitor are required which increases cost of substation.
• EHVAC is economical only for bulk amount of power is to be transmitted over long
distance.
3.1.6 APPLICATIONS OF EHVAC
• In Electrical Power Distribution
• In Cathode ray tubes, to generate X-rays and particle beams.
• To demonstrate arcing and for ignition
• In photomultiplier tubes
• High power amplifier vacuum tubes

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• For industrial and scientific applications.

3.1.7 EHVAC ROUTS IN INDIA

Sr. No. From To AC Voltage level
1. Agra Biswanath 400KV
2. Raichur Solapur 765KV
3. Rihand Dadri 400KV
4. Talcher Kolar 400KV
5. Ballia Bhinwadi 400KV
6. Mundra Mahindergarh 400KV

3.1.8 FERRANTI EFFECT

Under following conditions Ferranti effect occurs:
• When there is no load on transmission line (IL = 0) OR
• When There is no load at receiving sub-station or Lightly loaded OR
• When there is sudden load thrown OFF. OR
• When there is sudden load shading. OR
• When Transmission line is open circuited due to load failure.
Ferranti effect:
Under any one above condition, it is observe that receiving end voltage (VR) is found to be
greater than sending end voltage (VS). This phenomenon is known as Ferranti effect.
Phasor Diagram:
Load Current (IR) is negligible as compare to charging current (Ic)

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3.1.9 CORONA EFFECT:

The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas in an
overhead transmission line is known as corona.

CORONA FORMATION
• Some ionization is always present in air due to cosmic rays, ultraviolet radiations and
radioactivity.
• Therefore, under normal conditions, the air around the conductors contains some ionized
particles (i.e., free electrons and +ve ions) and neutral molecules.
• When p.d. is applied between the conductors, potential gradient is set up in the air which
will have maximum value at the conductor surfaces.
• Under the influence of potential gradient, the existing free electrons acquire greater
velocities. The greater the applied voltage, the greater the potential gradient and more is
the velocity of free electrons.
• When the potential gradient at the conductor surface reaches about 30 kV per cm (max.
value), the velocity acquired by the free electrons is sufficient to strike a neutral molecule
with enough force to dislodge one or more electrons from it.
• This produces another ion and one or more free electrons, which is turn are accelerated
until they collide with other neutral molecules, thus producing other ions.
• Thus, the process of ionization is cumulative. The result of this ionization is that either
corona is formed or spark takes place between the conductors.

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FACTORS AFFECTING CORONA:-

1. Magnitude of Voltage:
• If voltage across two conductors is greater than 30 KV/cm, i.e. breakdown voltage of air
than corona formation starts. Corona will not start if voltage is below 30 KV/cm
2. Distance between two conductors:
• If spacing between two conductors is very large as compare to their diameter than there is
no possibility of corona formation. Because value of voltage at which corona occurs
increases.
3. Size of conductor:
• If size (Cross section) of conductor is more, than magnitude of voltage required to occur
the corona increases.
4. Condition of conductor & Hardware:
• Rough and irregular surface of conductor and hardware will give more corona than solid,
smooth body conductor & hardware.
5. Atmospheric Condition:
• As corona takes place due to ionization of air so it depends on condition of air so for dry
air formation of corona occurs late than in wet air (damp atmosphere condition/ rainy
season/thunderstorms/fog air becomes more conductivity)
6. Effect of supply Frequency:
• Corona loss varies directly as the supply frequency
7. Effect of density of air:
• Corona loss increases with the decrease in the density of air (The corona loss of
transmission line passing through hilly area is higher than that of a similar line in plain
due to reduced value of air density at high level /altitude)

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IMPORTANT TERMS:
1. Critical disruptive voltage:
• It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona occurs.
• Consider two conductors of radii r cm and spaced d cm apart. If V is the phase-neutral
potential, then potential gradient at the conductor surface is given by:

• In order that corona is formed, the value of g must be made equal to the breakdown
strength of air.

• The breakdown strength of air at 76 cm pressure and temperature of 25ºC is 30 kV/cm.

2. Visual critical voltage.
• It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona glow appears all along the line
conductors.
• It has been seen that in case of parallel conductors, the corona glow does not begin at the
disruptive voltage Vc but at a higher voltage Vv, called visual critical voltage.
• The phase-neutral effective value of visual critical voltage is given by the following
empirical formula :

where mv is another irregularity factor having a value of 1·0 for polished conductors and
0·72 to 0·82 for rough conductors.
3. Power loss due to corona.
• Formation of corona is always accompanied by energy loss which is dissipated in the
form of light, heat, sound and chemical action.
• When disruptive voltage is exceeded, the power loss due to corona is given by :

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METHODS TO REDUCE CORONA EFFECT:

1. By increasing distance between two conductor i.e. by using longer cross arm.
• By increasing the spacing between conductors, the voltage at which corona occurs is
raised and hence corona effects can be eliminated.
• However, spacing cannot be increased too much otherwise the cost of supporting
structure (e.g., bigger cross arms and supports) may increase to a considerable extent.
2. By using larger size(diameter) of conductor e.g./ using ACSR, bundled conductor
• By increasing conductor size, the voltage at which corona occurs is raised and hence
corona effects are considerably reduced.
• This is one of the reasons that ACSR conductors which have a larger cross-sectional area
are used in transmission lines
3. By using smooth body conductor and hardware.

ADVANTAGES OF CORONA:-

1. Due to formation of corona air around the conductor gets ionized. Hence effective diameter of
conductor increases. So its resistance decreases.
2. It reduces electrostatic stresses as cross section of conductor’s increases.
3. It provides safety valve against over voltage due to lighting stroke.
4. It reduces effect of transient produced by surge.

DISADVANTAGES OF CORONA:-

1. There is power loss due to corona which reduces transmission efficiency.

2. Ozone gas produced, due to chemical action there is possibility of corrosion (rusting) of
hardware & conductor.
3. Harmonics are produced which will cause radio interference due to corona.
4. There is electromagnetic & electrostatic interference due to corona.

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3.2 HVDC TRANSMISSION:

3.2.1 NECESSITY OF HVDC TRANSMISSION LINE:-
HVDC transmission line becomes necessary for bulk power to be transmitted over a long
distance because of following advantages:-
• The basic D.C transmission line requires only 2 Conductor. (+ ve & - Ve) and if ground
• is used as a return path, then only one conductor is sufficient.
• If ground is used as return path, then only 2 conductors are sufficient for double circuit.
• As number of conductor required are less, so load on tower is less. This make Tower
design simple and lighter.
• Tower required less ground area as its base is less than AC tower. (Right Of Way)So land
use benefits are more.
• No intermediate substation is required like HVAC transmission line.
• Due to above advantages, Cost of transmission line per KM is less.
• Skin effect is absent.
• No proximity effect.
• No Ferranti effect.
• String efficiency is 100%
• Less radio interference.
• Low corona loss.
• Copper losses are less, transmission efficiency is more.(As dc resistance is less than AC
resistance by 1.6 times)
• As Copper loss are less So transmission efficiency is more
• Effect of L & C is absent and value of DC resistance of conductor is less, so voltage drop
in D.C. transmission line is less.
• Voltage regulation is better than HVAC transmission line.
• Voltage control easy for long distance HVDC transmission line.
• Power flow control is easy for long distance transmission.
• There is no limit for transmission of power.
• Asynchronous tie possible.
• Distance is not limited by stability point of view

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• HVDC line has more stability than HVAC.

• If power is to be transmitted through cable than there is no limit on the length of cable as
charging current is absent
• There is no need of reactive power compensation.
• Two transmission lines of different frequencies can be inter connected to grid system
through HVDC link OR Asynchronous tie is possible through HVDC link

3.2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF HVDC TRANSMISSION:

OR

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Converting Station:
• At the substation, Rectifier terminal converts an AC to DC whereas Inverter substation
converts DC to AC.
• Every terminal is designed in such a way that they work in both mode (Rectifier and
Inverter), so then each terminal is known as converter terminal.
Converting Unit:
• As we discuss, converter unit converts AC to DC, and its vice-versa is used at three-
phase bridge converters.
• This circuit is also known as Graetz Circuit.
• There is 12-pulse bridge converter is used in HVDC transmission, and that converter
obtains by connecting two or 6-pulse bridge converter .
Converting Valves:
• However new HVDC converter uses 12-pulse converter units.
• Thyristor based modules are used to make series connection valves.
• The amount of thyristor valve depends upon the required voltage across the valve.
Converting T/Fs :
• The converter transformer changes over the AC to DC systems or the other way around.
They have two arrangements of three stage windings, First is AC side winding and
second is Valve side winding.
Filters:-
• Filtration of Harmonics is exceptionally essential and furthermore for generation of
receptive power at line cumulative converter station.
• Filtration is almost obligatory for generation of reactive power at range expanding
converter station.
Power Source (Reactive):-
• Converter tasks are required Reactive power. Extra power can likewise be accomplished
from the synchronous stage modifiers of shunt capacitors and STATIC VAR frameworks.
Smoothing Reactors:-
• The smoothing reactor like as oil cooled reactor stuffed with high inductance oil. The
converter is associated with this reactor just before DC. It can be situated at impartial or
the line side

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3.2.3 THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM:

• Monopolar HVDC transmission line (System).
• Bipolar HVDC transmission line (System).
• Homopolar HVDC transmission line (System).
• Back to Back HVDC coupling System
• Multi-terminal HVDC System

A) MONOPOLAR LINK –

• Monopolar link has only one conductor and return path is provided by permanent earth.
• The line usually operated with negative polarity w.r.t ground so as to reduce corona loss
and radio interference.
• Monopolar line is more economical than bipolar line because the ground return saves the
cost of the one metallic conductor and losses in it
• It is used only for low power rating and mainly for cable transmission.

B) BIPOLAR LINK –
• Bipolar dc link widely used for overhead long distance HVDC transmission system and
also for back to back HVDC system.
• This link has two conductor- one operating with positive polarity and other with negative
polarity w.r.t earth
• There are two converter of equal voltage rating and connected in series at each end of dc
line.

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• The junction between converters may be grounded at one end or both end.
• If it is grounded at both ends each pole can operate independently.
• If it is grounded at one end, each pole can operate dependently to each other.
• The earth carries a small out of balance current during the normal operation.

C) HOMOPOLAR LINK–

• A homopolar link has two or more conductor having same polarity.

• The lines are usually operated with negative polarity with ground as return path so as to
reduce corona loss and radio interference.
• In case of fault on any one conductor, the power is supplied by healthy conductor.
• Homopolar link has limited application due to very complicated construction.

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D) LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION:-

• This kind of transmission is connected when the voltage to be conveyed is high, and the
separation between both AC stations is more than make back the initial investment
remove. Fig.is demonstrating the Long separation HVDC transmission system.

E) BACK TO BACK TRANSMISSION:-

• This type of transmission is connected when the voltage to be conveyed high, and the two
stations work at various frequencies.

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3.2.4 ADVANTAGES OF HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM:-

• The basic D.C transmission line requires only 2 Conductor. (+ ve & - Ve) and if ground
is used as a return path, then only one conductor is sufficient.
• If ground is used as return path, then only 2 conductors are sufficient for double circuit.
• As number of conductor required are less, so load on tower is less. This make Tower
design simple and lighter.
• Tower required less ground area as its base is less than AC tower. (Right Of Way)So land
use benefits are more.
• No intermediate substation is required like HVAC transmission line.
• Due to above advantages, Cost of transmission line per KM is less.
• Skin effect is absent.
• No proximity effect.
• No Ferranti effect.
• String efficiency is 100%
• Less radio interference.
• Low corona loss.
• Copper losses are less, transmission efficiency is more.(As dc resistance is less than AC
resistance by 1.6 times)
• As Copper loss are less So transmission efficiency is more
• Effect of L & C is absent and value of DC resistance of conductor is less, so voltage drop
in D.C. transmission line is less.
• Voltage regulation is better than HVAC transmission line.
• Voltage control easy for long distance HVDC transmission line.
• Power flow control is easy for long distance transmission.
• There is no limit for transmission of power.
• Asynchronous tie possible.
• Distance is not limited by stability point of view
• HVDC line has more stability than HVAC.
• If power is to be transmitted through cable than there is no limit on the length of cable as
charging current is absent

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• There is no need of reactive power compensation.

• Two transmission lines of different frequencies can be inter connected to grid system
through HVDC link OR Asynchronous tie is possible through HVDC link

3.2.5 LIMITATIONS OR DISADVANTAGES OF HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM:-

• It is difficult to step up and step down DC voltage like AC voltage.
• Special cooling arrangements are necessary for converter, so it increases cost of
substation.
• Cost of DC substation is more than AC substation, due to additional equipment required
like rectifier, inverter etc.
• Maintenance cost of DC substation is more due to additional equipment.
• Space required for DC substation is more due to additional equipment
• Losses in DC substation are more due to additional equipment.
• Over load capacity Converter is very less.
• Reliable DC circuit breakers are not available like AC circuit breakers.
• Cost of DC circuit breaker is more than AC circuit breaker.
• Converters consumes reactive power
• Generation of harmonics.
• If ground is used as the return path, then it leads
➢ Corrosion of underground metallic structure of buildings, pipes, etc. due to
chemical action.
➢ Causes disturbance in underground communication cable.
• HVDC is not economical for short distance transmission because termination cost
equipment is more.

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3.2.6 APPLICATIONS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM:-

• HVDC is economical to transmit bulk amount of power (1000 MW) & above Over a long
distance 800 Km & above
• HVDC is preferred for underground cable transmission as incoming line in megacities.
• HVDC is preferred for underground cable transmission for crossing long lake, ocean etc.
• HVDC is preferred for underground cable transmission where atmospheric conditions are
too bad for overhead transmission line, e.g. High wind pressure, rainfall etc.
• Interconnection of two transmission lines having different frequencies is possible through
HVDC link.
APPLICATIONS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION ARE USED THROUGH CABLE:
• HVDC is preferred for underground cable when power transmission through underground
cable is greater than 40-50 KM than only HVDC uniquely suited.
• HVDC is preferred for underground cable transmission as incoming line in megacities.
City centre in- feed.
• HVDC is preferred for underground cable transmission for crossing long lake, ocean etc.
• HVDC is preferred for underground cable transmission where atmospheric conditions are
too bad for overhead transmission line, e.g. High wind pressure, rainfall, icefall etc.
• HVDC is preferred for underground cable for long distance underwater power links.
• HVDC is preferred for underground cable for powering island from onshore.
• HVDC is preferred for underground cable for taking power from offshore wind farm.
• HVDC is preferred for underground cable for powering oil and gas offshore floating
platform.

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3.2.7 HVDC ROUTES IN INDIA:

S.N. From To Distance Power Voltage

1 Rihand (U.P) (from 1990) Dadri 814 Km 15000 ± 500 KV
MW (bipolar)
2 Talcher- is the biggest Kolar 1376 Km. 2000 MW ± 500 KV
HVDC transmission (bipolar)
passes
through Orissa (A.P)
Tamilnadu & Karnataka
3 Chandrapur- Padghe Padghe 752 Km 1500 MW ± 500 KV
(Maharashtra) in Western (Maharashtra (bipolar)
Region )
4 Bersoor (M.P.) Lower Sileru Mono Polar 100MW 100KV
(Arunachal
Pradesh)
5 Connecting Northern Eastern 0 Km (back 500MW 140KV
region Region to Back link)
(Sasaram- Pusawali)
6 Connecting Northern Western 0 Km (back 2×250MW 70 KV
region (Vindhyachal) Region to Back link)
7 Connecting Southern Western 0 Km (back 2×500MW 140KV
region Region
to Back link
(Chandrapur)
8 Connecting Southern Eastern 0 Km (back 500MW 140KV
region(Vizag- Gajuwaka) Region
to Back link

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PROF. LINGE P. S. ELECTRICAL POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

3.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN EHVAC AND HVDC TRANSMISSION:

Sr. Points HVDC EHVAC

No.
1 Number of conductor One conductor.& Ground is Three conductors (R.Y.B)
required for single circuit used as a return path
2 For double circuit Two conductors.& Ground Six conductors (R,Y,B &
is used as a return path R,Y,B)
3 Design of Tower Light Heavy
4 Intermediate substation Not required Required at every 250 Km
5 Capital cost of S/S More Less
6 Transmission line cost/km Less More
for long distance. (Above
500km.)
7 Ground return Possible Not possible
8 Frequency Absent Present
9 Skin effect Absent Present
10 Proximity effect Absent Present
11 Ferranti effect Absent Present
12 Corona losses Less More
13 Radio interference Absent Present
14 Effect of L &C Absent Present
15 Value of resistance Less More 1.6 times than DC
16 Copper loss Less More
17 Transmission Efficiency More Less
18 Voltage drop in transmission Less More
line
19 % Regulation Better Good
20 String efficiency 100 % Less than 100 %
21 Losses in S/s More Less

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22 Maintenance cost of S/S More Less

23 Asynchronous tie Possible Not possible
24 Reliability & availability One bipolar line is sufficient AC Double circuit are
necessary
25 Control system Difficult, costly Simpler cheaper
26 Power handling capacity No limit There is limit due to
inductance & power angle
27 Power transfer ability High Lower
28 Transient performance Excellent Poor
29 Short-circuit current level Less More
30 Frequency conversion Possible Not possible

3.4 FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION LINE:-

A flexible alternating current transmission system (FACTS) is a system composed of
static equipment used for the AC transmission of electrical energy. It is meant to enhance
controllability and increase power transfer capability of the network.

3.4.1 Features of flexible AC transmission line:-

• FACTS increase the reliability of AC grids.
• It controls the voltage under various load condition
• It balance reactive power (both lagging and leading reactive power)
• It improves power quality
• It increases transmission efficiency
• It also help to solve technical problems in the interconnected power system.
• They reduce power delivery costs.
• There is fast voltage regulation.
• Increased power transfer over long AC lines.
• Better utilization of the network,
• Increased availability and reliability
• As well as improved network stability are achieved along with higher supply quality.

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3.4.2 TYPES FACTS CONTROLLER:

1. Series Controllers:
• Series Controllers consists of capacitors or reactors which introduce voltage in series with
the line.
• They are basically variable impedance devices.
• Their major task is to reduce the inductivity of the transmission line.
• They supply or consume variable reactive power.
• Examples of series controllers are
➢ Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC),
➢ Thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC),
➢ Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC)
2. Shunt Controllers:
• Shunt controllers consist of variable impedance devices like capacitors or reactors which
introduce current in series with the line.
• Their major task is to reduce the capacitivity of the transmission line. The injected
current is in phase with the line voltage.
• Examples of shunt controllers are
➢ Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM),
➢ Thyristor Switch Reactance (TSR),
➢ Thyristor switch capacitor (TSC),
➢ Static Var compensator (SVC).
3. Shunt-Series Controllers:
• These controllers introduce current in series using the series controllers and voltage in
shunt using the shunt controllers.
• Example is Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
4. Series-Series Controllers:
• These controllers consist of a combination of series controllers with each controller
providing series compensation and also the transfer real power along the line.
• Example is Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC).

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3.5 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC POWER:

Wireless power transfer (WPT), wireless power transmission, wireless energy

transmission (WET), or electromagnetic power transfer is the transmission of electrical
energy without wires as a physical link.

3.5.1 Features of wireless power transmission:

• An electrical distribution system, based on this method would eliminate the need for an
inefficient, costly, and capital intensive grid of cables, towers, and substations.
• It will rid the landscape of wires, cables, and transmitting towers.
• The electrical energy can be economically transmitted without wires to any terrestrial
distance, so there will be no transmission and distribution loss.
• More efficient energy distribution systems and sources are needed by both developed and
under developed nations.
• To transmit wireless power to any distance without limit. It makes no difference what the
distance is.
• The power failure due to short circuit and fault on cables would never exist in the
transmission.
• Power theft would be not possible at all.

3.5.2 TYPES OF WIRELESS POWER TRANSMISSION

1. INDUCTION PROCESS

• In this process whenever a current with a voltage is passed through a induction coil, it
stores a energy and produce electric flux which leads production of electromagnetic field.
• This field carries electric voltage and current with them.
• When this electric field links with the coil produces voltage in the other coil by
electromagnetic induction process
• This process is not suitable for health and environment as electromagnetic field causes
blood clotting and cancer among human

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2. MICRO TRANSMISSION METHOD

• Microwaves are more developed than electrostatic and electromagnetic induction

• Power transmission via radio waves can be made more directional , allowing longer
distance power beaming ,with shorter wavelength of electromagnetic radiation typically
in the microwave range
• Transmitters are used to convert electrical energy into microwave energy
• Rectenna used to convert microwave energy into electrical energy
• Microwaves are much safe and reliable to transmit electrical power over long distance

3. LASER (LIGHT AMPLIFYING BY STIMULATED EMISSION OF RADIATION)

TRANSMISSION METHOD

• Laser radiation is the another method of transferring of electrical power by amplification

and stimulation method
• Power can be transmitted by converting electricity into LASER beam which is then
pointed at a solar cell receiver which convert it into electrical energy
• This mechanism is generally known as power beaming because power is beamed at
receiver which converts it into usable electrical energy form.

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