PROF. LINGE P. S.

ELECTRICAL POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

UNIT- IV
AC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

4.1 AC DISTRIBUTION:

That part of power system which distributes electric power for local use is known as
distribution system.
4.1.1 COMPONENTS OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:
• In general, the distribution system is the electrical system between the sub-station fed by
the transmission system and the consumer’s meters.
• It generally consists of feeders, distributors and the service mains.
• Fig. shows the single line diagram of a typical low tension distribution system.

(i) Feeders
• A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station (or localized generating station) to
the area where power is to be distributed.
• Generally, no tapping’s are taken from the feeder so that current in it remains the same
throughout.
• The main consideration in the design of a feeder is the current carrying capacity.

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(ii) Distributor
• A distributor is a conductor from which tapping are taken for supply to the consumers.
• In Fig. AB, BC, CD and DA are the distributors.
• The current through a distributor is not constant because tapping are taken at various
places along its length.
• While designing a distributor, voltage drop along its length is the main consideration
since the statutory limit of voltage variations is ± 6% of rated value at the consumers’
terminals.
(iii) Service mains
• A service main is generally a small cable which connects the distributor to the
consumers’ terminals.
4.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:
1) According to nature of Current
a) DC Distribution System:
i) Two wire DC distribution System
ii) Three wires DC distribution System.
b) AC Distribution System:
i) Primary distribution system.
ii) Secondary distribution system:
2) According to Method of construction: -
a) Overhead distribution system
b) Underground distribution system
3) According to scheme of connection: -
a) Radial (Tree) distribution system
b) Ring mains(Loop) distribution system
c) Grid (interconnected) distribution system
4.1.3 REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:
Following requirements of a distribution system.
• Layout should be simple in design.
• It should have less initial cost
• The distribution system should have minimum distribution losses.

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• Voltage drop in distribution system should be less and within permissible limit (+ or -
6%).
• From safety point of view distribution system should maintain proper clearances.
• The rating of distribution transformer & cross section of conductor should be
proportional to result of load densities present & future.
• Power should be available to consumers whenever needed.
• A steady, non-fluctuating, quality supply (Pure sine wave) should be available to
consumers.
• Distribution system should not be over loaded.
• Distribution system should have high reliability to maintain supply.
• Distribution system lay out should not affect the appearance of locality.
• Before installation of distribution system proposed widening of the road in the near
future are to be kept in mind
• It should have low, easy, less costly & less time consuming maintenance.
• Fault on nearest distribution system should not affect stability of existing distribution
system.
• Time required for completion of work should be less.

4.1.4 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:

1. PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:
• It is that part of a.c. distribution system which operates at voltages somewhat higher than
general utilization and handles large blocks of electrical energy than the average low-
voltage consumer uses.
• The voltage used for primary distribution depends upon the amount of power to be
conveyed and the distance of the substation required to be fed.
• The most commonly used primary distribution voltages are 11 kV, 6·6 kV and 3·3 kV.
Due to economic considerations, primary distribution is carried out by 3ph, 3-wire
system.
• Fig. shows a typical primary distribution system.

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• Electric power from the generating station is transmitted at high voltage to the substation
located in or near the city. At this substation, voltage is stepped down to 11 kV with the
help of step-down transformer. Power is supplied to various substations for distribution
or to big consumers at this voltage.
• This forms the high voltage distribution or primary distribution.

(II) SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

• It is that part of a.c. distribution system which includes the range of voltages at which the
ultimate consumer utilizes the electrical energy delivered to him.
• The secondary distribution employs 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system.
• Fig. shows a typical secondary distribution system.
• The primary distribution circuit delivers power to various substations, called distribution
substations.
• The substations are situated near the consumers’ localities and contain step down
transformers.
• At each distribution substation, the voltage is stepped down to 400 V and power is
delivered by 3-phase,4-wire a.c. system.
• The voltage between any two phases is 400Vand between any phase and neutral is 230V.

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• The single phase domestic loads are connected between any one phase and the neutral,
whereas 3-phase 400 V motor loads are connected across 3- phase lines directly.

4.2 FEEDER AND DISTRIBUTOR:

4.2.1 FACTORS ARE TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE DESIGNING THE FEEDER:
1) Current carrying capacity of conductor:-
• Conductor should have high current carrying capacity. While voltage drop consideration
is relatively not so important
• It is because voltage drop in feeder can be adjusted with the help of tapings of
distribution transformer manually or by using AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator)
2) Need:
• Depending upon application design of distribution system should be selected i.e. whether
continuity of supply is important or not so important
• Example:
1) Use Radial distribution system in rural area

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2) Use Ring main distribution system in urban area

3) Use Grid distribution system where continuity of supply is important. e.g. Supply to -
electric traction, TV broadcasting centre, AIR, telephone exchange, major hospitals,
important government buildings and major industries
3) Availability of power: It should be available whenever needed
4) Maintenance: It should be low, easy, less costly & less time consuming.
5) Power Factor of load should be considered while designing.
4.2.2 FACTORS ARE TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE DESIGNING THE DISTRIBUTOR
• A distributor is designed from the point of view of the voltage drop in it. It is because a
distributor supplies power to the consumers and there is a statutory limit of voltage
variations at the consumer’s terminals (± 6% of rated value).
• The size and length of the distributor should be such that voltage at the consumer’s
terminals is within the permissible limits.
4.2.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN FEEDER AND DISTRIBUTION
Sr.No Feeder Distributor
1 It is link between receiving substation & It is link between distribution transformer
distribution transformer substation & consumer
2 It is also called as a High Tension Line It is also called as a low Tension Line
3 It is a 3-Ph, 3 wire system.(R-Y-B) It is a 3-Ph, 4 wires system. (R-Y-BN)
4 Feeder voltage is 11KV/22KV/33KV Distributor voltage is for 3-ph consumer-
depending upon load 400V and 1-Ph consumer-230V
5 Feeder is high capacity conductors Distributors are low capacity conductors
6 Feeder forms the primary distribution Distributors forms secondary distributor
system system.
7 While designing feeder its current carrying While designing distributor its voltage
capacity is important drop calculation is important
8 Feeder is not tapped along its length Distributors are tapped throughout its
length.
9 Its loading point is at substation only Distributors loading point is throughout its
length.

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4.3 TYPES OF DIFFERENT DISTRIBUTION SCHEME:

The following distribution circuits are generally used:
• Radial System
• Ring main system.

• Interconnected system.
4.3.1 Radial System:
• In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single substation and feed the distributors
at one end only.
• Fig. a shows a single line diagram of a radial system for DC distribution where a feeder
OC supplies a distributor AB at point A. obviously, the distributor is fed at one end only
i.e., point A is this case.
• Fig. b shows a single line diagram of radial system for AC distribution.
• The radial system is employed only when power is generated at low voltage and the
substation is located at the centre of the load.

Fig. a Fig. b

Advantages:
This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest initial cost.
Disadvantages:
(a) The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded.

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(b) The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor. Therefore, any fault
on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the consumers who are on the side of the fault away
from the substation.
(c) The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to serious voltage
fluctuations when the load on the distributor changes.
Application:
Due to above limitations, this system is used for short distances only.
4.3.2 Ring main system:
• In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers form a loop.
• The loop circuit starts from the substation bus-bars, makes a loop through the area to be
served, and returns to the substation.
• Fig. shows the single line diagram of ring main system for a.c. distribution where
substation supplies to the closed feeder LMNOPQRS.
• The distributors are tapped from different points M, O and Q of the feeder through
distribution transformers.

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Advantages:-
• Supply to distribution transformer center is given through two different Feeders
• Reliability to maintain supply is more even when there is a fault on any one feeder.
• Reliability to maintain supply is more even when there was maintenance on any one
feeder
Disadvantages:-
• Layout & design is complicated.
• Initial cost &Erecting cost is high because to two incoming feeders.
• Time required for completion of layout is more.
• Extra care should be taken at the time of repairing & maintenance, because feeders form
a closed loop.
Applications:-
• Where continuity of supply is necessary.
• In urban areas important industries etc.
• For long distance primary distribution system.
4.3.3 Interconnected system:

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• When the feeder ring is energized by two or more than two generating stations or
substations, it is called inter-connected system.
• Fig. shows the single line diagram of interconnected system where the closed feeder ring
ABCD is supplied by two substations S1 and S2 at points D and C respectively.
• Distributors are connected to points O, P, Q and R of the feeder ring through distribution
transformers.
Advantages:
• Supply to distribution transformer center is given through two different generating
stations or major generating stations
• It has highest reliability to maintain supply even when there is a fault on any one feeder
• It has highest reliability to maintain supply even when there was maintenance on any one
feeder
4.4 VOLTAGE DROP:
• In a.c. distribution calculations, power factors of various load currents have to be
considered since currents in different sections of the distributor will be the vector sum of
load currents and not the arithmetic sum.
• The power factors of load currents may be given
➢ w.r.t. receiving or sending end voltage or
➢ W.r.t. to load voltage itself.
4.4.1 POWER FACTORS REFERRED TO RECEIVING END VOLTAGE:
• Consider an a.c. distributor AB with concentrated loads of I1 and I2 tapped off at points C
and B as shown in Fig.
• Taking the receiving end voltage VB as the reference vector, let lagging power factors at
C and B be cos φ1 and cos φ2 w.r.t. VB. Let R1, X1 and R2, X2 be the resistance and
reactance of sections AC and CB of the distributor.

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• The vector diagram of the AC distributor under these conditions is shown in Fig.
• Here, the receiving end voltage VB is taken as the reference vector.
• As power factors of loads are given w.r.t. VB, therefore, I1 and I2 lag behind VB by φ1 and
φ2 respectively.

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4.4.2 POWER FACTORS REFERRED TO RESPECTIVE LOAD VOLTAGES:

• Suppose the power factors of loads in the previous Fig. are referred to their respective
load voltages.
• Then φ1 is the phase angle between VC and I1 and φ2 is the phase angle between VB and I2.
• The vector diagram under these conditions is shown in Fig.

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4.5 DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION:

The assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristic (e.g. voltage, a.c. to d.c.,
frequency, PF etc.) of electric supply is called a sub-station.
4.5.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATION:
1. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SERVICE REQUIREMENTS:-
1. Transformer Sub-station:- Those sub-station which change the voltage level of electric
supply is called transformer sub-station.
2. Switching sub-station:- This sub-station does not change the voltage level.
3. Power Factor correction sub-station:- These sub-station which improve the power factor of
the system. It is located at receiving substation.
4. Frequency changer sub-station:- These sub-station which change the supply frequency.
5. Converting sub-station:- These sub-station which change AC power into DC power or DC
power into AC power At receiving end, this DC supply is again converted into AC supply with
the help of
6. Industrial Sub-station (Bulk Supply Industrial Consumer Substation):- These substation
which supply power to individual industrial consumer. It is located in premises of industry
7. Traction substation: These sub-station which supply power to electric railway only.
8. Mining Substation: The mining substations are very special type of substation & they need
special design construction because of extra precautions for safety needed in the operation of
electric supply
9. Mobile Substation: The mobile sub stations are also very special purpose substation
temporarily required for big construction purpose this substation fulfils the temporary power
requirement during construction work, exhibition, Remote place need supply for any type of
activity etc.
2. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CONSTRUCTION FEATURES:-
1. Indoor Substation: In this substation all equipments including transformer are installed under
closed construction building is called indoor substation.
2. Outdoor Substation: In this substation all equipments including transformer are installed in
air (Open to sky) only control room is constructed is called outdoor substation

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3. Gas insulated Substation: Where Space available is very less then GIS substation are used
(e.g. substation is preferred in thickly populated area, Space available for building & equipments
is limited and where cost of land is very high.).
4. Underground Substation: In underground substation all equipments including transformer
are installed under closed construction in underground.
5. Pole mounted substation: Generally distribution transformer substation are pole mounted.
6. Plinth Substation: Generally large capacity transformers are plinth mounted because its
weight is high. Transformer 315 KVA & above are generally plinth mounted.
7. Compact/prefabricated substation: Nowadays compact or prefabricated distribution
substations are more popular. Its appearance is better than pole mounted and plinth mounted
distribution substation.
4.5.2. SITE SELECTION:
Factors should be considered while deciding location of site for sub-station:-
1. Near load center:
• Sub-station should be located near load centre to reduce cost of Transmission and
distribution lines and to reduce losses in it.
2. Easy access for transmission Line:
• There should be easy access for incoming and outgoing line.
3. Easy access towards sub-station:-
• There should be easy access towards sub-station for transportation of equipments and
manpower etc.
4. Space(Land ) available :
• The land proposed for a substation should be normally level and open from all sides &
sufficient land should be available for installation of sub-station and future expansion.
5. Atmospheric conditions:
• Atmospheric condition in the area of sub-station should be clean and dry also There
should be less atmospheric pollution.
5. Cost of land: Cost of land should be less to reduce capital cost of sub-station.
6. Municipal restriction:
• Where municipal restriction will not take any objection for required type building of
substation.

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7. Staff amenities:
• The site should be such that essential amenities must be available to staff like residential
quarters, drinking water, school, hospital, public transportation, communication.
8. Bearing capacity of land (Hard land):
• To reduce construction cost of building and for better foundation of equipments land
should have high bearing capacity.
9. Area free from earthquake: To avoid damage to sub-station area should be free earth quake.
4.5.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN OUTDOOR AND INDOOR SUBSTATION:
Sr
Points Outdoor Substation Indoor Substation
No
1 Capital cost Less, as construction work cost is High, as construction work cost is
less. more.
2 Time required Less, as construction work is less. More, as construction work is
for completion more.
3 Distance More, this will reduce possibility Less, this will increase possibility
between two of fault & safety increases of fault & safety reduces.
equipment
4 Access for Easy access for incoming & Difficult access for incoming &
incoming & outgoing lines because of outdoor outgoing lines because of indoor
outgoing line installation. installation.
5 Cooling Natural cooling is available due to Natural cooling is not available so
arrangement outdoor installation. This reduces artificial cooling arrangement is
energy consumption charges due required This increases energy
to outdoor installation. consumption charges due to
indoor installation.
6 Availability of Natural light is available in day Natural light is not available
natural light time, so there is no need of even in day time, so there is need
illumination during day time. So of illumination even during a day
it saves electrical energy & its time. This increases energy
cost consumption charges due
to indoor installation

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7 Detection of Easy, as all equipment’s are easily Difficult, as all equipment’s are
fault viewed. not easily viewed.
8 Replacement of Easy, due to outdoor installation Difficult, due to indoor
equipment installation
9 Future Expansion of substation is easily Expansion of substation is not
expansion possible whenever needed & can easily possible whenever needed
be completed in less time & because of construction work.
cost. Also it require more time & cost.
10 In case of In case of accident there is less In case of accident there is more
accident risk & damage to other equipment risk & damage to other equipment
than indoor substation. than outdoor substation.
11 Space Require More Less
12 Effect of Switching operation is difficult Switching operation is not
atmospheric in rainy season & it is less safe difficult in rainy season & it is
condition more safe due to indoor
installation
13 Chances of More due to outdoor installation Less due to indoor installation
leakage current
14 Maintenance More due to outdoor installation. Less due to indoor installation
cost
15 Applications Where atmospheric conditions In places where heavy rainfall,
are clean and dry also where snow fall occurs or there is
space available is more than humidity in atmosphere also
subs stations are installed outdoor. where availability of space is
less then under such situations
sub stations are installed indoor.

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4.6. SINGLE LINE DAIGRAM OF SUBSTATION:

4.6.1 SINGLE LINE DAIGRAM OF 33/11 KV SUBSTATION

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4.6.2 SINGLE LINE DAIGRAM OF 11 KV/400 V SUBSTATION:

OR

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4.6.3 SYMBOLS USED IN SUBSTATION:

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1. Bus-bars.
• When a number of lines operating at the same voltage have to be directly connected
electrically, bus-bars are used as the common electrical component.
• Bus-bars are copper or aluminium bars (generally of rectangular x-section) and operate at
constant voltage.
• The incoming and outgoing lines in a sub-station are connected to the bus-bars.
2. Insulators.
• The insulators serve two purposes. They support the conductors (or bus-bars) and confine
the current to the conductors.
• The most commonly used material for the manufacture of insulators is porcelain.
3. Isolating switches.
• In sub-stations, it is often desired to disconnect a part of the system for general
maintenance and repairs.
• This is accomplished by an isolating switch or isolator.
• An isolator is essentially a knife switch and is designed to open a circuit under no load. In
other words, isolator switches are operated only when the lines in which they are
connected carry no current.
4. Circuit breaker.
• A circuit breaker is equipment which can open or close a circuit under normal as well as
fault conditions.
• It is so designed that it can be operated manually (or by remote control) under normal
conditions and automatically under fault conditions.
5. Power Transformers.
• A power transformer is used in a sub-station to step-up or step-down the voltage.
• Except at the power station, all the subsequent sub-stations use step-down transformers to
gradually reduce the voltage of electric supply and finally deliver it at utilization voltage.
6. Instrument transformers.
The function of these instrument transformers is to transfer voltages or currents in the power
lines to values which are convenient for the operation of measuring instruments and relays.

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(i) Current transformer (C.T.).

• A current transformer in essentially a step-up transformer which steps down the current
to a known ratio.
• The primary of this transformer consists of one or more turns of thick wire connected in
series with the line.
• The secondary consists of a large number of turns of fine wire and provides for the
measuring instruments and relays a current which is a constant fraction of the current in
the line.
(ii) Voltage transformer.
• It is essentially a step down transformer and steps down the voltage to a known ratio.
• The primary of this transformer consists of a large number of turns of fine wire connected
across the line.
• The secondary winding consists of a few turns and provides for measuring instruments
and relays a voltage which is a known fraction of the line voltage.
7. Metering and Indicating Instruments.
• There are several metering and indicating instruments (e.g. ammeters, voltmeters, energy
meters etc.) installed in a sub-station to maintain watch over the circuit quantities.
• The instrument transformers are invariably used with them for satisfactory operation.
8. Miscellaneous equipment.
In addition to above, there may be following equipment in a sub-station:
• Fuses
• carrier-current equipment

• Sub-station auxiliary supplies

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