Discourse

Analysis
LANGUAGE AS ACTION
 Structural approach to discourse

the constituents that have particular relationships with each other and that can occur in a
restricted number of arrangements;
Problem: units in which people speak do not always look like sentences, or grammatically
correct sentences.
Example
1. Jack is tall and kind and don't hardly say anything. Love children. Respect his wife, Odessa,
and all Odessa Amazon sisters (Celie’s Diary) (From “The Colour Purple”, Alice Wharton)
2. Colourless green ideas sleep furiously (Chomsky)

Solving the problem: Lyons’s distinction between system-sentences and text – sentences.
Functional approach to discourse
Jacobson's theory of communication
what needs to be present in the process of linguistic communication,
beyond the simple relationship of sending and receiving information.
establishes that there are six functions of language that are needed for
communication to occur.
◦ (Jacobson in (Chandler, 2007, p. 184):
factors of language functions of language
1. Addressor 1. emotive
2. Addressee 2. conative
3. Contact 3. phatic
4. Message 4. poetic
5. Code 5. metalinguistic
6. Context 6. referential
 Functional approach to discourse
Utterances may have multiple functions;
The major concern: discourse analysis can turn out into a more general and
broader analysis of language functions. Or it will fail to make a special place
for the analysis of relationships between utterances.
Recent approach to DA
Discourse is no longer studied for its own sake.
Discourse is viewed as a social practice. M. Foucault, N. Fairclough
Discourse is characterised as:
produced/consumed/monitored by social actors (producers/receivers of
social practices);
shaped by social structures;
with social implications;
socially valued and regulated (production, reception and circulation).
 Introduction What is Discourse Analysis?
The importance of discourse analysis in understanding spoken and
written communication lies in the following aspects:
1. Communication Patterns Key aspects of discourse
2. Social Constructs analysis include:
3. Interpretation and 1. Context:
Miscommunication 2. Textuality:
4. Language Change and 3. Coherence:
Development 4. Intertextuality:
5. Political and Media Analysis 5. Power and Ideology:
6. Cross-Cultural
Understanding

FUNDAMENTALS OF LANGUAGE & LINGUISTICS 2023 5

Types of Discourse Analysis
1. Spoken Communication:
◦ examines language use in oral communication
2. Transience vs. Permanence:
◦ Spoken language is transient, temporary and fleeting.
3. Non-Verbal Cues:
◦ non-verbal cues, contribute to the overall meaning of the message.
4. Linguistic Features:
◦ Spoken language often includes informal or colloquial language
5. Interaction and Turn-Taking:
◦ Oral communication involves interactive exchanges between speakers
6. Context and Audience:
◦ often influenced by immediate context, audience presence of, and reactions.
7. Analysis Techniques:
◦ may involve transcription of audio recordings, identifying speech acts,
analyzing conversational structures, and examining intonation and prosody.
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Types of Discourse Analysis
1. Written Communication
◦ focuses on language use in written texts
2. Transience vs. Permanence:
◦ Written language is more permanent
3. Non-Verbal Cues:
◦ Written texts lack non-verbal cues,
4. Linguistic Features:
◦ Written language tends to be more formal, structured, and edited
5. Interaction and Turn-Taking:
◦ Written texts are typically produced by an individual without real-time interaction
6. Context and Audience:
◦ Written texts are created with distant and potentially diverse audience
7. Analysis Techniques:
◦ Techniques may include content analysis, examining writing style, exploring
lexical choices, and assessing coherence and cohesion.
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 Spoken Discourse Analysis
the process of analyzing spoken language, including recordings and
transcriptions.
1. Recording: 4. Analysis:
◦ Choose the Interaction: •Identify Speech Acts:
◦ Obtain Consent: •Assess Turn-Taking and
◦ Equipment Setup: Interaction Patterns:
2. Transcription:
•Consider Non-Verbal
Elements:
◦ Verbatim Transcription:
•Extract Relevant Data:
◦ Time Coding:
◦ Indicate Non-Verbal Cues: 5. Interpretation and Findings:
•Analyze Themes and
3. Pre-Analysis: Patterns:
◦ Familiarize with Data: •Interpret the Data:
◦ Identify Key Themes: •Provide Examples:
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 Spoken Discourse Analysis
importance of intonation, pauses, and non-verbal cues in SD

1. Intonation: 2. Pauses: 3. Non-Verbal

◦Emotion and Attitude: ◦Cognitive Cues:
◦Question vs. Processing: ◦Reinforcement:
Statement: ◦Turn-Taking: ◦Context and
◦Emphasis and ◦Discourse Markers: Intent:
Contrast: ◦Emphasis and ◦Social Interaction:
◦Cultural and Regional Dramatic Effect ◦Cross-Cultural
Identity Communication

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 Written Discourse Analysis
the process of analyzing the process of analyzing written
written texts texts
8. Consider the Context:
1. Define the Research 9. Analyze the Argument or
Objectives: Narrative:
2. Familiarize Yourself with the 10. Compare and Contrast (if
Text: applicable):
3. Identify Key Themes and 11. Interpret and Draw Conclusions:
Concepts: 12. Provide Examples and
4. Annotate and Highlight: Evidence:
5. Identify the Textual Structure: 13. Consider Alternative
6. Conduct Content Analysis: Perspectives:
7. Examine Language and 14. Summarize and Present the
Rhetorical Devices: Analysis:
 Written Discourse Analysis
significance of grammar, punctuation, and writing style

1. Clarity and Understanding: 1. Grammar - Punctuation:

2. Coherence and Flow: 2. Grammar- Writing Style:
3. Conveying Author's Intent: 3. Grammar - Punctuation
4. Professionalism and 4. Grammar - Writing Style
Credibility: 5. Grammar - Punctuation:
5. Effective Communication: 6. Grammar - Writing Style:
6. Cultural and Linguistic
 Austin’s Speech Act Theory
Argues that truth conditions are not central to language understanding. Utterances do not only say
things, they do things.
• Distinction between constatives and performatives.
• Performatives cannot be false, but they can fail to do things.
• Performatives are not a special class of sentences. Some sentences are explicitly performatives, others can be
implicitly.
• The performative/constative distinction does not really exist. Rather, they are special cases of a set of illocutionary
acts.

SEARLE (1975)
SPEECH ACTS AUSTIN (1962) All speech acts classified as
an utterance in dialogue is an action • ASSERTIVES – suggesting, boasting, concluding,
speech acts- performative sentences uttered by an authority (they DIRECTIVES – asking, ordering, inviting
change the state of the world) • COMMISSIVES – promising, planning, vowing,
any sentence in real speech contains • EXPRESSIVES – thanking, apologizing, deploring,
• locutionary act – utterance with particular meaning • DECLARATIONS – performatives (state-changing)
• illocutionary act – asking, answering, promising.
• perlocutionary act– effect upon feelings, thoughts.
 Theoretical Frameworks for Discourse Analysis
1. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) rooted in critical social theory and
aims to uncover power relations, ideologies, and social inequalities
embedded in language. focus on political and media discourses
2. Foucauldian Discourse Analysis explores how discourses produce
and shape knowledge, social norms, and disciplinary practices. seeks
to identify the rules and mechanisms that govern language use and
influence the construction of social reality.
3. Conversational Analysis (CA) examines spoken interactions and
focuses on the structure and organization of conversations. It
investigates the patterns of turn-taking, adjacency pairs, repair
mechanisms
4. Ethnography of Communication: This approach situates discourse
within its cultural and social context discourse coherence and 13
 Theoretical Frameworks for Discourse Analysis
5. Narrative Analysis: examines narratives construction, elements of
storytelling, functions narratives serve in conveying experiences,
identities, and worldviews.
6. Sociolinguistics: explores the relationship between language use and
social factors. investigates language variation across social groups,
regions, contexts
7. Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL): analyzes language as a system
of meaning, exploring how language choices reflect social and cultural
contexts
8. Poststructuralist Discourse Analysis: draws from poststructuralist
theories, deconstructing discourses to reveal the instability of
meanings and the multiple interpretations
9. Discourse Markers Analysis: involves examining the use and function
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 Case Study (Spoken Discourse)
Example 3:
example 1: (translated from "Example 2: (translated from "In Pakistan, we
Urdu)
Urdu) "This government need leadership
"This is not just my fight;
this is our fight for justice. has failed to deliver on that genuinely
We are standing against its promises. They talk cares for the
the mafias who have about justice, but where people. I am here
looted this country for is the justice when because I believe
years. I promise you that I people cannot afford in the power of the
will fight until my last basic necessities? We people. Together,
breath to bring change in had always worked for we can build a
Pakistan. The corrupt the development of Pakistan where
people do not want to see Pakistan, but now the everyone's rights
Pakistan progress, but economy is sinking, and are respected.
together, we will make the common man This is not a time
Pakistan a great nation. suffers.“ for division; this is
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 Key Findings
1. Construction of 'Us vs. Them' Narrative
•1- frequent use of terms like "mafias" and "corrupt people" to create a binary
opposition between "us" (the people seeking justice and change) and "them"
(corrupt elites or previous govt officials).
•Finding: The "us vs. them" discourse is a prevalent strategy used to rally
people around a shared identity and to frame opponents as threats to progress
and justice. This polarization is evident in language choices, such as referring
to opponents with negative connotations (e.g., "mafias," "corrupt people").
2. Appeals to Patriotism and Collective Identity
•Example: All three invoke nationalistic sentiments with words like "Pakistan,"
"nation," and "people." speaks of fighting for "our" Pakistan, implying a
collective effort for national change.
•Finding: Pakistani politicians frequently emphasize national unity and
collective identity, appealing to patriotism to mobilize supporters. This
technique fosters a sense of shared destiny and moral duty among the
audience.
 Key Findings
3. Use of Repetitive and Emotive Language for Emphasis
•Example 2 , phrases like "failed to deliver" and "justice" are repeated to stress
governmental incompetence. Similarly, example 3 emphasizes "unity" and
"people’s rights."
•Finding: The repetition of keywords and emotionally charged language
reinforces the speaker's core message. This method is particularly effective in
Pakistani discourse, where emotions tied to social justice and economic
survival resonate strongly with the public.
4. Rhetorical Questions as a Persuasive Tool
•Example 2 uses rhetorical questions like, "Where is the justice when people
cannot afford basic necessities?" to imply that the current government has
neglected its duties.
•Finding: Rhetorical questions are used to subtly criticize opponents while
engaging the audience, prompting them to question the legitimacy and
effectiveness of the ruling government. This indirect approach is often
persuasive, especially in Pakistan's emotionally driven political culture.
 5. Ideological Framing of Economic and Social Justice
•Example: In each speech, economic concerns are framed as moral and
ideological issues. For instance, (1) speaks of "justice" and "change," while (2)
addresses the economic burden on the common man, framing it as a failure
of justice.
•Finding: By framing economic concerns in terms of justice and morality,
politicians in Pakistan align themselves with social justice, a key issue for
many Pakistanis. This approach portrays them as protectors of the people’s
rights and well-being.
6. Code-Switching for Inclusivity
•Observation: Political speeches in Pakistan often switch between Urdu and
English to appeal to diverse audiences, reflecting class and educational
backgrounds.
•Finding: Code-switching between Urdu and English serves as a strategy to
make speeches more inclusive, reaching both educated elites and the
broader population. It also allows politicians to emphasize different themes
(e.g., using English for economic issues and Urdu for emotive appeals to the
Conclusion
This case study reveals that discourse analysis is a useful tool for
examining political rhetoric in Pakistan.
Key strategies include
constructing binary oppositions
appealing to patriotism
using emotive language
framing issues of social and economic justice.
These language choices underscore the role of political discourse in
constructing identities, shaping public opinion, and establishing
ideological divides.
The analysis provides insight into the linguistic methods by which
political figures in Pakistan seek to influence their audiences, using
both language and rhetoric to navigate complex socio-political
 Challenges in Discourse Analysis
1. Subjectivity:
2. Data Collection:
3. Representation Bias:
4. Context Sensitivity:
5. Linguistic Complexity:
6. Transcription and Translation
7. Identifying Boundaries:
8. Intertextuality:
9. Analytical Techniques:
10. Time-Consuming Process
11. Ethical Considerations:
12. Bias and Assumptions:
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 addressing the challenges
1. Clearly Define Research Objectives:
2. Transparent Methodology:
3. Use Multiple Analysts:
4. Triangulation:
5. Contextual Understanding:
6. Representative Data Sampling:
7. Record and Transcribe Accurately:
8. Validation of Translations:
9. Recognize Intertextuality:
10. Analytical Reflexivity:
11. Establish Clear Boundaries:
12. Address Ethical Concerns:
13. Peer Review:
14. Document the Analytical Process:
15. Continuous Learning 21
 Ethical Considerations
.Privacy and Confidentiality:
• Ethical Concern: DA may involve the use of personal information or sensitive language that could
identify individuals or groups, breaching their privacy.
• Ethical Guidance: Ensure that all data collected and analyzed are anonymized and that any
identifiable information is removed or altered. Use pseudonyms or other means to protect the
identities of participants.
2. Informed Consent:
• Ethical Concern: Participants should provide informed consent before their language data is used in
the analysis.
• Ethical Guidance: Prior to data collection, obtain clear and voluntary consent from participants,
explain purpose of the research, data's intended use, and their right to withdraw at any time.
3. Respect for Autonomy and Agency:
• Ethical Concern: Researchers should respect the autonomy and agency of participants, especially
when analyzing sensitive topics or vulnerable groups.
• Ethical Guidance: Avoid exploiting or manipulating participants for research purposes. Allow
participants to have control over their language data and the opportunity to express their opinions
freely.
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 Ethical Considerations
4. Beneficence and Non-maleficence:
• Ethical Concern: Ensure that the research benefits outweigh any potential harm to
participants.
• Ethical Guidance: Evaluate the potential risks and benefits of the research. Minimize
harm and prioritize the well-being of participants throughout the research process.
5. Cultural Sensitivity and Representation:
• Ethical Concern: Discourse analysis should be culturally sensitive and avoid
reinforcing stereotypes or misrepresenting cultural practices.
• Ethical Guidance: Consider the cultural context of the discourse and respect the
cultural norms and values of the participants. Avoid generalizations and be cautious
when making cultural comparisons.
6. Transparency and Inclusivity:
• Ethical Concern: Ensure transparency in the research process and include all relevant
stakeholders in the analysis.
• Ethical Guidance: Clearly communicate the research goals, methods, and potential
implications to participants. Acknowledge diverse perspectives and include the
voices of marginalized or underrepresented groups.
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 Ethical Considerations
7. Data Storage and Security:
• Ethical Concern: Safeguard language data to prevent unauthorized access or data breaches.
• Ethical Guidance: Store data securely and limit access to only authorized researchers. Comply with
data protection regulations and ethical guidelines related to data storage and sharing.
8. Acknowledgment and Attribution:
• Ethical Concern: Properly credit the sources and contributions of others in the discourse analysis.
• Ethical Guidance: Acknowledge and cite all relevant sources, including participants' contributions, to
give credit where it is due.
9. Ethical Review and Approval:
• Ethical Concern: Obtain ethical review and approval from relevant institutional review boards or
ethics committees before conducting discourse analysis involving human subjects.
• Ethical Guidance: Ensure that the research complies with the ethical guidelines and standards set by
the institution and the relevant research community.
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Assignment 3: Analyzing Gender Representation in Media
Advertisements
Objective: To apply discourse analysis to written texts, in advertisements, to
understand how gender is represented and constructed in media.
Background:
The case study focuses on analyzing a series of print advertisements from a
popular fashion magazine. The advertisements feature products related to
fashion, beauty, and lifestyle, and target a diverse audience.
Methodology:
The discourse analysis follows a critical discourse analysis (CDA) approach,
aiming to examine how gender roles, stereotypes, and identities are
constructed and reinforced in the written texts of the advertisements.
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 Assignment 3: Analyzing Gender Representation in Media
Advertisements
Analysis: Examine the advertisements
1. Language Use:
• Gendered Language: language used in the advertisements to identify any gendered terms
• Power Language: use of language that reinforces power dynamics between genders
2. Depiction of Gender: visual representation of gender in the advertisements
• Gender Roles: explicit or implicit gender roles depicted in the advertisements
3. Products and Associations:
• Gendered Products: promote products specifically targeted to one gender, reinforcing
gender-specific consumerism.
• Associating Gender with Values: associate specific values, traits, or qualities with one
gender over the other
4. Cultural and Social Norms:
• Gender Norms: Examine how the advertisements reflect and reinforce cultural and social
norms related to gender, such as expectations for appearance, behavior, or lifestyle choices.
• Subversion or Resistance: instances where the advertisements subvert or challenge
traditional gender norms
Assignment 3: Analyzing Gender Representation in Media
Advertisements

Findings:
Gender Stereotypes: The discourse analysis reveals……….
Gendered Products: The advertisements often promote ……..
Power Imbalance: Language use in the advertisements often …..
Reinforcement of Norms: The advertisements reinforce …..
Conclusion:
The discourse analysis of the advertisements demonstrates
………………………..how written texts can ……….

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