THEME 8 - Notes:

Apartheid in South Africa: Decline and Fall (1978-1994)

Key Terms Glossary:

• Apartheid: Afrikaans for "separateness," a system of institutionalized racial

segregation and discrimination in South Africa from 1948 to the early 1990s.

• Verwoerdian: Pertaining to the ideology and policies of Hendrik Verwoerd,

considered the architect of Apartheid, who served as Prime Minister of South
Africa from 1958 to 1966.

• Total Strategy: A comprehensive plan implemented by the South African

government in the late 1970s to combat internal and external pressures against
apartheid, combining military, economic, and social elements.

• Tricameral Parliament: A system implemented in 1983 with separate legislative

chambers for White, Coloured (mixed race), and Indian South Africans, while
excluding Black South Africans.

• Homelands: Designated areas within South Africa for different ethnic groups,
intended to enforce segregation and deprive Black Africans of citizenship in the
country.

• United Democratic Front (UDF): A multiracial anti-apartheid organization

formed in 1983, comprising over 400 civic, labor, and religious groups.

• African National Congress (ANC): The dominant liberation movement in South

Africa, founded in 1912, which sought to end apartheid and achieve majority
rule.

• Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP): A Zulu nationalist political party founded in 1975,
which engaged in violent conflict with the ANC in the 1980s and 1990s.

• State of Emergency: A period of heightened security measures implemented by

the South African government to suppress anti-apartheid protests and unrest,
significantly curtailing civil liberties.

• Negotiations and Transition: The period from 1990 to 1994, marked by the
release of Nelson Mandela and the formal end of apartheid legislation, leading to
the first multiracial democratic elections in 1994.

Short Questions & Answer:

1. What were the key economic and political shifts undertaken by the South
African government in the late 1970s and early 1980s as part of its "Total
Strategy"?
 - The "Total Strategy" involved a shift towards a free-market economy,
promoting limited Black African participation in certain sectors while
maintaining white control. Politically, it sought to divide and rule by
offering limited concessions to Coloured and Indian South Africans
through the Tricameral Parliament while intensifying repression against
the Black majority.

2. How did the implementation of the Tricameral Parliament and the expansion
of "community councils" aim to restructure political representation within
the framework of apartheid?

- The Tricameral Parliament aimed to co-opt Coloured and Indian

populations by granting them limited political representation in
segregated chambers while still excluding Black Africans. Community
councils were meant to devolve some administrative functions to Black
townships but under firm government control, further fragmenting Black
political representation.

3. Explain the role of labor reforms and controlled urbanization in the

government's strategy to manage dissent and maintain control over Black
African labor.

- Labor reforms sought to stabilize the workforce by extending limited trade

union rights to Black Africans while simultaneously controlling
urbanization through influx control measures. This aimed to create a more
docile labor force dependent on the apartheid system and prevent the
growth of urban Black political activism.

4. What factors contributed to the rise of widespread resistance to apartheid in

the 1980s, and what forms did this resistance take?

- The 1980s saw widespread resistance fueled by deepening economic

disparities, brutal repression by security forces, and the continued denial
of basic rights. Resistance took various forms, including mass protests,
school boycotts, consumer boycotts, labor strikes, and armed struggle by
groups like Umkhonto we Sizwe, the ANC's armed wing.

5. Describe the key characteristics of the United Democratic Front (UDF), and
assess its significance in challenging apartheid.

- The UDF was a broad coalition of over 400 organizations, united in their
opposition to apartheid but diverse in their ideologies. Its non-violent,
community-based activism mobilized a wide range of South Africans,
particularly in townships, effectively challenging the government's
authority and legitimacy on a local level.
6. How did the South African government respond to the escalating unrest in
townships in the mid-1980s, and what were the consequences of its actions?

- The government responded to township unrest with escalating

repression, declaring states of emergency that gave security forces
sweeping powers of arrest and detention. This resulted in widespread
human rights abuses, further radicalized the resistance, and drew
international condemnation, increasing pressure for sanctions against
the regime.

7. Explain the emergence of Inkatha as a significant political force in the 1980s

and its complex relationship with both the apartheid state and the ANC.

- Inkatha, initially an anti-apartheid cultural organization, emerged as a

Zulu-nationalist party under the leadership of Mangosuthu Buthelezi.
While initially opposing apartheid, it clashed with the ANC, often
collaborating with the state, fueling violent conflict in KwaZulu-Natal, and
complicating the anti-apartheid movement.

8. What were the primary internal and external pressures that led the South
African government to begin negotiations to end apartheid?

- Internally, the mounting costs of maintaining apartheid, coupled with

growing unrest and economic decline, made the system unsustainable.
Externally, international sanctions, condemnation from Western
governments, and support for the liberation movements forced the
government to the negotiating table.

9. Describe the key events and political reforms that marked the transition
from apartheid to democracy in South Africa between 1990 and 1994.

- Key events included the unbanning of the ANC and other liberation
organizations in 1990, the release of Nelson Mandela, the repeal of key
apartheid laws, multi-party negotiations leading to a new constitution,
and the first democratic elections in 1994.

10. What were the main challenges and uncertainties facing South Africa as it
emerged from apartheid in the 1994 elections?

- Challenges included the need to address vast socio-economic

inequalities, reconcile a deeply divided society marked by racial tensions
and political violence, build democratic institutions, and manage the
transition to a majority-rule government while ensuring the rights of all
citizens.
Essay Questions:

1. Analyze the key components of the South African government's "Total Strategy"
in the late 1970s and 1980s. To what extent was this strategy successful in
achieving its objectives?

2. Assess the role of the United Democratic Front (UDF) in the struggle against
apartheid. How did its strategies and tactics differ from those of the African
National Congress (ANC), and what were the strengths and limitations of its
approach?

3. Examine the factors that contributed to the outbreak of widespread violence in

South African townships in the mid-1980s. What role did the state play in this
violence, and how did it shape the dynamics of the anti-apartheid struggle?

4. Discuss the significance of the negotiations between the South African

government and the ANC that began in 1990. What were the key concessions
made by each side, and what factors contributed to the successful transition to
democracy?

5. To what extent did the first multiracial democratic elections in 1994 represent a
complete break from the legacy of apartheid? Discuss the continuities and
discontinuities between the pre- and post-apartheid eras in South African
society and politics.

Summarized Essay:

The Decline and Fall of Apartheid in South Africa

In the late 1970s and 1980s, South Africa's apartheid regime faced mounting internal
and external pressures that ultimately led to its demise. The government attempted to
reform the system through a series of strategic maneuvers, including economic
restructuring, limited political inclusion, and repressive measures to quell dissent.
However, these efforts ultimately failed to quell the growing resistance from various
sectors of society. The escalation of violence, international condemnation, and
economic sanctions further weakened the regime, paving the way for the eventual
transition to a multiracial democracy in 1994.

Economic Restructuring and the Erosion of Apartheid's Foundations:

The late 1970s marked a turning point in South Africa's economic trajectory. The
government recognized the need to adapt to changing global conditions and began
implementing policies aimed at modernizing the economy and reducing reliance on
unskilled labor. This shift towards a more capital-intensive and technologically
advanced economic model led to the decline of traditional industries that had been
central to apartheid's system of racial segregation.

The adoption of free market principles and the integration into the global economy
eroded the economic foundations of apartheid. The need for skilled labor and the rise of
a black middle class undermined the rigid racial hierarchy that had been the
cornerstone of the system. This economic transformation, coupled with the
government's efforts to appease international critics through limited reforms, created a
space for political mobilization and resistance.

Political Reforms and the Limits of Inclusion:

In response to mounting internal and external pressures, the South African government
implemented a series of political reforms aimed at co-opting moderate black leaders
and creating a semblance of inclusion. The introduction of the Tricameral Parliament in
1983, which provided limited representation for Indians and Coloureds, was a key
element of this strategy.

However, these reforms were widely criticized for excluding the black African majority
and entrenching racial divisions. The exclusion of black Africans from meaningful
political participation fueled resentment and further radicalized the opposition. The
limited reforms failed to appease the demands for full and equal citizenship, leading to
an escalation of resistance and a further delegitimization of the apartheid regime.

Repression, Resistance, and the Rise of Mass Mobilization:

The South African government's response to the growing opposition was a combination
of limited concessions and brutal repression. The state of emergency declared in 1985
and the subsequent crackdown on dissent, including the banning of opposition
organizations and the detention of activists, marked a period of intense state violence.

However, these repressive measures only served to fuel further resistance. The United
Democratic Front (UDF), a broad coalition of anti-apartheid organizations, emerged as a
powerful force in the mid-1980s, mobilizing mass protests and boycotts. The UDF's
success in challenging the regime's authority through non-violent resistance and its
ability to connect with the grievances of ordinary black South Africans further eroded
the legitimacy of the apartheid state.

The emergence of the UDF and the escalation of resistance led to a spiral of violence
and repression. The government's attempts to crush the opposition through military
force only served to radicalize the movement and deepen the divisions within South
African society. The townships became battlegrounds, with the security forces engaging
in brutal crackdowns on protesters and activists.
International Condemnation and Economic Sanctions:

The escalation of violence and repression in South Africa drew increasing international
condemnation. The imposition of economic sanctions by the United Nations and other
countries further weakened the apartheid regime. The sanctions targeted key sectors of
the South African economy, leading to a decline in investment, job losses, and
economic hardship.

The international isolation and economic pressure created a sense of crisis within the
ruling elite. The business community, recognizing the unsustainable nature of the
apartheid system, began to call for negotiations with the African National Congress
(ANC) and other opposition groups.

Negotiations and the Transition to Democracy:

The release of Nelson Mandela in 1990 and the unbanning of the ANC and other
liberation movements marked a watershed moment in South Africa's history. The
government, under the leadership of F.W. de Klerk, recognized the need for a negotiated
settlement to end apartheid.

The negotiations process, which began in 1991, was complex and fraught with
challenges. Mutual distrust, power imbalances, and the threat of violence from
extremist groups on both sides made reaching an agreement difficult. However, the
commitment of key leaders to finding a peaceful solution and the pressure from both
domestic and international actors ultimately led to a historic agreement in 1993.

The 1993 interim constitution paved the way for the first multiracial democratic
elections in South Africa, held in April 1994. The ANC, led by Nelson Mandela, won a
landslide victory, ushering in a new era of democratic governance and ending centuries
of racial oppression.

Conclusion:

The decline and fall of apartheid in South Africa was a long and complex process,
marked by violence, repression, resistance, and ultimately, negotiation and
compromise. The economic restructuring of the 1970s, the limited political reforms, the
rise of mass mobilization, international condemnation, and the eventual negotiations
process all played a role in bringing about this historic transformation. The transition to
democracy in South Africa was a remarkable achievement, demonstrating the power of
human resilience and the possibility of peaceful change even in the face of seemingly
insurmountable obstacles.

While the transition to democracy marked a significant milestone, the legacy of

apartheid continues to cast a long shadow over South African society. The deep-seated
inequalities rooted in the apartheid system persist, and the challenges of reconciliation,
nation-building, and economic transformation remain significant. Nevertheless, the
peaceful dismantling of apartheid stands as a testament to the human spirit's capacity
for change and a beacon of hope for other societies struggling with legacies of
oppression and division.