Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B.

Navathe Slide 2- 1
Chapter 2
Database System Concepts and
Architecture

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

Outline
◼ Data Models and Their Categories
◼ History of Data Models
◼ Schemas, Instances, and States
◼ Three-Schema Architecture
◼ DBMS Languages and Interfaces
◼ Database System Utilities and Tools
◼ Centralized and Client-Server Architectures
◼ Classification of DBMSs

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 3

Data Models
◼ Data Model:
◼ A set of concepts to describe the structure of a database,
the operations for manipulating these structures, and
certain constraints that the database should obey.
◼ Data Model Structure and Constraints:
◼ Constructs are used to define the database structure
◼ Constructs typically include elements (and their data
types) as well as groups of elements (e.g. entity, record,
table), and relationships among such groups
◼ Constraints specify some restrictions on valid data; these
constraints must be enforced at all times

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Data Models (continued)
◼ Data Model Operations:
◼ These operations are used for specifying
database retrievals and updates by referring to
the constructs of the data model.
◼ Operations on the data model may include
➢ basic model operations (e.g. generic insert,
delete, update) and
➢ user-defined operations (e.g.
compute_student_gpa, update_inventory)

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 5

Categories of Data Models
◼ Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:
◼ Provide concepts that are close to the way many users
perceive data.
◼ (Also called entity-based or object-based data models.)
◼ Physical (low-level, internal) data models:
◼ Provide concepts that describe details of how data is stored
in the computer. These are usually specified in an ad-hoc
manner through DBMS design and administration manuals
◼ Implementation (representational) data models:
◼ Provide concepts that fall between the above two, used by
many commercial DBMS implementations (e.g. relational
data models used in many commercial systems).

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 6

Database Schemas versus
Instances(State)
◼ Database Schema:
◼ The description of a database.
◼ Includes descriptions of the database structure,
data types, and the constraints on the database.
◼ Schema Diagram:
◼ An illustrative display of (most aspects of) a
database schema.
◼ Schema Construct:
◼ A component of the schema or an object within
the schema, e.g., STUDENT, COURSE.

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 7

Schemas versus Instances
◼ Database State:
◼ The actual data stored in a database at a
particular moment in time. This includes the
collection of all the data in the database.
◼ Also called database instance (or occurrence or
snapshot).
◼ The term instance is also applied to individual
database components, e.g. record instance, table
instance, entity instance
◼ Initial Database State
◼ Valid State:
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Database Schema
vs. Database State
◼ Distinction
◼ The database schema changes very infrequently.

◼ The database state changes every time the database

is updated.
◼ Schema is also called intension.
◼ State is also called extension

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Example of a Database Schema

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Example of a database state

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Three-Schema Architecture
◼ Proposed to support DBMS characteristics of:
◼ Program-data independence.
◼ Support of multiple views of the data.
◼ Not explicitly used in commercial DBMS products,
but has been useful in explaining database
system organization

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Three-Schema Architecture
◼ Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:
◼ Internal schema at the internal level to describe physical
storage structures and access paths (e.g indexes).
◼ Typically uses a physical data model.
◼ Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe the
structure and constraints for the whole database for a
community of users.
◼ Uses a conceptual or an implementation data model.
◼ External schemas at the external level to describe the
various user views.
◼ Usually uses the same data model as the conceptual schema.

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 13

The three-schema architecture

Data Independence
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Data Independence
◼ Data Independence:
◼ The capacity to change the one level of schema
without having to change another level schemas

Data Independence

Logical Physical

The capacity to change The capacity to

the conceptual schema change the internal
without having to schema without
change the external having to change the
schemas
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe conceptual schema
Slide 2- 15
DBMS Languages

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 16

DBMS Languages
◼ Data Definition Language (DDL):
◼ In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define
internal and external schemas (views).
◼ In some DBMSs, separate storage definition
language (SDL) and view definition language
(VDL) are used to define internal and external
schemas.
◼ SDL is typically realized via DBMS commands
provided to the DBA and database designers

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DBMS Languages
◼ Data Manipulation Language (DML):
◼ Used to specify database retrievals and updates
◼ DML commands (data sublanguage) can be
embedded in a general-purpose programming
language (host language), such as COBOL, C,
C++, or Java.
◼ A library of functions can also be provided to access
the DBMS from a programming language
◼ Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be
applied directly (called a query language).

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 18

DBMS Interfaces
◼ Stand-alone query language interfaces
◼ Example: Entering SQL queries at the DBMS
interactive SQL interface (e.g. SQL*Plus in
ORACLE)
◼ Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in
programming languages
◼ User-friendly interfaces
◼ Menu-based, forms-based, graphics-based, etc.

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Other DBMS Interfaces
◼ Speech as Input and Output
◼ Web Browser as an interface
◼ Parametric interfaces, e.g., bank tellers using
function keys.
◼ Interfaces for the DBA:
◼ Creating user accounts, granting authorizations
◼ Setting system parameters
◼ Changing schemas or access paths

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Database System Utilities
◼ To perform certain functions such as:
◼ Loading data stored in files into a database.
Includes data conversion tools.
◼ Backing up the database periodically on tape.
◼ Reorganizing database file structures.
◼ Report generation utilities.
◼ Performance monitoring utilities.
◼ Other functions, such as sorting, user monitoring,
data compression, etc.

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 21

Other Tools
◼ Data dictionary / repository:
◼ Used to store schema descriptions and other
information such as design decisions, application
program descriptions, user information, usage
standards, etc.
◼ Active data dictionary is accessed by DBMS
software and users/DBA.
◼ Passive data dictionary is accessed by
users/DBA only.

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 22

Centralized and
Client-Server DBMS Architectures
◼ Centralized DBMS:
◼ Combines everything into single system including-
DBMS software, hardware, application programs,
and user interface processing software.
◼ User can still connect through a remote terminal –
however, all processing is done at centralized site.

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A Physical Centralized Architecture

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Basic 2-tier Client-Server Architectures

◼ Specialized Servers with Specialized functions

◼ Print server
◼ File server
◼ DBMS server
◼ Web server
◼ Email server
◼ Clients can access the specialized servers as
needed

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 27

Logical two-tier client server architecture

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Clients
◼ Provide appropriate interfaces through a client
software module to access and utilize the various
server resources.
◼ Clients may be diskless machines or PCs or
Workstations with disks with only the client
software installed.
◼ Connected to the servers via some form of a
network.
◼ (LAN: local area network, wireless network, etc.)

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 29

DBMS Server
◼ Provides database query and transaction services to the
clients
◼ Relational DBMS servers are often called SQL servers,
query servers, or transaction servers
◼ Applications running on clients utilize an Application
Program Interface (API) to access server databases via
standard interface such as:
◼ ODBC: Open Database Connectivity standard
◼ JDBC: for Java programming access
◼ Client and server must install appropriate client module
and server module software for ODBC or JDBC
◼ See Chapter 9

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 30

Two Tier Client-Server Architecture
◼ A client program may connect to several DBMSs,
sometimes called the data sources.
◼ In general, data sources can be files or other
non-DBMS software that manages data.
◼ Other variations of clients are possible: e.g., in
some object DBMSs, more functionality is
transferred to clients including data dictionary
functions, optimization and recovery across
multiple servers, etc.

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 31

Three Tier Client-Server Architecture
◼ Common for Web applications
◼ Intermediate Layer called Application Server or Web
Server:
◼ Stores the web connectivity software and the business logic
part of the application used to access the corresponding
data from the database server
◼ Acts like a conduit for sending partially processed data
between the database server and the client.
◼ Three-tier Architecture Can Enhance Security:
◼ Database server only accessible via middle tier
◼ Clients cannot directly access database server

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 32

Three-tier client-server architecture

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 33

Classification of DBMSs
◼ Based on the data model used
◼ Traditional: Relational, Network, Hierarchical.
◼ Emerging: Object-oriented, Object-relational.
◼ Other classifications
◼ Single-user (typically used with personal
computers)
vs. multi-user (most DBMSs).
◼ Centralized (uses a single computer with one
database)
vs. distributed (uses multiple computers, multiple
databases)

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 34

Summary
◼ Data Models and Their Categories
◼ History of Data Models
◼ Schemas, Instances, and States
◼ Three-Schema Architecture
◼ Data Independence
◼ DBMS Languages and Interfaces
◼ Database System Utilities and Tools
◼ Centralized and Client-Server Architectures
◼ Classification of DBMSs

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 35