BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

MULUNGUSHI UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF SCIENCES ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

Table of Contents
...........................................................................................................................................................0
REPORT WRITING FOR BIOLOGY PRACTICAL..................................................................2
ORIENTATION TO SAFETY AND RULES FOR GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICES....4
LAB 1: SAFETY AWARENESS AND SAFE PRACTICES IN BIOLOGY LABORATORY. 9
LAB 2: LIGHT MICROSCOPIC OBSERVATION OF ONION PLANT CELLS,
UNSTAINED AND STAINED AND THE OBSERVATION OF ANIMAL STAINED CELLS
.........................................................................................................................................................12
LAB 3: INVESTIGATION OF WATER PROPERTIES AND DEMONSTRATION OF
OSMOSIS.......................................................................................................................................15
LAB 4: TESTING BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES FOR STARCH, LIPIDS, PROTEINS,
NON-REDUCING AND REDUCING SUGARS........................................................................17
LAB 5: EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE, ENZYME CONCENTRATION, pH AND
SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION ON ENZYME REACTIONS...........................................22
SELECTED EQUIPMENTS AND APPARATUS TO BE USED IN BIOLOGY LAB............25

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

REPORT WRITING FOR BIOLOGY PRACTICAL

Cover Page
A cover page also called a title page, is the first page of a laboratory report. The purpose of the
inclusion of a cover page during the writing of the lab report is to provide general information about
the document of that report.
The cover page provides a quick understanding of what the lab report is about by stating the topic
covered and introduces the document to the reading audience. In this case, one may not need to go
through the whole document if the topic is not of one’s concern. Therefore, a cover page is helpful in
telling the reader about the main information about the document of the lab report. The cover page
may include some of the following information: The cover page may include some of the following
information:
Name of Institution, name of the student, student number, Tutorial group (TG), program, subject
number and title of the laboratory experiment, name of the laboratory technician/instructor, date of the
laboratory activity and the due date of the lab.
Title
The clearly and concisely informs the reader of the practical report topic. The title says what you did
and it should be brief and describe the main point of the experiment or investigation. An example of a
title would be: "Effects of Temperature on Enzyme catalyzed Reactions".
Aim
The aim is a clear statement that states the purpose of the experiment that you are conducting
Introduction
The introduction is the part of the lab that gives the reader background information about the topic of
the practical report, and places your report in the context of that background information. To do the
introduction, you should begin by summarizing what is already known about the topic and because of
this, the introduction need to include references. The introduction should also highlight how your
report relates to the background information.
Apparatus/Materials
On this section, list down all the apparatus, reagents and materials that are to be used in the procedure
to conduct the experiment of the lab.
Procedure/Methods
The procedure/methods section describes how you carried out your experiment and this section also
provide the reader with sufficient information to replicate the experiment that you conducted.
Therefore, structure your procedure/methods section to provide a step-by-step account of what you
did when performing the experiment by describing the steps you completed during your investigation
using report languages and avoiding the use of the third person when writing this section. In this
section, also be sufficiently detailed that anyone could read this section and duplicate your
experiment. Also, write this section as if you were giving direction for someone else to do the lab. It
may be helpful to provide a figure to diagram your experimental setup. This section of the
procedure/methods do as well answer the following two questions: What apparatus and materials were
used to conduct the lab? In addition, how were the apparatus and materials used in the
procedure/method to conduct the experiment?
Data

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Numerical data obtained from your procedure usually presented as a table. Data encompasses what
you recorded when you conducted the experiment. It is just the facts, not any interpretation of what
they mean.
Results
When you reach the result section it is important to catch the attention of the reader of your report by
first providing a summarized sentence on the highlights of the results that is directing the reader of
your report to the specific tables and figures which include results, data and observations that went
wrong or an expected.
In the results section it is where you also present observations and data with no interpretations or
conclusions about what those observation results mean. A well written and organized results section
will be there also to provide the framework on the logical discussion when you reach the discussion
section of your report.
When recording of results, remember to use complete sentences, usually in the order in which the
observations of your results were happening.
Note that, tables and graphs sometimes are used to supplement the text and to present the data in a
more understandable form. Finally use past tense or reported speeches to describe your results.
Data Analysis
The data analysis section contains any calculations made based on the numbers collected as results.
Discussion
The purpose of the discussion section is to provide an explanation on results collected and to interpret
those results in the context existing theory and knowledge. Under discussion section, the following
points, will be relevant (but note that for some experiments not all of these points will be used).
 Relate results back to the aim.
 Provide an explanation of why the experiment produced those results.
 Compare and contrast results to findings of other research groups.
 Identify problems in experimental technique or design and suggest improvement.
 State the significance of your results and suggest areas for future research
For example, in discussion section, do not simply restate the results. You must interpret the data. For
example, what trends are evident in the data? What are the implications of the results collected? Do
your results fulfil the aim of the experiment? Are there any potential errors present in the results?
Think carefully about how you structure the discussion so that, you can achieve logical flow from one
topic to the next. Because the discussion is very important section, as this is where you interpret the
data and determine whether the hypothesis was accepted. This is also where you would discuss any
mistakes you might have made while conducting the investigation.
Conclusions
The conclusion summarizes key results and interpretations of the experiment. The conclusion should
be concise and brief and most importantly, the conclusion should not introduce any new information.
Most of the time the conclusion is a single paragraph that sums up what happened in the experiment,
whether your aims and objectives were achieved and whether the hypothesis was accepted or rejected,
and what this means.

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References
In academics if your research was based on someone else's work or if you cited facts that require
documentation, then you should list these references to back up your lab report. In academics, the
standard practice to provide details of references used in your report are required both in text and in a
list at the end of your report. Do not include information sources that you read but did not use in the
report, just include the sources you actually cite (or mention) in the report. Furthermore, the reference
list must be presented in alphabetical order by first author. Do not use dot points or numbers in the
reference list. Generally, you will be required to reference according to the Harvard referencing style,
but make sure that you use the referencing style recommended by the instructor and follow the style
consistently. You can find different referencing guides on the following website:
https://www.adelaide.edu.au/writingcentre/resources/referencing/
ORIENTATION TO SAFETY AND RULES FOR GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICES
1. Always wear acid proof laboratory coats, safety goggles, and leather closed safety shoes in
the laboratory anytime handling chemicals, boiling water and chemical liquids and when
heating substances. Note: Sharp instruments should be handled with protective gloves to
avoid cutting yourself in the laboratory.
2. Tie back long hair and loose clothing when performing laboratory experiments involving
open flames because if this is not done long hair and loose hair can catch fire and make you
and all the lab to go in flame.
3. Those who like putting on chains and jewelries before coming to do lab activities remove
them from you.
4. Don’t touch, taste, or smell, any questionable chemicals in the laboratory without the
instructor or laboratory technician’s permission. It can result in chemical contaminations on
you.
5. Do not do experiments that are not assigned to you by your instructor and the laboratory
technician. Make sure that you only do only procedures given to you by your instructor. And
do not work in the laboratory by yourself.
6. Before entering the laboratory, it is important to familiarize yourself with the experimental
procedure and safety precautions that are involved with the experiment to be done to avoid
accidents. Be aware of the potential hazards that are over the procedure and the material
required for the experiment in order to avoid accidents.
7. Before you start operating in the laboratory, make sure that you put on personal protective
equipment that have been instructed to you by the instructor in order to avoid accidents.
8. Always wear a lab coat (acid proof), safety goggles and closed safety shoes whenever you are
in the laboratory to avoid your clothing, skin and eyes from getting damaged by laboratory
chemicals.
9. Before any lab, work begins, tie back long hair, roll up loose sleeves and button up your
laboratory coat to avoid accident and getting contaminated.
10. As the instructor and the students whenever you are working in the laboratory, you should
know location of all the safety and emergency equipment that are used in the laboratory. If
you don’t know ask your instructor where the location of the nearest eyewash, stations, safety
blanket, safety shower, fire extinguishers, first aid kit and chemical spill kit.
11. Report any accident, incident or hazard no matter how trivial they may be to your instructor
for first aid purposes.

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12. In case of fire in the laboratory, immediately report or alert the instructor and leave the
laboratory after as soon as possible.
13. Do not play around in the laboratory. Be aware of your fellow students’ safety as well as your
own safety in the laboratory.
14. Never should you consume food or drink in the laboratory. Avoid storing food in the
laboratory for they can be contaminated with poisonous chemicals.
15. Treat all laboratory animals and other organisms with caution and respect so as for them not
to harm you.
16. Clean your working benches before and after conducting experiments. Have only books and
other materials that are needed to conduct the experiment in the laboratory. Broken glass,
chemicals and other laboratory waste products should be disposed of in separate special
containers. Make sure you dispose of wastes as directed by your instructors or laboratory
technician.
17. Before leaving the laboratory, wash your hands with soap and water to avoid getting
contaminated with chemicals.
List of Student Laboratory Code of Conduct
1. Students should behave in a mature and responsible manner at all times in the biology
laboratory or wherever chemicals are stored or handled. Inappropriate behavior in the
laboratory is prohibited.
2. Students should follow all verbal and written instructions carefully. If you are not sure of the
procedure of the experiment, ask your laboratory technician/instructor for help before
proceeding to the next level as this can help to prevent accidents.
3. As a student, you should not touch any equipment or chemicals in the biology lab unless
specifically instructed to do so by your instructor/technician.
4. Students are not allowed to eat, drink, apply cosmetics, or chew gum in the laboratory. Wash
hands thoroughly after participating in any laboratory activities.
5. Perform experiments that have been authorized to you the instructor or laboratory technician.
6. Students should receive training related to the locations and operating procedures of all
applicable safety laboratory equipment and personal protective equipment (PPE).
Handling Equipment & Chemicals
1. Dispose properly all chemical wastes, as directed by the laboratory technician/instructor.
2. Never enter or remain in a science laboratory storage rooms, preparation areas, and main
biology lab unless accompanied by a laboratory technician or a designated school employee.
3. While operating in the lab, students should wear approved eye protection whenever handling
hazardous chemicals such as acid.
4. Wear always-appropriate personal protective equipments such as lab coats, safety closed
shoes at all times when working in the laboratory and avoid wearing loose or flammable
clothing. In addition, make sure that, when working in the lab, long hair should be tied back.
5. Students should report any incident (including all spills, breakages, or other releases of
hazardous materials) to the laboratory technician or laboratory instructor immediately; no

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matter how insignificant the incidence may appear. This should include all injuries, such as
cuts, burns, breathing problems, or other signs of physical harm. It is also encouraged that,
students should report even incidents that do not result in physical harm, so that lessons can
be learned from those near misses.
6. Students should never remove chemicals and equipments, and supplies from the laboratory
storage area and then take them to their area homes, as it is very dangerous.
7. Carefully examine all lab equipments in the lab before starting using them, and report any
broken or defective equipment to the laboratory technician/instructor immediately.
Heating Substances
1. Never reach over an exposed flame or hot plate or even leave a flame/hot plate unattended.
2. Students should never point a test tube or any reaction vessel of any type toward another
person this is very dangerous and hazardous.
Chemical Safety
1. Do not touch, taste, or smell, any questionable chemicals in the laboratory without the
laboratory technician’s permission, as this is dangerous as it can results illness or death.
2. Do not inhale fumes directly from the container. Only as instructed by the instructor or
laboratory technician, gently wave your hand over the opening of a container toward your
nose and keep all lids closed on chemicals containers.
3. Remember to dispose of all chemicals in their designated containers as instructed by your
instructor or laboratory technician.
4. In case of spillages, pour acids and bases over a sink and wash them off.
5. Never pour water into an acid, always pour acid into water to avoid acid splashing onto your
skin or eyes.
6. Do not eat or drink in the laboratory or eat from any laboratory glassware, as it is not a safe
practice. This can result in contaminating yourself with dangerous chemicals.
7. Do not use broken glassware apparatus because they can cause cuts and scratches that can
result in chemical contaminations of yourself.
General Safety Rules
1. Read all directions for an experiment and follow the directions exactly as they are written. If
in doubt, ask the instructor.
2. Do not perform experiments that the instructor or laboratory technician does not authorize
you. Always obtain permission before experimenting on your own.
3. Do not handle any laboratory equipment unless with specific permission from the instructor.
4. Take care not to spill any chemicals or materials in the lab and If spills occur, ask your
instructor immediately about the proper cleaning-up procedure.
5. Dispose of all material according to the laboratory technician’s instructions. Never empty
materials into the sink or trash can if you are not instructed to do so.
6. Never eat in the laboratory. Wash your hands before and after each experiment and whenever
you are leaving the lab.

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7. Never horse play or run in the laboratory because this may result in accidents.
8. Know the location and function of all laboratory safety equipment.
First Aid
1. Report all accidents to the laboratory technician or instructor immediately for first aids.
2. Apply direct pressure to any severe cuts to stop the bleeding of a wound
3. Know the location of the first aid kit in the lab.
4. Know the location and use of the fire blanket and fire extinguishers.
Heating and Fire Safety
1. Never reach across an open flame.
2. Know how to light and extinguish the Bunsen burner, never leave a burner unattended.
3. Do not point the chemical test tube or bottle that you are heating to yourself or to others when
it is getting heated because chemicals can rapidly boil out of the container.
4. Do not heat a liquid in a closed container for it can explode with the increase of pressure.
5. use a clamp or tongs when handling hot containers to avoid heating your hands
Electrical Safety
1. Make sure electronic equipments are off when plugging or unplugging from an outlet.
2. Make sure the work area for electrical equipment is clean and dry.
3. Do not “daisy-chain” electrical power cords.
4. Inspect power cords for cuts or abrasions that revel bare copper wire.
5. Be very aware of the location of power cords to avoid tripping and damage to persons.
End of Laboratory Activity Rules
1. Clean laboratory equipments, apparatus and benches and return them to designated locations.
2. Unplug and store properly any electrical device.
3. Extinguish all candles, burners and turn off all gas lines to the Bunsen burners.
4. Finally Wash your hands to be free of any possible contaminants and leave the laboratory.
Selected Hazard Safety Symbols and Their Meaning
In a laboratory environment, there are safety symbols like the ones showing below. These symbols are
one of the essential component of safety practices in the lab. The meaning of these symbols, and the
possible hazards or dangers that they indicate in the laboratory as well as the kind of safety
requirements and recommendation that they display, make them important to promote a safe working
environment that is free from accidents. As a result, students have been advised to obey these symbols
whenever handling certain laboratory activities. Following below are the selected safety symbols and
the hazard that they represent.

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

LAB 1: SAFETY AWARENESS AND SAFE PRACTICES IN BIOLOGY LABORATORY

Aim
• To understand lab safety and its important safety procedures that can be used to prevent
laboratory injuries, illnesses, fatalities, and accidents, as well as studying lab safety symbols.
Introduction
An essential safety part of any biology laboratory is working in the lab while at the same time
following all the prescribed safety rules and conducting yourself in a safe and accepted standard way
that will protect you and your friends from all hazardous scenes and accidents. Although some
equipments, chemicals and specimen in a lab look good when observing them, it is important to know
that, some of them are dangerous to be working with, and as such, they need to be satisfied safe
before using them. Note as well that, in lab, accidents do not just happen, but instead they are caused
by carelessness, improper and unsafe handling of equipment or inappropriate and unsafe behavior.
Most of the lab work you will be doing or conducting need to be satisfied safe from any possible
hazards and contaminations that can result in accidents. In this practical activity, you will be learning
on how to apply biology safety techniques by you actively conducting and observing safety rules, as
well as understanding safety symbols, and pictures that are used to promote safety in a lab. In
addition, you will also learn how to prevent accidents and have an environment that is free of
accidents. In this case, you will review some safety guidelines, safety symbols, pictures and then
become familiar with the location of all safety equipments in the lab.
Apparatus/Materials
a. Laboratory manual, lab safety equipment (for demonstration)
b. Laboratory safety acid proof coat, safety goggles and shoes.
Safety Activity Part A: Basic Rules of Safety
1. Hint: Before coming to the laboratory, carefully study the lab safety rules and study the
hazard safety symbols that are found in the laboratory manual.
2. Before entering the lab, make sure you put on your personal protective equipments (P.P.E).
No P.P.E not allowed entering the lab and do any laboratory activity.
3. Now settle yourself comfortably safe with your pens, pencils, plain papers and P.P.E well
equipped on you.
4. On your white plain paper, list down the number of basic safety rules that have been listed in
the manual which can qualify you to be operating and work in the laboratory safely).
Safety Activity Part B: Safety Symbols
5. Study and draw the safety symbols displayed in the laboratory as well as those given in the
laboratory handout or the entire laboratory environment.

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6. Review each of the symbols drawn and then describe what each of the symbols means to lab
safety.
7. Besides each drawings of the symbols, indicate in writing the meaning of each of the symbol
drawn and its use in the lab.
Safety Activity Part C: Sub-Standard Practices
8. Examine each of the drawings of pictures below (A, B, C and D) and explain why the
activities displayed by the pictures are unsafe for lab activities and people working in the lab.

9. After studying the pictures above, discuss what can be done to eliminate such unsafe scenes
displayed by the pictures so that accidents can be prevented from happening in a lab.
10. Give solutions on what should be done to the pictures above so that; a safer or standard lab
practice is achieved in a lab.
Safety Activity Part D: Emergence Equipment
11. After that, then look at the safety equipments below.

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• Discuss where you think the equipment displayed above can be used and also give reasons
why it is important to have such kinds of equipment in the biology laboratory.
Safety Activity Part E: Personal Protective Equipments (PPE)
12. Look at the pictures showing below;

• State the collectively name for the pictures above and state why the equipments are important
to be used in any laboratory.
Safety Activity Part F
13. Look at the equipment below:

• State the reason why it is advisable to clean your hands with soap after touching and using it,
even if by appearance it is looking to be clean and attractive with all its beautifulness parts
displayed. Give reasons for your answer.
Task
 Write a full laboratory report and discuss it in detail over what you have achieved during
safety practical orientation of working safely in a lab.

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

LAB 2: LIGHT MICROSCOPIC OBSERVATION OF ONION PLANT CELLS, UNSTAINED

AND STAINED AND THE OBSERVATION OF ANIMAL STAINED CELLS
Aim
• To do microscopic observation of onion plant cells and human check or epithelial cells, and
then calculate total magnifications and lengths of these cells observed.
Introduction
The cell theory states that, all living things are composed of cells which are basic units of life, and that
all cells do arise from existing cells. The cell in this case, is the fundamental unit of life and every
living organism is composed of them. Modern cell theory states that, all living matter is composed of
cells and that, all new cells do arise from other cells. In addition to this theory, it is known that, all
metabolic reactions of any organism do take place inside the cells and that; cells contain hereditary
information of those organisms of which they are a part of. All cells are similar in one-way or another
in that, they have a cell membrane and a nucleus at some stage of their existence. Cells show
remarkable diversity in structure and function. Modification in cell structures is very important as it
leads to cells diversity and differences in cell functions.
There are two types of cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus
and membrane true organelles, and are typically significantly smaller than eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic organisms are found in domains of bacteria and archaea. While eukaryotic cells have a
nucleus and other membrane organelles. Although there are differences between the cell types, few
features are common to all cells and these are plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and
cytoskeleton. In eukaryotic cells, DNA is found in a nucleus, while in prokaryotes, it is found in the
nucleoid region of a cytoplasm. Generally, prokaryotes have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan and
some have flagella or fimbriae, which are used for movement or attachment. On the other hand,
eukaryotic cells have several more organelles, and among eukaryotic cells, are plant and animal cells.
Organelles common to eukaryotic cells include mitochondria, peroxisomes, vesicles, lysosomes,
smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi bodies. In animal cells, there are no cell walls
and chloroplasts. While plant cells have chloroplasts and cellulose cell walls.
During microscopic examination of plants and animal cells, transmitted light is used to observe
sample specimen of cells. In this case, specimen to be observed under a microscope need to be
prepared in such a way that, it is thin enough to allow light to pass through it. While to improve on the
clarity of the specimen details and to prevent the specimen from drying out, as well as the protoplasm
of the cell from becoming deformed, small drops of water are usually dropped on the specimen once it
is put on a slide to prepare a wet mount. After observation of wet mounts, then the prepared cells on
the slide are further stained with stains to make some of their structures easier to be examined. In this
case, staining is a technique used in microscopy to enhance contrast in the microscopic image.
Biologists often use stains that bind to various macromolecules and structures in cell to make
structures more visible. Living cells are stained to show cilia, flagella, nucleus, or other cell
organelles. Some stains destroy cells immediately. While others, called vital stains, kill cells more
slowly. In this case, cells absorb stains and continue to carry on their life functions for some time.
In laboratory, there are two main categories of staining techniques, which are direct staining and
negative staining. Under direct staining, cells are stained and the background is left unstained. While
in negative staining, the background is stained and the cells are left unstained. Examples of stains
commonly used in the lab, are the methylene blue, dilute carbol fuchsine and polychrome methylene
blue. In this laboratory activity, we are going to observe the structures of the onion plant cells and the
animal check or epithelial cells using a compound light microscope. In this case, wet mounts will be
observed, and then after that, stained slides of methylene blue or iodine solution will also be observed
and then study the importance of staining when it comes to microscopic observation.

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Apparatus/Materials
a. Sharp knife, Petri dish, filter paper/absorbent paper, onion bulb, dropper, chopping board,
disposable gloves, beaker (250 ml) for used slides
b. Compound light microscope, Iodine solution, methylene blue 1%, 2 microscope slide, cover
slips, toothpick, disinfectant, wash bottle and disposal container for slides and used gloves.
c. Absorbent paper, disposal bags for swabs, toothpicks, disposable mouth swabs
Procedure Part A-Wet Mount (Unstained
1. Before starting the procedure above, first familiarize yourself with all procedures instruction
and safety practices of today’s lab.
2. Then after that, set up the microscope and place a drop of water on the clean slide.
3. Cut the onion bulb in half and then separate the two fleshy leaves of the bulb. Locate the
epidermis between them.
4. After finding the epidermis, peel off the epidermis and cut it into small pieces.
5. Put these pieces into water in a petri dish and then transfer one piece into the drop of water on
the slide, using the small paintbrush.
6. To avoid creating water bubbles, place and cover the cover slip on a slide having an onion
sample specimen on the water droplet, by placing a cover slip at the edge of a water droplet at
an angle of 45 O to 60 O to cover the specimen slowly on the slide.
7. Using blotting paper, dry a slide if necessary or if there is too much water and label the slide.
8. Observe the sample slide under the microscope, starting from a scanning objective of x 4,
then going to low power x10 and finally to the high power objective of x4O.
9. Draw well labelled diagrams of your observations. Note: For today, drawings should be done
only at objective ×40.
Procedure Part B-Methylene Blue Stain
1. Prepare another slide of onion epidermal cell as you did above for the wet mount.
2. Stain the prepared slide by placing a drop of methylene blue at one side of the cover slip and
draw it across a plant tissue by placing the edge of a piece of absorbant/tissue paper at the
other side of the covered cover slip on a slide.
3. Using the blotting, tissue, or absorbent paper and dry the slide carefully before labeling it.
4. Observe the prepared sample slide under the microscope starting from a scanning objective of
x 4, then going to low power x10 and finally to the high power objective of x4O.
5. Draw well labelled diagrams of what you have observed at objective ×40 only for this lab.
Procedure Part C- Iodine Stain
1. Prepare another slide of onion epidermal cell as you did above for the wet mount.
2. Stain the prepared slide by placing a drop of iodine stain solution at one side of the cover slip
and then draw it across the plant tissue by placing the edge of a piece of absorbant/tissue
paper at the other side of the covered cover slip.

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3. Using blotting or absorbent paper, dry the slide carefully and label the slide as iodine stain.
4. Observe the stained sample slide under the microscope starting from a scanning objective of x
4, then a low power x10, and finally the high power objective of x4O.
5. Draw well labelled diagrams of the observations at objective x40 for this lab.
Procedure Part D
1. Put a drop of methylene blue on the slide.
2. Gently scrape inside of your cheek with a flat side of the toothpick or mouth swabs lightly.
3. Stir the end of a toothpick or mouth swabs in a drop of methylene blue stain on a center of a
slide. Then safely throw a toothpick/mouth swabs in a designated disposable container.
4. Place a coverslip on the slide now having a swab mixed with methylene blue and put the slide
on the microscope stage for observation.
5. Observe the stained sample slide under the microscope starting from a scanning objective of x
4, then a low power x10, and finally the high power objective of x4O. Do refocus if the image
is not seen, by using the fine adjustment knob and do not a coarse adjustment knob.
6. After observations, sketch or draw 2 to 3 cells at x40 objective, and label the parts of cells
observed, and against each drawing, indicate total magnification by calculation.
7. Without removing the refocused image of cells at x40 objective, observe the cells in a circle
field of view of a microscope eyepiece by targeting those cells laying along the diameter of
the field of view of a circle and count the number of cell stretching along the diameter only.
8. Sketch the number of cells observed that are stretching along the diameter of field of view
and then label them as number of cells lying along the diameter of field of view.
9. Calculate the length of an individual cell sketched/drawn from microscopic using the
following formula; Length of Cell = Diameter of Field of View/Number of Cells Lying
along the Diameter of Field of View.
Notice: Besides each drawing neatly, record the following information.
 The calculation of total magnification and length of an individual cell
 Estimated number of cells that will stretch across the diameter of the field of view.
 Title of the results of microscopic observation results, which is clear representing the results.
Task
 Write a full laboratory report and discuss it in details according to the collected results.

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LAB 3: INVESTIGATION OF WATER PROPERTIES AND DEMONSTRATION OF

OSMOSIS
Aim
• To study water properties and the demonstration of the process of osmosis using a semi
selectively permeable membrane of a shell less egg cell in relation with hypertonic, hypotonic
and isotonic solutions.
Introduction
Water is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main
constituent of the fluids of most living organisms. It is vital for all known forms of life, even though it
provides no calories or organic nutrients to living organisms but it been the universal solvent, it
supports all meteoric reaction of the cells belonging to living organisms. The chemical formula of
water is H2O. This means that, each of its molecules contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms
connected by covalent bonds. Water is one of the more abundant molecules and the one most critical
to life on earth. Approximately 70 percent of the human body is made up of water. Without water, life
would not exist. The reason why water show different properties is that, it is composed of polar
molecules. The hydrogen and oxygen within the water molecules (H2O) form polar covalent bonds.
While there is no net charge to a water molecule, the polarity of water creates a slightly positive
charge on hydrogen and a slightly negative charge on oxygen, thereby contributing to water‘s
properties of attraction. The charges of water are generated because oxygen is more electronegative
than hydrogen, thereby making water to have more likely shared electron to be found near the oxygen
nucleus than hydrogen nucleus. This makes the generation of partial negative charge near the oxygen.
Because of water’s polarity, each water molecules attracts other water molecules as a result of
opposite charges between water molecules that form hydrogen bonds. Water attracts or is attracted to
other polar molecules and ions. A polar substance that interacts readily with or dissolves in water is
referred to as hydrophilic (hydro- = ‘’water’’; -philic = ‘’loving’’). In contrast, non-polar molecules
such as oil and fats do not interact well with water; instead, they separate from it rather than
dissolving in it. These compounds are called hydrophobic (hydro- =’’water’’- phobic =’’fearing’’).
Special properties of water are its high heat capacity, heat of vaporization, its ability to dissolve polar
molecules, its cohesive and adhesive properties, and its dissociation into ions that leads to the
generation of pH. Understanding these characteristics of water helps to exemplify its importance in
maintaining life.
Animal cells just like plant cells have a cell membrane, which regulate the movement of substances
into and out of the cell by osmosis. Virtually all substances entering and leaving cells are dissolved in
water, thereby making water the most important solvent of life processes. The cell membrane of
animal cells is also made of a phospholipid bilayer with different kinds of proteins embedded on its
surface. These membranes are semi selectively permeable in that, they allow some substances to
move across them easily while completely or partially excluding others. Water enters or leaves the
cell through the membrane by osmosis. Osmosis is a type of diffusion by which water move from a
region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration across the semi-permeable
membrane. The process of osmosis in animals, just like in plants, must be tightly controlled by the
cells if they are to remain functional. For example, if a red blood cell is placed in pure water, it will
quickly take up water and bursts. That is why plasma, the liquid component of blood is made up of
water with proteins and salts dissolved in it to prevent unnecessary gain of water by the blood cells.
More importantly, water is needed in the cells of an animal cell because it a medium of chemical
reaction where all metabolic reactions take place. Since the eggshell is made up of calcium carbonate,
it will be removed by soaking the egg into vinegar to allow calcium carbonate to dissolve in acids of
vinegar. When the shells will be dissolving in vinegar, the semi selective permeable membrane of an
egg will become exposed, and carbon dioxide will be released. In this lab activity, part of the
experiment will be conducted to investigate the different properties of water that are cohesion,

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

adhesion capillary action and surface tension. The other part of the experiment will be done using the
shell less egg of animal cells to demonstrate the process of osmosis.
Apparatus/ Materials
a. Electronic balance, container to hold eggs, 250 ml beakers, tissue paper, 3 raw shell-less eggs,
2500 ml vinegar, distilled water, concentrated salt/sugar solution, 250 ml beaker, wash bottle.
b. Graduated cylinder100 ml, stirring rods, surgical blades, forceps, distilled water, paperclip,
surgical blade, needle, any coin, capillary tube, glass slides, medicine dropper, and food
colouring.
Procedures Part A

1. Pipette some distilled water using a medicine dropper and place one drop at a time on any
coin given. Try to add 27 to 30 drops. Make observations and fill in the data table 1.0.

2. Pipette some distilled water using a medicine dropper. Place a drop of water onto a glass slide
surface and spread it from side to side. Place a dry slide glass on top of the one with a drop of
water smear laying side to side and then attempt to separate the two glass slides. Make
observations and record the result by filling in the table of results (data table 1.0).

3. Fill the beaker with distilled water. Gently place a paper clip/ needle on the water surface.
Observe what happens for a few seconds and record the results in the data table 1.0.

4. Pour some water into the beaker up to half. Then add a food colour to the water. Dip one open
end of the capillary tube/straw into the dyed water and observe what happens. Record the
results in the table of results (Table 1.0)

5. Collect results by filling a table of results on a plain paper similar to the table below.

Procedure: Step 1- Removing Shells from the Eggs

a. Carefully place 3 eggs into a container of vinegar (1000 -1500 ml). Then loosely place a lid
on top of a container and then put a container in a designated place.
b. From there, allow the eggs to soak for 2 days and wash your hands after handling the eggs.
Procedure Step 2- Soaking Egg in Different Solutions concentrations.
1. Prepare 400 to 500 ml of concentrated salt/sugar solution in a beaker.
2. Carefully remove an egg from container of vinegar and blot dry it with a paper towel/ tissue.
3. Measure mass of an egg after drying it with a balance and record it in a table of results.
4. Carefully place an egg into the beaker containing salt water and allow it to soak for 1 hour.
5. Put container in designated space and wash your hands.
6. After an hour remove an egg from salt/sugar solution and blot dry it, and then measure its
mass with an electronic balance and record it in a table of Results

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

7. Repeat steps 1-6 above, but this time using water and then vinegar.

Task
 Write a full laboratory report and discuss it in details according to the collected results.

LAB 4: TESTING BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES FOR STARCH, LIPIDS, PROTEINS, NON-

REDUCING AND REDUCING SUGARS
Aim

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

 To test for presence of biological Molecules in food samples, non-reducing sugars, reducing
sugars, starches (monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides), lipids and proteins.
Introduction
All biological systems are made up of four major classes of macromolecules and these are the
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are the most abundant
macromolecules on earth, and the source of immediate energy needs in living systems. Carbohydrates
also participate in defining the structure of cells and living systems. There are 3 general chemical
grouping for carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides,
also referred to as simple sugars, are made up of a single sugar molecule. The major example of a
monosaccharide is glucose (C6H12O6). Other monosaccharides include isomers of glucose, such as
fructose and galactose. Monosaccharides are transported in the blood of animals, broken down to
produce chemical energy inside the cell, and can be found within other macromolecules, such as
nucleic acids. Disaccharides are composed of two single monomers of sugar linked together.
Examples of disaccharides are maltose (glucose + glucose) and sucrose (glucose + fructose).
Disaccharides are broken down into their subunits for use inside living systems. Polysaccharides are
polymers, or long chains of sugar monomers linked together, and are stored inside the cell for future
energy use. In plants, the major storage polysaccharide is starch, while in animals it is glycogen.
Plants also contain cellulose, which is the most abundant of all carbohydrates. Cellulose is found in
the plant cell wall, where it provides structure and support to the plant cell. Lipids are nonpolar
macromolecules and because of this, they are insoluble in water. Lipids include oils and fats,
phospholipids, and steroids. Fats and oils are triglycerides, composing of one glycerol and 3 fatty
acids. A fatty acid is a long chain of carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds, with a carboxyl group (-COOH)
at one end. Fatty acids can be classified as saturated or unsaturated. Fatty acids are saturated when
they do not contain any double bonds between the carbons and unsaturated when they contain double
bonds. An example of a saturated fat is butter, while an example of an unsaturated fat is vegetable oil.
Phospholipids are found primarily in cell membranes of living systems, of which they are a major
component. Structurally, a phospholipid contains a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail. The head
of the phospholipid contains a phosphate group while the tail is typically a diglyceride. The cell
membrane is a double layer of phospholipids in which the tails are turned inwards and the heads are
exposed to the intracellular and extracellular environments. Among lipids, there steroids which are
typically made up of fused hydrocarbon rings. Each type of steroid is different in the type of
chemically active functional groups that it contains. Examples of steroids include cholesterol,
estrogen, and testosterone. Cholesterol is found in the cell membrane of animals, where it provides
structural support. Cholesterol is also the precursor for other steroids, such as testosterone and
estrogen. Some vitamins, such as Vitamin D, are also classified as steroids. On the other hand,
proteins are polymers of amino acids. Amino acids are small molecules that contain an amine (-NH2),
a carboxyl acid (-COOH), and a side chain (R). There are twenty naturally occurring amino acids, and
each amino acid has a unique side-chain or R-group. Amino acids are connected by peptide bonds to
form protein polymers. This gives rise to different levels of structure for proteins. The primary (1°)
structure of a protein is made up of a string of amino acids connected via peptide bonds. The
secondary (2°) structure of a protein is formed by the coiling and folding of the 1° structure, due to
hydrogen bonding. At this level, structures called alpha-helices and beta-sheets are visible. The
tertiary (3°) structure of a protein is formed by interactions between the components of the 2°
structure. Some proteins have quaternary (4°) structure, which includes the assembly of multiple
individual subunits to form the functional protein. Proteins have numerous biological functions. The
common types of proteins that are found in biological systems are enzymes, antibodies, transport
proteins, regulatory proteins, and structural proteins.
Apparatus/ Materials

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

a. Cassava, Starch solution (1%), Vegetable oil, Table sugar, Tomato, groundnuts, egg albumen
groundnuts, cassava, table sugar and sample k
b. Iodine solution, Benedict’s reagent, dilute hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide solution,
Biuret reagent, ethanol, distilled water, hot water bath set at (80 °C – 100 °C), timer, 6 test-
tubes, 250 ml beaker, pipettes/droppers, test-tube racks,
Procedure Part A- Preparation of Food Sample Solutions
1. If the food sample to be tested is in solid form (i.e. ground nuts or maize grains), grind crush a
small amount of that food sample using a mortar and pestle.
2. Then after that, put the crushed food sample into a 250 ml beaker to a depth of about 2cm and
fill the same beaker with distilled water up to a quarter full.
3. Shake a mixture in beaker gently and allow it to stand for few minutes to settle sediments.
4. After sediments have settled, get a clear sample solution into a clean 250 ml beaker and label
it for that particular food sample name.
5. If food sample is in fresh form, cut its fruit (fresh) and squeeze out all its juice into a 250 ml
beaker. Alternatively, crush a sample using a mortar & pestle. Then quarter fill a mortar with
water to make a solution and then mix it using a pestle and pour it into a 250 ml beaker.
6. Allow solution to stand for few minutes to let fresh sediments settle and after that, pour out a
clear solution into a clean 250 ml beaker and label the beaker for the food sample used.
7. If a food is in solution form, test it directly, and if concentrated, dilute it using distilled water.
Procedure Part B- Testing for Reducing Sugars
1. Familiarize yourself with all procedural steps and instructions for the testing of reducing
sugar and then set up the water bath at 80 °C to 100 °C.
2. Label the test tubes, and each according to solution of food sample that is prepared in it.
3. Place 2 ml each of solution food sample prepared in a respectively test tube labeled for
particular food sample and then place 2 ml of water in a test tube C which is a control, and
then add 2 ml of Benedict’s reagent to each of the test tubes.
4. Swirl each of the tubes and place the test tubes containing food solutions into the hot water
bath, which is set at 80 °C to 100 °C, and heat for 5 minutes.
5. When heating test tubes in a water bath, keep on observing for initial colour change of testing
reagent (Benedict solution) and record each step of any colour change observed.
6. Remove test tubes from a water bath using a test-tube holder, place them in a test-tube rack,
and then record the observed results in a table of results.

Technical Notice
 If the reducing sugar test comes out negative or no change in colour of benedict’s solution
from blue, to green, yellow, orange and brick red, then do the test for non-reducing sugars.

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

Procedure Part C -Testing for Non-Reducing Sugars

1. Set up the water bath at (80 °C to 100 °C) and then label the test tubes each according to the
solution of food sample that will be prepared in it to be tested for the reducing sugar
2. Prepare a sample solution following the appropriate extraction procedure as indicated above
for steps of sample preparations.
3. Place 2 ml of each solution of food sample prepared into the respective test tube labeled for
that particular food sample solution.
4. Add 3 drops of 0.5M of hydrochloric acid to each of the sample solutions in the test tubes and
heat in water bath for 5 minutes to hydrolyze the non-reducing sugars into reducing.
5. Add 3 drops of 0.5M sodium hydroxide to the mixture. Shake the mixture safely and heat
gently to neutralize the acid from the sample that has become hydrolyzed.
6. Add an equal volume of Benedict’s solution to the test tube containing the food sample that
has become hydrolyzed and neutralized.
7. Heat the mixture in a water bath by boiling gently, while observing colour change from initial
testing reagent (Benedict solution) and record each step of any colour change observed.
8. When heating, observe safety by putting on safety goggles to protect your eyes, and then
using test-tube holder, carefully remove both tubes from a water bath and place them in a test-
tube rack and then record results a similar table like the one showing below.

Procedure Part D -Testing for Starch

1. Label test tubes each according to the solution of food sample that will be tested for starch.
2. Place 2 ml of each food solution sample prepared into respective test tube labeled for a
particular food sample and then place 2 ml of water into test tube C that is a control.
3. Add 2 to 5 drops of iodine solution to each of test tubes including tube C, and swirl them.
4. Observe the colour change from initial colour and then reproduce a similar table of results
like the one showing below on a plain paper and record the results on it.

Procedure Part E- Preparation of Food Sample Solutions

1. If the food sample to be tested is in solid form (i.e. ground nuts or maize grains), grind crush a
small amount of that food sample using a mortar and pestle.

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

2. Then after that, put the crushed food sample into a 250 ml beaker to a depth of about 2cm and
fill the same beaker with distilled water up to a quarter full.
3. Shake the mixture gently and allow it to stand for few minutes to let the sediments settle at
the bottom of the beaker.
4. After sediments have settled, get a clear sample solution into a clean 250 ml beaker and label
it for that particular food sample name.
5. If the food sample is in fresh form, (i.e. orange or tomato), cut the fruit and squeeze out all its
juice in a 250 ml beaker. Alternatively, grind crush the sample using the mortar and pestle
and then fill the mortar with water up to a quarter full to make a solution. Mix the solution
using a pestle, then pour into the 250 ml beaker, and shake further the mixture gently.
6. Allow the solution to stand for few minutes to let the fresh sediments settle and then after
that, pour out a clear solution into a clean 250 ml beaker and label the beaker for that
particular food sample name.
7. If the food is in solution form, test it directly, but if it is concentrated (i.e. egg albumen),
dilute it using distilled water.
Procedure Part F - Testing for Proteins
1. Label the test tubes each according to the solution of food sample that will be prepared into it
to be tested for protein.
2. Add 2 ml of each of food sample solution prepared into the respective test tube containing the
particular food sample solution.
5. After that, add 2 to 10 drops (2 ml) of biuret reagent to each test tube containing food samples
and swirl to mix.
6. Observe the colour change after the addition and record results in the table of results.
7. Dispose of Biuret sample waste in the discard container.
8. Repeat steps 1 to 7 for the unknown solution V and record the results.

Procedure Part G - Testing for Lipids Using Ethanol and Water

1. If the food sample to be tested is in solid form (i.e. ground nuts or maize grains), grind crush a
small amount of that food sample using a mortar and pestle.
2. Label test tubes each according to the solution of food sample that will be prepared into it for
testing of lipids and fats.
3. Put the crushed food sample into a respective labeled test tube to a depth of about 2cm and
then fill the test tube with 95 - 99 % ethanol up to a quarter full of test tubes. Shake the
content of each test tube gently to mix.

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

4. Allow the test tubes to stand for 15 to 20 minutes to let the sediments settle at the bottom of
the test tubes.
5. After sediments have settled, get a clear sample solution from each of the test tubes and
decant into clean test tubes whilst labeling them for the particular food sample name.
6. Then after that, using a pipette, add drops of water to the test tubes one at a time while
observing what is happening. Record the results in the table of results below.
7. Note: If the food sample to be tested is naturally in liquid form like an egg albumen dilute it
a little with water and then after that add drops of ethanol and observe the happenings. Record
also the results in the table of results.
8. Repeat the same steps of the procedure from 1 to 8 and test for the unknown solution V and
the control sample C which is water and record the results in the table of results below.

Task
 Write a full laboratory report and discuss it in details according to the results collected results.

LAB 5: EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE, ENZYME CONCENTRATION, pH AND

SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION ON ENZYME REACTIONS
Aim
 To investigate the effect of temperature, enzyme concentration, pH and substrate concentration
on the rate of enzyme catalyzed reaction.

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

Introduction
Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts. A catalyst is a substance that lowers the
amount of energy necessary for a chemical reaction to occur. By lowering the activation energy, an
enzyme speeds up the rate at which a reaction occurs. In an enzyme-catalyzed reaction, the reactant
(the substance being acted upon) is called the substrate. Substrate molecules combine with enzyme
molecules to form a temporary enzyme–substrate complex. During the reaction, products are then
formed, and the enzyme molecule is then released unchanged. The enzyme molecule is not used up in
the process of a reaction, and is capable of catalyzing the same reaction repeatedly.
In laboratory, factors that affect the activity of biological enzymes such as catalase can be studied.
The enzyme catalase is found in most living organisms and protects cells from toxic effects of
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) which is generated as a by-product of cell metabolism. Enzyme catalase
catalyzes the decomposition of substrate hydrogen peroxide into oxygen gas and water as shown by
the equation: 2H2O2 (g) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)

In a reaction above, the amount of oxygen produced is directly proportional to the rate of enzymatic
reaction. Therefore, measuring the amount of oxygen produced provides a measure of the speed at
which the reaction is proceeding of a catalase enzyme. Catalase is a biological catalyst that is a
common antioxidant enzyme, which is produced naturally in almost all living organisms.
Apparatus/Materials
a. Enzyme catalase source (potato), one at frozen, room and boiled temperatures.
b. Bunsen burner, electronic balance fridge, test tubes, test tube racks, metric rulers, droppers,
water bath, vinegar (acetic acid), 2M Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), graduated cylinders (250 ml,
100 ml and 10 ml) and thermometers.
c. Distilled water, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), Graduated cylinders (250 ml, 100ml, 50 ml and 10
ml) and three 250ml beakers, mortar and pestle, metric ruler and droppers.
Procedure Part A - Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity
1. Collect a 250 ml graduated cylinder and stand it on the laboratory-working bench.
2. Without waiting time, weigh 5g of frozen potato from the fridge and mash it into small pieces.
Note: Don’t waste time to grind the potato using the mortar and pestle as it will get warm and
the results are not going to be consistence.
3. Without wasting time, as the crushed potato is still cold, place its crushed particles into a 250
ml cylinder immediately using a glass rod or spatula in order to push all the pieces inside it.
4. Using a 50 ml cylinder, add 30 ml of hydrogen peroxide into the 250 ml cylinder containing the
frozen mashed potato and immediately without wasting any time, take the initial mark of the
height in the measuring cylinder when hydrogen peroxide is just being poured into the cylinder
while at the same time, also start to measure time for 60 seconds.
5. After 1 minute or 60 seconds, measure the height of bubbles produced using a meter rule. Note:
Height outside the stipulated time should not be taken.
6. Reproduce the same table of results like the one showing below and record the height of
bubbles produced during the reaction.
7. Repeat step 1 to 5 but using the room temperature potato and then, use same steps for the potato
that has been boiled for 10 minutes and record the results in the table of results below.

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

Procedure Part B - Effect of Enzyme Concentration on Enzyme Activity

1. Collect a 250 ml graduated cylinder and stand it on the laboratory-working bench.
2. Using an electronic balance, weigh 5g of fresh potato and crush it using a mortar and pestle.
3. Put all the crushed potato into a 250 ml graduated cylinder and If some pieces of the potato are
holding on the side of the cylinder, use a glass rod to push them down into the cylinder.
4. Use a 50 ml measuring cylinder, measure 30 ml hydrogen peroxide, and pour it into a 250 ml
measuring cylinder containing the crushed potato, and immediately without wasting any of the
time, take initial reading of the height in measuring cylinder when hydrogen peroxide is just
poured in a cylinder, while at a same time start time reading for 60 seconds.
5. After 60 seconds, measure the height of bubbles produced using a meter rule while noting that,
height outside the stipulated time is not considered.
6. Reproduce the same table of results like the one showing below and on it record the height of
bubbles produced during the reaction.
7. Repeat step 1 to 6 using first, 10 g, secondly 15g, thirdly 20g, then 25g and 30g of crushed
potato. Note that, in all cases of grams, use 30ml of hydrogen peroxide.
8. Record results in a table of results and use the results to plot a graph of height of bubbles (mm)
against enzyme concentration (g).

Procedure Part C- Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity

1. To do the procedure of an experiment, first, obtain a 250 ml graduated cylinder
2. Using an electronic balance, weigh 5g of potato and crush it using a mortar and pestle before
putting the crushed potato into a 250 ml graduated cylinder.
3. Measure 30 ml vinegar of pH 2.1 using 100 ml cylinder, and pour it into a 250 ml beaker.
4. Using 100 ml cylinder and measure 30 ml of hydrogen peroxide. Then add it to a 250 ml beaker
containing vinegar.
5. Shake gently the mixture of vinegar and hydrogen peroxide and add it to the cylinder containing
the mashed potato. Immediately take note of time and at the same time the initial height reading
mark of the mixture of vinegar, hydrogen peroxide and potato.
6. After 60 second, measure the final height of bubbles using a meter rule. Note that, the height
outside the 60-second time should not be considered.
7. Reproduce the same table of result as shown below, and on it record results for the height.

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

8. Repeat step 1 to 7, using 30 ml sodium hydroxide pH 13.1 and 30ml hydrogen peroxide. Repeat
also same steps from 1 to 7, but using 30 ml water pH 7 and 30 ml hydrogen peroxide.

Procedure Part D - Effect of Substrate Concentration on Enzyme Activity

1. Collect 50 ml measuring cylinder, and in it prepare different concentrations of hydrogen
peroxide from a 3% hydrogen peroxide stock solution by diluting the stock using different
volumes with distilled water as shown in a table below.

2. Pour each of the percentage prepared into 50 ml beakers and label the beakers according to the
percentage poured in (0%, 0.8%, 1.5%, 2.3% and 3%).
3. Weigh 5g of potato and crush it using a mortar and pestle, and then put the crushed potato into a
250 ml graduated cylinder.
4. Add 30 ml of prepared 0% hydrogen peroxide concentration to the cylinder containing the
crushed potato, and immediately without wasting any time, take the initial mark of the height in
measuring cylinder when 0% hydrogen peroxide concentration is poured in.
5. Immediately after adding hydrogen peroxide to a cylinder, start time for 60 seconds and then
after 1 minute or 60 seconds, measure the height of bubbles as final height using a meter rule.
6. Record the height of bubbles in a table of results as the one showing below:
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 for the remaining concentrations of each of the hydrogen peroxide (0.8%,
1.5%, 2.3% and 3%) and record each of the results in the table of results below.
8. Use results above to plot a graph of height of bubbles against hydrogen peroxide %
concentration.

Task
 Write a full laboratory report and discus it in details according to the collected results.

SELECTED EQUIPMENTS AND APPARATUS TO BE USED IN BIOLOGY LAB

Apparatus and equipments below, will be used in semester one, therefore protect them from damage.

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

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BIO 111 LABOTATORY MANUAL FOR FIRST YEARS

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