Developmental Psychology

PSYCHOMETRICIAN BOARD LICENSURE EXAMINATION

Based on the Table of Specifications and Book

“Experience Human Development, 14th Edition, Papalia and Martorell, 2021”

1. BASICS OF DEVELOPMENT
 Human Development – scientific study of the systematic processes of change and stability in
people.
 Life-Span Development – “from womb to tomb”, comprising the entire human lifespan from
conception to death. Principles of the Life-Span Development Approach:
 Development is Lifelong – development is a life-long process of change; each period is
affected by what happened before and will affect what is to come; each period has unique
characteristics and value; no period is more or less important than any other.
 Development is Multidimensional – it may be biological, psychological, and social – each
of which may develop at varying rates.
 Development is Multidirectional – abilities may be directly proportional to each other or
inversely proportional. Intellect may grow as age grows but learning a new language declines
even as intellect grows. Memory may grow with age up to a certain extent then it will decline
with age.
 Relative Influences of Biology and Culture Shift over the Life Span – development is
influenced by both biology (e.g., muscular strength) and culture (e.g., collectivist), but the
balance between these influence changes. As muscular strength increases in adulthood,
parental care lessens, but as muscular strength decreases in old age, a sense of filial
obligation increases.
 Development Involves Changing Resource Allocation – resources of time, energy, talent,
money, and social support may be used in various ways such as for growth, for maintenance
and recovery, or for dealing with loss when maintenance and recovery are not possible.
 Development Shows Plasticity – development, more specifically, abilities can be improved
significantly with training and practice but the rate of change in terms of improvement and
deterioration depends on the stage or period; these developmental abilities or milestones
take-up relatively different forms or level of proficiency in each of the periods.
 Development is Influenced by the Historical and Cultural Context – development is
affected by the time and place the person is born at or born in.
 Domains of Development – or aspects of the self:
 Physical Development – composed of body and brain growth, sensory capacities, motor
skills, and health.
 Cognitive Development – composed of learning, attention, memory, language, thinking,
reasoning, and creativity.
 Psychosocial or Socioemotional Development – composed of emotions, personality, and
social relationships.
 Social Construction – a concept or practice that is an invention of a particular culture or
society. This means that human life-span development has no objectively definable moment,
such as when we can say that a child becomes an adult or a young person becomes old.
2. PERSPECTIVES ON NATURE AND NURTURE
3. Diathesis-Stress Model – according to this, individuals inherit tendencies to express certain traits or
behaviors, which may then be activated under conditions of stress. When the right kind of life-event, such as
a certain type of stressor, comes along, the disorder develops. In other words, a predisposed genetic
vulnerability may be activated with the right stress and the right amount of this stress from the environment
is experienced. Thus, having a particular vulnerability does not mean you will necessarily develop the
associated disorder. The smaller the vulnerability, the greater the life stress required to produce the disorder;
conversely, with greater vulnerability, less life stress is required.
 Diathesis – is the term used for each inherited tendencies, a condition that makes someone
susceptible to developing a disorder.
 Stress – a life-event that is a trigger for certain diathesis/diatheses.
 Genetic Vulnerability – is represented by the process of Genetic Endowment (Diathesis).
 Environmental Vulnerability – is represented by the process of Stress.
 Genetic Endowment + Stress = Disorder
4. Reciprocal Gene-Environment Model – also called Gene-Environment Correlation Model; genetic
endowment may increase the probability that an individual experience stressful life events, and stressful life
events may lead to the disorder, but such disorder may also lead, in turn, to exacerbate the stressful life
events, and the vicious cycle goes on. A person endowed with a gene associated with depression may (1)
naturally seek out solitude or voluntary exclusion which makes the environment for stress, and then this
environment for stress would lead to the Depression; or a person endowed with a gene associated with
depression may (2) develop Depression directly, and this Depression, in turn, predispose him or her to seek
out the environment for stress like solitude or voluntary exclusion. Either way, it becomes a vicious cycle
where genetic endowment begins the process and either stress or disorder follows in a never-ending
exacerbation of one another.
 Genetic Endowment = Stress = Disorder = Stress = Disorder = …
 Genetic Endowment = Disorder = Stress = Disorder = Stress = …
5. Epigenetics – means “on” or “around” the genes; this is not a model like the Diathesis-Stress Model or the
Reciprocal Gene-environment Model, however this may explain a type of reciprocal relationship between
gene and environment where it is the environment or disorder directly shaping the gene itself. Continuing
from the two equations on the Reciprocal Gene-Environment Model, we beg the question: Can the
reciprocity of Stress-Disorder and Disorder-Stress go as far as the stress or the disorder affecting the genetic
endowment (e.g., Disorder=Stress=Genetic Endowment, or Stress=Disorder=Genetic Endowment)? Yes, to
a certain extent. Although the environment (stress) or depression (disorder) CANNOT change our DNA, it
CAN change the Gene Expression. How? The DNA itself remains the same structurally and positionally,
but the genes are turned on or off depending on the stress from the environment or the disorder. The
variation between which genes are turned on and which genes are turned off and for how long each genes
are turned on or off dictates the activity of the endowed genes. Genetic Endowment is, in itself, inherited, so
it does not change, but the subsequent selective turning on or off of the genes within that endowment makes
it possible for a reciprocal gene-environment environment-gene model to that extent. The genome itself is
not changed, so if the stressful or inadequate environment disappears, eventually the epigenome will fade.
 Genetic Endowment = Stress = Disorder = On or Off of Genes = Stress = …
 Genetic Endowment = Disorder = Stress = On or Off of Genes = Disorder = …
6. Nongenomic Inheritance – this is also not a model, like Epigenetics this is only an extension or further
studies or proposals to the old models. Nongenomic inheritance literally means that behavior, personality,
and many more are majorly dictated by the environment and not by genes as overly emphasized in
Diathesis-Stress Model and in Reciprocal Gene-Environment Model (although in Diathesis-Stress Model
both may be held in equal importance). In other words, environment is a more powerful force than genes.
Though genetic endowment is acknowledged, its role is downgraded to merely an initial genetic make-up
for the offspring but does not dictate how the offspring will grow to be. This role is decided for by the
 environment. Nongenomic inheritance is the term because proponents posit that the environment can also be
inherited and appears to be more powerful than genes, such as when a child who is genetically predisposed
to alcoholism is reared by a non-alcoholic mother actually grows to be nonalcoholic.
 Nongenomic Endowment > Genetic Endowment
 Nongenomic Endowment = Stress or No Stress = Disorder or No Disorder
7. Definition, Role, Influence, and Characteristics of Environment and Heredity (much of these are still
debated up until today)
8. Heredity
 Definition: Heredity can be conceptualized as the genetic roll of the dice. It consists of the inborn
traits and characteristics provided by a child’s biological parents. Heredity and Biological process
are works of “Nature”.
 Role: Genetic Endowment, to give each person a start in life.
 Influence: The influence of heredity is actually straightforward. It creates one’s genetic make-up
which results to how a person looks genotypically and phenotypically.
 Characteristics: These are just some characteristics that pertain to environment, most of it are self-
explanatory.
 Genotype – the genetic make-up of an organism such as genes, alleles, variants, among
others.
 Phenotype – an individual’s observable traits such as height, eye color, and blood type,
among others.
 Sex – primary and secondary sex characteristics are genetically predetermined such as penis
and vagina, testosterone, progesterone, and estrogen, among others, but they can be modified
environmentally, so it is also up for discussion. But in the initial unmodified make-up of
these characteristics, they are hereditary.
 Natural Developmental Unfolding – such as puberty, menopause, among others. Aging is a
debatable characteristic, and may be both attributed to both natural unfolding and
environmental product.
9. Environment
 Definition: Environment is the space of potential influence from outside the body, starting at
conception with the prenatal environment in the womb and continuing throughout life.
Environmental influences are works of “Nurture”.
 Role: Rearing, Nurturance, Honing, Cater, etc.
 Influence: Environment can take many forms. Some may be working more dominantly than the
other but definitely no one element is exclusively forming a person. These are just some ways that
the environment may influence the person, most of it are self-explanatory.
 Family – begins with a Nuclear Family consisting of two parents and their children, whether
biological, adopted, or stepchildren. Extended Family is multigenerational network of
relatives, this is the traditional family form. Supportive or unsupportive parenting, familial
discord or harmony, sufficient or insufficient rearing, supervision or lenience, etc. all affect
the development of a person.
 Socioeconomic Status – poverty or affluence, political power or peripheral living, etc. all
affect the development of a person; however, it does not mean that affluent people are more
likely to live happily or live to a brighter future, it highly depends on other environmental
influence. For example, if the person has an affluent socioeconomic status but have a
demographic location within an illegal drug black market, then that person may be likely to
become addicted to drugs and thus live poorly.
  Culture, Race, Ethnicity – is a society or groups total way of life. Collectivist or
individualist, traditional or contemporary, free or not free, united or fragmented, etc. all
affect the development of a person.
 Demographic Location – safe or not, conducive or not, aggressive or not, calm or not, etc.
all affect the development of a person.
 Education – educated or not, learned or not, knowledgeable or not, etc. all affect the
development of a person.
 Characteristics that Pertain to Environment: These are just some characteristics that pertain to
environment, most of it are self-explanatory.
 People – around the person, such as parents, family, friends, coworkers, among others.
 Resources – used or can be used by the person, available or not, such as house, education,
basic or instrumental necessities, leisure, time, among others.
 Aspirations – that motivate the person such as dreams, goals, visions, ideals, among others.
 Challenges – in the years of living, such as trials, tribulations, stress, tensions, conflicts,
punishments, learning.
 Values – instilled or effected on the person, such as proper or improper rearing, patience,
positive reinforcement, unconditional positive regard, negative values such as
temperamental, aggression, among others.
10. RESEARCH METHODS IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
11. What Makes a Theory Useful? Generates Research, Falsifiable, Organizes Data, Guides Action, Internally
Consistent, and Parsimonious
12. General Research Designs (these are not focused on Developmental Psychology but they may come out in
the board exams; there is no one strict category of research designs, this is just a consolidation, and for
convenience let us categorize them into qualitative and quantitative)
 Qualitative Research Designs – relies on words instead of numbers and focuses on self-reports,
personal narratives, and expression of ideas, memories, feelings, and thoughts. Qualitative Research
is used to study phenomena that are contextual, meaning they cannot be understood without the
context in which they appear. The most important measure of the goodness of a qualitative study is
whether others can reproduce its findings. Qualitative Designs are non-experimental designs
(sometimes called descriptive studies), which means that we do not manipulate treatment conditions
(variables are not manipulated). Under this approach are: Phenomenological, Case Studies, Field
Studies, Archival Studies, and Qualitative Research.
 Phenomenology – is the description of an individual’s immediate experience. In simple
terms, it is an approach to research that “seeks to describe the essence of a phenomenon by
exploring it from the perspective of those who have experienced it”. It describes an
individual’s immediate experience and uses personal experience as the source of data.
 Goal of Phenomenology: to describe the meaning of this experience—both in terms
of what was experienced and how it was experienced.
 Downsides of Phenomenology: (1) No manipulation, no objectivity for statements.
(2) Cannot be generalized nor replicated.
 Case Studies – provide a descriptive record of a single individual’s experiences, behaviors,
or both, kept by an outside observer. It is an exploratory study of an existing situation as a
means of creating and testing a hypothesis; a type of research performed in detail on a single
individual, group, incident or community, as opposed to, for instance, a sample of the whole
population. This technique has been extensively used by clinical psychology, forensic
psychology, and organizational psychology.
  Upsides of Case Studies: (1) They are a source of inferences, hypotheses, and
theories. (2) They are a source for developing therapy techniques. (3) They allow for
the study of rare phenomena. (4) They proceed exceptions, or counter instances, to
accepted ideas, theories, or practices. (5) They have persuasive and motivational
value.
 Downsides of Case Studies: (1) Working with one or few subjects may not be a
representative of the general population. (2) We may not be aware of all the relevant
aspects of a person’s life if we are not able to directly observe him/her all the time.
(3) Subjects or other sources of information may neglect to mention important
information because they believe it is either irrelevant or embarrassing. (4) It relies on
Retrospective Data (data collected in the present based on recollections of past
events). (5) No causation.
 Field Studies – are non-experimental approaches used in real-life settings and often combine
several data collection methods.
 Downside of Field Studies: No manipulation (but the degree of constraint varies
considerably from study to study)
Types of Field Studies:
 Naturalistic Observation – is a technique of observing behaviors as they occur
spontaneously in natural settings (is done because lab settings distort behavior).
characterized by being inconspicuous and unobtrusive (ex. One-way mirrors). There
is an attempt on the part of the researchers to remain as inconspicuous as possible by
staying out of sight and blending in the environment - this is done so that behavior
being observed are not altered by the presence of the observer.
 Participant Observer – the researcher joins the group that is studied - the researcher
actually becomes part of the group being studied. The researcher may interact with
subjects as well as observe them to obtain information. This type of field study is
often the only way to study groups, especially if the group being studied is unwilling
and uncooperative. Group members are not informed that they are part of the study
because this could either: lead to a change in the subjects’ behavior (see Hawthorne
effect), or ousted, or worse. Can be used to study issues that are difficult to study (ex.
Homelessness and poverty).
 Archival Studies – is a study method that examines existing records, or archival data, to
obtain data and test hypotheses about the causes of behavior; where already existing records
are reexamined for a new purpose. Information gathered from archival data can be used to
analyze social trends or to gather information about population subgroups.
 Quantitative Research Design – aimed at discovering how many people think, act, or feel in a
specific way.
 Survey Research Design – participants are asked to respond to a series of questions about a
range of topics, broad or specific. Survey researchers ask their subjects (who are called
respondents in survey research) to reflect specifically about their own opinions, feelings, and
behaviors. Two most common survey techniques: written survey questionnaires, and face-to-
face interviews.
 Correlational Design – where no independent variables are manipulated; where two or more
variables are measured and a relationship is then established; and, it does not show causality.
Correlation does not imply causation.
  Quasi-Experimental Design – a type of research design that attempts to establish a cause-
and-effect relationship but the main difference with a true experiment is that the groups are
not randomly assigned, but the researcher still manipulates an independent variable.
 Ex Post Facto Study – (Ex post facto, meaning “after the fact”) is a study in which
the researcher systematically examines the effects of subject characteristics but
without manipulating them (means that the researcher makes use of changes in the
antecedent conditions that occurred BEFORE the study); the researcher forms
treatment groups by selecting subjects on the basis of differences that already exist; it
explores characteristics, behaviors, or effects of naturally occurring events in
preexisting groups of subjects.
 Longitudinal Studies – measure the same group of subjects at several points in time
to see how things have changed - this has more to do with time and how it influences
behavior as opposed to how different behaviors are related.
 Cross-sectional Studies – select groups of subjects who are already at different
stages and compare them at a single point in time; meaning this design uses different
groups of individuals, each group representing a different age - the different groups
are measured at one point in time and then compared.
 Pretest/Posttest Design – explores the effects of an event (or treatment) by
comparing behavior before and after the event (or treatment). It can be used to assess
effects of natural occurring events when it is not possible to conduct a true
experiment, or it can also be used in the laboratory to measure the effect of a
treatment presented to subjects by researchers.
 Experimental Design – the goal of such design is to manipulate possible values of the
independent variable, and observe behavioral changes as indexed by the values of the
dependent variable. This design is characterized by its random assignment of its subjects to
their respective research groups. In this design, a causal relationship between the independent
and dependent variables can be established.
13. Research Designs in Human Development (there are a lot of classifications to research methods and
research designs, but the following are the classifications based on time or the order by which research is
done)
 Cross-Sectional Design – Remember: (1) Cross-Sectional Design can measure differences between
age at one point in time. This is used to examine behavior in participants of different ages who are
tested at the same point in time.

Let’s suppose that researchers are interested in the relationship between intelligence and aging.
They might have a hypothesis that intelligence declines as people get older. The researchers might
choose to give a particular intelligence test to individuals who are 20 years old, individuals who are
50 years old, and individuals who are 80 years old at the same time and compare the data from each
age group. This research is cross-sectional in design because the researchers plan to examine the
intelligence scores of individuals of different ages within the same study at the same time; they are
 taking a “cross-section” of people at one point in time. Let’s say that the comparisons find that the
80-year-old adults score lower on the intelligence test than the 50-year-old adults, and the 50-year-
old adults score lower on the intelligence test than the 20-year-old adults. Based on these data, the
researchers might conclude that individuals become less intelligent as they get older. Would that be a
valid (accurate) interpretation of the results?
No, that would not be a valid conclusion because the researchers did not follow individuals as
they aged from 20 to 50 to 80 years old. One of the primary limitations of cross-sectional research is
that the results yield information about age differences not necessarily changes over time. That is,
although the study described above can show that the 80-year-olds scored lower on the intelligence
test than the 50-year-olds, and the 50-year-olds scored lower than the 20-year-olds, the data used for
this conclusion were collected from different individuals (or groups). It could be, for instance, that
when these 20-year-olds get older, they will still score just as high on the intelligence test as they did
at age 20. Similarly, maybe the 80-year-olds would have scored relatively low on the intelligence
test when they were young; the researchers don’t know for certain because they did not follow the
same individuals as they got older.
 Cohort Effects – are variations over time, in one or more characteristics, among groups of
individuals defined by some shared experience such as year or decade of birth, or years of a
specific exposure.
 Longitudinal Design – Remember: (1) Longitudinal Design can measure changes and/or stability
with age over time (multiple points in time). This involves beginning with a group of people who
may be of the same age and background (cohort) and measuring them repeatedly over a long period
of time. One of the benefits of this type of research is that people can be followed through time and
be compared with themselves when they were younger; therefore, changes with age over time are
measured. What would be the advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal research? Problems with
this type of research include being expensive, taking a long time, and subjects dropping out over
time.

Longitudinal research designs are used to examine behavior in the same individuals over
time. For instance, with our example of studying intelligence and aging, a researcher might conduct
a longitudinal study to examine whether 20-year-olds become less intelligent with age over time. To
this end, a researcher might give an intelligence test to individuals when they are 20 years old, again
when they are 50 years old, and then again when they are 80 years old. This study is longitudinal in
nature because the researcher plans to study the same individuals as they age. Based on these data,
the pattern of intelligence and age might look different than from the cross-sectional research; it
might be found that participants’ intelligence scores are higher at age 50 than at age 20 and then
remain stable or decline a little by age 80. How can that be when cross-sectional research revealed
declines in intelligence with age?
Since longitudinal research happens over a period of time (which could be short term, as in
months, but is often longer, as in years), there is a risk of attrition.
 Attrition – occurs when participants fail to complete all portions of a study. Participants may
move, change their phone numbers, die, or simply become disinterested in participating over
time. Researchers should account for the possibility of attrition by enrolling a larger sample
into their study initially, as some participants will likely drop out over time. There is also
something known as selective attrition.
  Selective Attrition – this means that certain groups of individuals may tend to drop out. It is
often the least healthy, least educated, and lower socioeconomic participants who tend to
drop out over time. That means that the remaining participants may no longer be
representative of the whole population, as they are, in general, healthier, better educated, and
have more money. This could be a factor in why our hypothetical research found a more
optimistic picture of intelligence and aging as the years went by.
 Practice Effect – occur when participants become better at a task over time because they
have done it again and again (not due to natural psychological development). So, our
participants may have become familiar with the intelligence test each time (and with the
computerized testing administration).
 Cohort Limitation – is another limitation of longitudinal design, the data is only limited to
one cohort (a group of people with a shared characteristic). There is no way of finding if
results would be different from other cohorts, so we cannot compare a cohort of 20 year-olds
and a cohort of 40 year-olds.
 Sequential Design – Remember: Sequential designs can measure (1) changes and/or stability with
age over time (longitudinal), (2) differences between age (cross-sectional), and (3) cohort groups
over time (same age over time). designs include elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional
research designs. Similar to longitudinal designs, sequential research features participants who are
followed over time; similar to cross-sectional designs, sequential research includes participants of
different ages. This research design is also distinct from those that have been discussed previously in
that individuals of different ages are enrolled into a study at various points in time to examine age-
related changes, development within the same individuals as they age, and to account for the
possibility of cohort and/or time of measurement effects.

Consider, once again, our example of intelligence and aging. In a study with a sequential
design, a researcher might recruit three separate groups of participants (Groups A, B, and C). Group
A would be recruited when they are 20 years old in 2010 and would be tested again when they are 50
and 80 years old in 2040 and 2070, respectively (similar in design to the longitudinal study described
previously). Group B would be recruited when they are 20 years old in 2040 and would be tested
again when they are 50 years old in 2070. Group C would be recruited when they are 20 years old in
2070, and so on.
14. Ethical Considerations in Various Research Methods
 General Ethical Considerations
 American Psychological Association – provides guidelines or standards in research informed
consent:
 Psychologists use language that is reasonably understandable.
 Psychologists inform participants that they are free to participate, to decline, or to withdraw
from the research.
 When dealing with students/subordinates, special care be given to protect participants.
  For persons who are legally incapable (below 18 yrs. old), obtain appropriate permission
from authorized person/s.
 Open and Honest – the characterization of the relationship between researchers and participant.
 Deception – not allowed unless researchers have determined that the use of deceptive technique is
justified by the study’s prospective scientific, educational, & applied value; Psychologists never
deceive participants about significant aspects that would affect their willingness to participate, such
as: physical risks, discomfort, or unpleasant emotional experiences. If deception is an integral feature
of the design & conduct of the experiment, explanation be given at the conclusion of their
participation, not later.
 Principle of Full Disclosure – completely debriefing subjects at the end of the experiment – that is
explaining the true nature and purpose of the study. Example: On the experiment on the effect of
violent pornography, men who had not yet been debriefed showed significantly more accepting
attitudes about the “rape myth” than those who received extensive debriefings
 Anonymity and Confidentiality – to protect the privacy of the participants; data should be collected
anonymously & identified only by code numbers; no need to identify by names; it is the use of
aggregated or group data where results are reported as “average scores” for each treatment group;
data collected must be kept confidential (be used only for its purpose).
 Fraud – happens when researchers publish false data. It is an ethical matter, reporting on research
honestly and accurately is a necessary part of the scientific process. Includes Data Falsification and
Plagiarism, among others. How to avoid fraud in research?
 Peer Review – done before studies can be accepted for publications, to be evaluated by
experts.
 Attempt to Replicate – attempt to replicate published findings because if data have been
falsified, it is unlikely that the experiment will be successfully replicated (if findings are
novel, surprising, or important, then there should be the interest or intent to replicate).
 Plagiarism – is a common kind of fraud. It means to represent someone else’s ideas, words, or
written work as your own. Borrowing facts & figures from someone else, without giving proper
credit. It can be intentional or simple oversights. Give authors credit for direct quotations used. Even
in paraphrasing, without giving credit, one must always recognize the source, since it is still not your
own idea.
15. Cross Sectional Versus Longitudinal Studies
16. DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
17. Typical Major Developments in Eight Periods of Human Development (note: this is a social construct of
life-span development generally accepted in Western industrial societies)
Age Period Physical Cognitive Psychosocial/Socioemotional

1. Prenatal Period Fertilization Learning Mother

(Conception to Rapid Physical Growth Remembering
Birth) Responding

2. Infancy and Body Systems Learning Parents and Others

Toddlerhood Operation Remembering Other Children
(Birth to 3) Senses Operation Problem Solving Self-awareness
Brain Complexity Language Independence/Autonomy
Rapid Motor Skills Comprehension
3. Early Childhood Steady Physical Egocentric Thinking Self-Concept. Self-Esteem,
(3 to 6) Growth Illogical Ideas and Self-Control
Diminished Appetite Memory and Language Complex Emotions
Sleep Problems Intelligence Independence, Initiative
Handedness Preschool and Gender Identity
Fine and Gross Motor Kindergarten Social Play
Skills Altruism, Aggression, and
Strength Fearfulness

4. Middle Slow Growth Diminished Complex Self-Concept

Childhood Athletic Skills Egocentrism Coregulation
(6 to 11) Common Respiratory Logical Concrete Peers Assume Central
Illnesses Thinking Importance
Healthiest Stage to be Memory and Language
Alive Formal Schooling
Special Education
Needs

5. Adolescence Profound Physical Abstract Thinking Sexual Identity Search

(11 to 20) Growth Scientific Reasoning Parents
Reproductive Maturity Education in Peer Group
Major Health Risks due Preparation for College
to Behavioral Issues or Vocation

6. Emerging and Physical Condition Complex Thoughts Stable Personality

Young Adulthood Peak Complex Moral Intimate Relationships
(20 to 40) Major Health Risks due Judgments Personal Lifestyles
to Lifestyle Choices Educational and Marriage or Parenting
Occupational Choices

7. Middle Sensory Abilities Mental Abilities Peak Midlife Transition

Adulthood Deterioration Quality Outputs Dual Responsibilities
(40 to 65) Health, Stamina, and Career Success Peak Parenting Stress
Strength Deterioration Earning Power Peak Children Launching
Menopause for Women Burnout or Career
Change

8. Late Adulthood Physical Abilities Intelligence Retirement

(65 and over) Deterioration Deteriorates Personal Losses
General Health Memory Deteriorates Impending Death
Deteriorates Family and Close Friends
Reaction Time Slowing Support
Search for Meaning in Life

 Prenatal Period (Conception to Birth) – where physical growth is the most rapid and greatly
influenced by both genetic endowment (nature) and environmental influences (nurture), as well as
 any environmental vulnerabilities; learning, remembering, and responding to sensory stimuli is
heightened; and, fetus responds to mother’s voice and develop a preference for it.
 Physical Growth – is most rapid in this stage, and is the highlight of this stage
 Genetic Endowment and Environmental Influences, Sensory Stimuli Responses, and
Fetus-Mother Relationship – is the highlight of this stage.
 Infancy and Toddlerhood (Birth to Age 3) – where all senses and body systems operate at varying
degrees; brain rapidly grows in complexity; general motor skills rapidly develop; problem solving
and the use of symbol may be observed; comprehension and use of language may also be present;
attachments to parents, family, and other children is apparent; self-awareness develops; and, a
shifting from dependence to autonomy happens.
 Physical Growth – is more concentrated on brain growth.
 Motor Skills Development and Language and Comprehension – highlights of this stage.
 Early Childhood (Ages 3 to 6) – where there is steady physical growth; diminished appetite and
sleep problems are common; handedness, fine motor skills, gross motor skills, and strength develop;
there is egocentric thinking but understanding of other’s perspective is developing; memory and
language improves; intelligence becomes predictable; kindergarten or preschool setting schooling
may be experienced; play becomes elaborate, more imaginative, and more social; family is still the
center of social interaction but other children become more important; and, self-concept, self-esteem,
self-control, complex emotions, independence, initiative, altruism, aggression, fearfulness, and
gender identity develops or is common.
 Physical Growth – steady in this stage.
 Handedness – the tendency to be more skilled and comfortable using one hand instead of the
other for tasks such as writing or throwing a ball.
 Gross Motor Skills – skills involving large muscle movements such as independent sitting,
crawling, walking, or running.
 Fine Motor Skills – skills involving use of smaller muscles such as grasping an object,
manipulation, or drawing.
 Handedness, Egocentrism, Predictable Intelligence, Pre-education, Play, and Self-
Concept – highlights of this stage.
 Middle Childhood (Ages 6 to 11) – where slowing of growth occurs; strength and athletic skills
improve; respiratory illnesses are common but health is generally better than at any other time in the
life span; egocentrism diminishes; logical but concrete thinking arises; memory and language skills
increase; cognitive gains permit children to benefit from formal schooling; some children show
special educational needs and strengths; self-concept becomes more complex as to affect self-
esteem; coregulation is seen; and, peers assume central importance.
 Physical Growth – slowing in this stage.
 Health – healthiest in this stage than any other stage across the life-span.
 Coregulation – in this stage, means gradual shift in control from parents to child.
 Logical and Concrete Thinking, Basic Education, Coregulation, and Peer Centrality –
highlights of this stage.
 Adolescence (Ages 11 to about 20) – where rapid and profound physical growth happens, along
with reproductive maturity; major health risk arise dure to behavioral issues such as drug use and or
eating disorders; abstract thinking and scientific reasoning develops; immature thinking persists in
some attitudes and behaviors; education focuses on preparation for college or vocation; there is
search for identity, including sexual identity, becomes central; relationships with parents are
generally good; and, peer group may exert a positive or negative influence.
 Physical Growth – profound in this stage.
  Reproductive Maturity, Sexual Identity Search, Abstract Thinking, and Scientific
Reasoning – highlights of this stage.
 Emerging and Young Adulthood (Ages 20 to 40) – where physical condition peaks, then declines
slightly; lifestyle choices influence health; thought and moral judgments become more complex;
educational and occupational choices are made, sometimes after period of exploration; personality
traits and styles become relatively stable, but changes in personality may be influenced by life stages
and events; intimate, but not necessarily lasting, relationships and personal lifestyles are established;
and, where most people marry or become parents.
 Physical Growth – peaks in this stage.
 Moral Judgment, Occupation, Higher Education, Marriage, and Parenting – highlights
of this stage.
 Middle Adulthood (Ages 40 to 65) – where there is the beginning of slow deterioration of sensory
abilities, health, stamina, and strength, and women experience menopause; mental abilities peak and
practical and problem-solving skills are high; creative output may decline but improve in quality;
there is career success and peak in earning power, burnout and career change may also occur; sense
of identity continues and midlife transition may occur; dual responsibilities of caring for children
and parents may cause stress; and, where launching of children leaves empty nest.
 Physical Growth – slowly deteriorates in this stage.
 Sensory Abilities – starts deteriorating in this stage.
 Mental Abilities – peaks in this stage.
 Peak Mental Abilities, Career Success, Earning Power, Menopause, and Launching of
Children – highlights of this stage.
 Late Adulthood (Age 65 and over) – where most people are healthy and active, although health
and physical abilities generally decline; slowing of reaction time affects some aspects of
functioning; most people are mentally alert although intelligence and memory may deteriorate in
some areas but most people find ways to compensate; retirement from workforce may occur and
may offer new options for use of time; people develop more flexible strategies to cope with personal
losses and impending death; relationships with family and close friends can provide important
support; and, where the search for meaning in life assumes central importance.
 Physical Growth – fully deteriorates in this stage leading to incapacity or death.
 Physical Abilities – starts to deteriorate in this stage.
 Full Deterioration of Sensory and Physical Abilities, Retirement, Death, and Search for
the Meaning of Life – highlights of this stage.
18. Theoretical Perspectives
 Psychodynamic Perspective – development is influenced by early childhood experience and
relationship with parents; unconscious forces are most important; and, neurosis results from
unhealthy moving toward, against, or away from others.
 Key Terms: Unconscious, Early Recollections, Collective Unconscious, Archetypes, Object-
Relations, Identity Crises, Relatedness, etc.
 Key Theorists: Freud, Adler, Jung, Klein, Horney, Erikson, and Fromm.
 Humanistic-Existential Perspective – currently known as Positive Psychology, people strive to live
meaningful and happy lives; people are motivated by growth and psychological health; and,
development is shaped by freedom of choice, response to anxiety, and awareness of death.
 Key Terms: Meaningful Life, Psychological Well-Being and Growth, etc.
 Key Theorists: Maslow, Rogers, and May.
 Dispositional Perspective – people are predisposed to behave in unique and consistent ways; they
have unique traits; and, there are five trait dimensions in human personality development.
 Key Terms: Traits, Motives, etc.
  Key Theorists: Allport and McCrae & Costa.
 Evolutionary/Sociobiological Perspective – also called Biological/Evolutionary Perspective; the
foundation for thought and behavior is biological and genetic forces; and, human thought and
behavior have been shaped by evolutionary forces (natural and sexual selection).
 Key Terms: Brain Structures, Neurochemicals, Genes, Adaptive Mechanisms, etc.
 Key Theorists: Eysenck, Buss, etc.
 Learning Perspective – also called Learning-Social Cognitive Perspective; only explanation for
behavior is the conditions that create behavior; learning occurs through association and
consequences of our behavior; learning also occurs through succeeding or failing and watching other
people succeed or fail at tasks; personality develops as an interaction between internal and external
characteristics of the person; and, the cognitive constructs we develop to perceive the world and
others mold our personalities.
 Key Terms: Conditioned Responses, Shaping, Reinforcement, Observational Learning,
Modeling Self-Efficacy, Cognitive-Affective Units, Constructs, etc.
 Key Theorists: Skinner, Bandura, Rotter, Mischel, and Kelly.
 Cognitive Perspective – qualitative changes in thought occur with development and children are
active initiators of development; social interaction is central to cognitive development; and, human
beings are processors of symbols.
 Key Terms: Cognitive Stages, Sociocultural Influence, Information-Processing, etc.
 Key Theorists: Piaget, Vygotsky, and Miller.
 Contextual Perspective – development occurs through interaction between a developing person and
five surrounding, interlocking contextual systems of influences.
 Key Terms: Systems, et c.
 Key Theorist: Bronfenbrenner
19. Psychosexual Theory by Freud
 Sigismund “Sigmund” Freud – born March or May 6, 1856. The primary theorist of
Psychoanalytic Theory. Proposed a staged theory and believes in qualitative change.
 Sex and Aggression – are the twin cornerstones of psychoanalysis.
 Mother and Son Relationship – Freud was very close to his mother which made him think that this
relationship is the most perfect and most free from ambivalence.
 The Death of Julius – Freud was hostile toward his younger brother Julius, which led to him
wishing for his brother’s death. Julius died and Freud became guilty. He then later realized that it
was not him who caused the death, and that his hostility was the normal unconscious effect of being
a first-born.
 Levels of Mental Life – explains mental images according to their topography or location.
 Unconscious Level – all those drives, urges, or instincts that are beyond our awareness but
that nevertheless motivate most of our words, feelings, and actions.
 Unconscious Proper and Preconscious – the two levels of Unconscious
 Repression – the forcing of unwanted, anxiety-ridden experiences into the
unconscious as a defense against the pain of that anxiety. Suppression leads to
Anxiety and Anxiety leads to Repression.
 Phylogenetic Endowment – inherited unconscious images, similar to Jung’s
Collective Unconscious.
 The difference between Phylogenetic Endowment and Collective Unconscious:
Whereas Jung placed primary emphasis on the collective unconscious, Freud relied
on the notion of inherited dispositions only as a last resort. That is, when explanations
built on individual experiences were not adequate, Freud would turn to the idea of
collectively inherited experiences to fill in the gaps left by individual experiences.
  Preconscious – whose contents come from two sources:
 Conscious Perception – which happens when the conscious focus of attention
shifts to another idea.
 Preconscious Images – which happens when ideas that are anxiety-filled are
disguised from the Unconscious.
 Consciousness Level – plays a relatively minor role in psychoanalytic. It is the only level of
mental life directly available to us. Its contents come from two sources:
 Perceptual Conscious – which is responsible for the things that we perceive through
the sense that are not too threatening.
 Internal Mental Structure – which is represented by disguised forms from the
Unconscious and Preconscious.
 Provinces of the Mind – whereas the Levels of Mental Life explains mental images according to
their topography or location but the Provinces of the Mind explains mental images according to their
structural function or purposes. These are das Es (it), das Ich (I), and das Uber-Ich (Over-I), or the
Id, Ego, and Superego, respectively.
 The Id – serves the Pleasure Principle. Strives constantly to reduce tension by satisfying
basic desires. Illogical and have no consideration for what is possible (ego) and what is
proper (superego). Sole region that is fully unconscious. Operates through the Primary
Process to satisfy basic drives and depends on the Secondary Process which is operated by
the ego in order for it to be brought to the external world.
 The Ego – serves the Reality Principle. Becomes the decision-making or executive branch
of personality. Sole region that has contact with the external world, but operates on all three
levels of mental life.
 The Superego – emerges at about 5 or 6 years of age. Serves the Moralistic or Idealistic
Principle. Has two subsystems: Conscience and Ego-Ideal.
 Conscience – results from experiences with punishments for improper behavior and tells us what
we should not do. Doing what we should not do leads to Guilt.
 Ego-Ideal – develops from experiences with rewards for proper behavior and tells us what we
should do. Not doing what we should do leads to Inferiority.
 Drives – from the German word Trieb, meaning it is motivational force or stimulus within the
person and cannot be avoided through flight as with external forces. Freud’s translators initially used
the word “Instinct”. Every basic drive is characterized by an Impetus, a Source, an Aim, and an
Object.
 Impetus – is the amount of force the Drive exerts.
 Source – is the region of the body in a state of excitation or tension.
 Aim – is to seek pleasure by removing that excitation or reducing the tension.
 Object – is the person or thing that serves as the means through which the aim is satisfied.
The types of Drives are Sex or Eros, and Aggression, Distraction, Thanatos:
 Sex or Eros Drive – uses the libido as the psychic energy. Can be satisfied through the
genitals, mouth, anus, and other Erogenous Zones. The ultimate aim of sexual drive is the
reduction of sexual tension. Forms of sex or Eros include: Narcissism, Love, Sadism, and
Masochism.
 Erogenous Zones – parts of the body that are capable of producing sexual pleasures.
 Narcissism – love for self.
 Primary Narcissism – universal; when a person’s libido is invested primarily
on their own ego, and is common among infants.
 Secondary Narcissism – not universal.
  Love – which develops when people invest their libido on an object or person other
than themselves.
 Aim-inhibited Love – is the result after children represses their sexual love
for their mother and family members.
 Aggression, Distraction, or Thanatos Drive – the aim of this drive is to return the
organismic state to an inorganismic state. Meaning, it would lead to death or self-destruction.
Like with the sexual drive, aggression is flexible and can take a number of forms, such as
teasing, gossip, sarcasm, humiliation, humor, and the enjoyment of other people’s suffering.
 Anxiety – a felt, affective, unpleasant state accompanied by a physical sensation that warns the
person against impending danger. The ego’s dependence on the id results in neurotic anxiety; its
dependence on the superego produces moral anxiety; and its dependence on the outer world leads to
realistic anxiety.
 Neurotic Anxiety – is defined as apprehension about an unknown danger that originates
from past traumas or punishments. The feeling itself exists in the ego, but it originates from
id impulses.
 Moral Anxiety – stems from the conflict between the ego and the superego, especially when
a child is struggling to resist sexual temptations or after failing to behave consistently with
what is considered morally right, such as caring for aging parents. After children establish a
superego—usually by the age of 5 or 6—they may experience anxiety as an outgrowth of the
conflict between realistic needs and the dictates of their superego.
 Realistic Anxiety – closely related to fear but it is not fear. It is defined as an unpleasant,
nonspecific feeling involving a possible danger. It involves real objective possible danger but
no specific fearful object or occurrence as what happens with fear. For example, driving in a
busy highway and becoming anxious of what accident might possibly happen is a realistic
anxiety, but as long as the vehicle does not begin sliding down the highway, it cannot be
considered as fear.
 Defense Mechanisms – used by the person to avoid dealing directly with sexual and aggressive
implosives and to defend itself against the anxiety that accompanies them. Note: there are many
more defense mechanisms, these are just some of it.
 Repression – the most basic, it forces threatening feelings into the unconscious.
 Reaction Formation – adopting a disguise that is directly opposite its original form. One of
the ways in which a repressed impulse may become conscious; can be identified by its
exaggerated character and by its obsessive and compulsive form.
 Displacement – people can redirect their unacceptable urges onto a variety of people or
objects so that the original impulse is disguised or concealed.
 Fixation – when the prospect of taking the next step becomes too anxiety provoking, the ego
may resort to the strategy of remaining at the present, more comfortable psychological stage;
is the permanent attachment of the libido onto an earlier, more primitive stage of
development. The key difference between fixation and regression is that fixation means you
are not switching between developmental stages, you are just attaching yourself to a present
stage, unable to move on, while regression involves going back to an earlier stage.
 Regression – once the libido has passed a developmental stage, it may, during times of stress
and anxiety, revert back to that earlier stage.
 Projection – which can be defined as seeing in others unacceptable feelings or tendencies
that actually reside in one’s own unconscious. An extreme type of Projection is Paranoia.
 Introjection – is a defense mechanism whereby people incorporate positive or negative
qualities of another person into their own ego.
  Sublimation – is the repression of the genital aim of Eros by substituting a cultural or social
aim. The sublimated aim is expressed most obviously in creative cultural accomplishments
such as art, music, and literature, but more subtly, it is part of all human relationships and all
social pursuits.
 Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development – Infantile Stage (4 or 5 years/ 6 years), Latency
Stage (6 or 7 years/ up to 12 years of age), Genital Stage (Puberty/ 12 and above), Maturity (rest of
life).
 Infantile Period – infants possess a sexual life and go through a period of pregenital sexual
development during the first 4 or 5 years (some sources say 6 years) after birth. Children do
it in an autoerotic way, meaning, they take pleasure in themselves. Composed of the Oral
Phase, Anal Phase, Phallic Phase.
 Oral Phase – (12-18 months) Freud’s first infantile stage. Infants obtain life-
sustaining nourishment through the oral cavity, but beyond that, they also gain
pleasure through the act of sucking. Composed of the Oral-Receptive and Oral-
Sadistic. Oral Phase has an Early Oral Phase whereby the activity is to incorporate or
receive into one’s body the object-choice, that is, the nipple.”
 Oral-Receptive – infants feel no ambivalence toward the pleasurable object
and their needs are usually satisfied with a minimum of frustration and
anxiety.
 Oral-Sadistic – infants respond to others through biting, cooing, closing their
mouth, smiling, and crying. Their first autoerotic experience is thumb sucking,
a defense against anxiety that satisfies their sexual but not their nutritional
needs.
 Anal Phase – (12-18 months-3 years of age) Freud’s second infantile stage. Infants’
oral sadism during oral phase takes fuller form during the anal phase, and the anus
emerges as sexually pleasurable zone. Because aggression and pleasure through
excretory function happens here, the other name of this phase is the Sadistic-Anal
Phase. Divided into two subphases: Early Anal Period and Late Anal Period.
 Early Anal Period – children receive satisfaction by destroying or losing
objects. A time when children become frustrated with their parents because of
Toilet Training.
 Late Anal Period – children take a friendly interest towards their feces,
gifting the feces to their parents as a valued prize. If their gift is rejected, they
withhold succeeding feces and take pleasure in it, and they become resistant to
toilet training. This results to the Anal Character.
 Anal Character – is the mode of narcissistic and masochistic pleasure
from withholding feces, and results to forming people who continue to
receive erotic satisfaction by keeping and possessing objects and by
arranging them in an excessively neat and orderly fashion. This anal
character of anal eroticism becomes transformed into the Anal Triad.
 Anal Triad – are Orderliness, Stinginess, and Obstinacy. (OSO)
 Active or Passive Orientation – there is no basic distinction between
male and female psychosexual growth during the Oral and Anal
Phases. Children of either gender, however, can develop either an
active or passive orientation.
o Active Orientation – are considered the usual Masculine
qualities of Dominance and Sadism.
 o Passive Orientation – are considered the usual Feminine
qualities of Voyeurism and Masochism.
 Phallic Phase – (3 to 6 years of age) Freud’s third Infantile Stage. A time when the
genital area becomes the leading erogenous zone. This phase marks the first that there
is a distinction/dichotomy between the male and female, mainly due to their
anatomical differences between their sexes/genitalia (Anatomy is Destiny). It is in
this stage that masturbation occurs, and the subsequent repression thereof. It is in this
stage that Superego develops. The Male and Female Oedipus Complexes also arise.
 Male Oedipus Complex – the condition of rivalry toward the father and
incestuous feelings toward the mother.
 The Bisexual Nature – of a child (a boy) makes the opposite possible,
that he will have incestuous feelings toward the father and rivalry towards
the mother, which creates feelings of ambivalence. This ambivalence
results to the formation of the Castration Complex, which for boys takes
the form of the Castration Anxiety.
 Castration Anxiety – the fear of the losing the penis. The young boy is
forced to conclude that the girl has had her penis cut-off, and that any
rivalry or incestuous feelings towards the parents, may also result to his
own penis being cut-off. Can be quickly repressed. Succeeds the Male
Oedipus Complex.
 Female Oedipus Complex – the condition of rivalry toward the mother and
incestuous feelings toward the father.
 Penis Envy – the desire to have a penis. Happens when girls find out that
they lack an extra appendage, and that they feel like they have been
cheated on with this lack of penis. Precedes the Female Oedipus Complex.
Cannot be quickly repressed, and may take-on for years.
 Male Phallic Phase – results to identification with the father, and a strong
superego which replaced the nearly completely dissolved Oedipus Complex.
 Female Phallic Phase – results to identification with the mother, and a weak
superego which replaces the partially dissolved Oedipus Complex.
Parallel Paths of the Simple Male and Female Phallic Phases
Male Phallic Phases Female Phallic Phases

1. Oedipus complex (sexual 1. Castration complex in the form

desire for the mother/hostility of penis envy
for the father)

2. Castration complex (in the 2. Oedipus complex develops as an

form of castration anxiety attempt to obtain a penis (sexual
shatters the Oedipus desired for the father/hostility
complex) for the mother)

3. Identification with the father 3. Gradual realization that the

Oedipal desires are self-defeating
 4. Strong superego 4. Identification with the mother

5. Weak superego replaces the

partially dissolved Oedipus
complex

 Latency Period – (6 years-puberty) the second stage of psychosexual development.

According to Freud, the sexual dormancy in this period is due to our phylogenetic
endowment of ancient fathers suppressing any sexual desires of their male offspring in order
to prevent future rivalry as they once did to their own fathers.
 Genital Period – (puberty-rest of adulthood) where Puberty signals a reawakening of the
sexual aim (some sources say 12 years and above/overlaps with Maturity). The major
difference between Genital and Infantile Periods is that in Infantile, the libido is directed
inwards/self while in Genital, the libido is directed outwards. Some basic differences
include: (1) autoeroticism is given up, (2) reproduction is now possible, (3) penis envy and
castration trauma is now lowered and equal status between vagina and penis is now realized
or sought after, (4) entire sexual drive is now organized and other erogenous zone becomes
auxiliary to the supremacy of the genitals.
 Maturity – characterized by Psychological Maturity, a stage attained after a person has
passed through the earlier developmental periods in an ideal manner.
20. Psychosocial Theory by Erikson
 Erik Erikson – had a life-long search of who his true father was which later affected his identity and
coined the term “identity crisis”; whereas Freud’s theory implied that development stops at
adolescence, Erikson’s theory continues throughout the life-span; he proposed a staged theory and
believes in qualitative change; he modified Freudian theory by emphasizing the influence of society
and history (social and historical) on the developing personality.
 Ego – compared to Freud where the Ego is ultimately at the mercy of the stronger Id, here, it takes a
more positive role. It is the center of one’s personality, and thought it may start as something that is
fragile in infancy and childhood, it develops into something that unifies our sense of self, our
personality, experiences, and actions in an adaptive manner. Three interrelated aspects of Ego in
Psychosocial Theory:
 Body Ego – experiences with our body – differentiation and comparison from others,
satisfaction and dissatisfaction with how our body looks and functions.
 Ego Ideal – represents the image we have of ourselves (including, but not limited to, the
body) with an established ideal, and may also lead to satisfaction and dissatisfaction to the
whole self not only the body.
 Ego Identity – represents the image we have for ourselves in the variety of social roles we
play.
 Stages of Psychosocial Development Specific Principles
 First, growth takes place according to the Epigenetic Principle.
 Epigenetic Principle – a general principle borrowed from embryology that means a
step-by-step growth of fetal organs which, in a similar way, also occurs in the
development of the ego. The Ego develops in a (1) predetermined rate and (2) in a
fixed sequence.
  Predetermined Rate – meaning, the ego follows a path where each stage
develops in its own proper time, a time of special ascendancy.
 Fixed Sequence – meaning, one stage emerges from and is built upon a
previous stage, but it does not replace the previous stage. For example, in
physical development, children learn to crawl before they walk, walk before
they run, and run before they jump.
 Second, in every stage of life there is an Interaction of Opposites.
 Interaction of Opposites – Syntonic and Dystonic Elements – the interaction
between Syntonic and Dystonic creates an environment of “Identity Crisis” (also
called Psychosocial Crisis) for each stage and produces the Basic Strength; both
Syntonic and Dystonic elements are necessary for proper adaptation, but the Syntonic
should be dominant for most part of each stage and should, in the end, eventually
prevail in order to attain a Basic Strength, which in turn allows a person to move on
to the next stage. Note that it is the attainment of the Basic Strength that allows a
person to proceed to higher stages not the Syntonic element, for its responsibility is
only to produce, through the healthy conflict against the dystonic element, the Basic
Strength.
 Syntonic – a harmonious element (e.g., 1st Stage: Basic Trust)
 Dystonic – a disruptive element (e.g., 1st Stage: Basic Mistrust)
 Third, the conflict between the opposites produces a Basic Strength.
 Basic Strength – (also called Ego Quality or Ego Strength). This is produced from
the conflict between the Syntonic and Dystonic elements (e.g., 1 st Stage of Basic
Trust VS Basic Mistrust: Hope).
 Fourth, too little basic strength for that stage produces a Core Pathology.
 Core Pathology – the opposite of a stage’s Basic Strength (e.g., 1 st Stage of Basic
Trust VS Basic Mistrust: Withdrawal).
 Fifth, although predominantly psychosocial, there is acknowledgment of the Biological
Aspect.
 Biological Aspect – pertains to the nature aspect such as genes, DNA, inherited
qualities, etc.
 Sixth, ego identity is shaped by a Multiplicity of Conflicts and Events.
 Principle of Multiplicity of Conflicts and Events – pertains to the collective
interaction of the past, present, and unanticipated. Thus, earlier stages do not, at least
not alone, cause later personality development, instead, later personality development
is caused by all that has happened, is happening, and will possibly happen.
 Seventh, each stage is characterized by an Identity Crisis.
 Identity Crisis – also called “Psychosocial Crisis” a turning point in one’s life that
may either strengthen or weaken personality; a period of increased vulnerability and
heightened potential; and, a period where the person is susceptible to major
modifications in identity (especially for stages adolescence and beyond). It is not a
catastrophic event but rather an opportunity for either adaptive or maladaptive
adjustment.
 Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development (Note: Psychosocial Crisis (PC), Basic Strength
(BS), Core Pathology (CP), and because of the Freudian psychosexual roots of psychosocial theory,
a Psychosexual Mode (PM) is present for each stage)
 Infancy – (approx. 1 year of age) is a time of incorporation.
 PM: Oral-Sensory Mode – incorporating stimuli from the environment not only through
their mouths but also in other senses such as eyes (through vibrant colors), skin (through
feeling objects), etc.
PC: Basic Trust VS Basic Mistrust – if they realize that the stimuli they crave are provided
regularly then they develop basic trust, but if they find no correspondence then they develop
basic mistrust. Both must be developed by infants, for too much of one lead to extreme
imbalance of personality. For example, too much of Basic Trust could lead to Gullibility and
too much of Basic Mistrust could lead to Cynicism
BS: Hope – an expectation of a satisfactory outcome.
CP: Withdrawal – retreating from the outside world.
 Early Childhood – (approx. 2-3 years of age) is a time of attempting self-control.
PM: Anal-Urethral-Muscular Mode – attempting self-control by learning to control their
body especially in relation to cleanliness and mobility such as toilet training, walking,
running, etc.
PC: Autonomy VS Shame and Doubt – if they are given enough space to find-out that
there are things they can do on their own terms (though without purpose) then they develop
autonomy, but if they find resistance from their culture or immediate social persons then they
develop shame and doubt. For example, too much of Autonomy could lead to Indiscipline
and too much of Shame and Doubt could lead to Low Self-Confidence.
BS: Will – a form of self-expression in their sense of control.
CP: Compulsion – being compelled to do something even if one does not feel confident
about it.
 Play Age – (approx. 3-5 years of age) is a time of role-playing, imagination, and creativity.
PM: Genital-Locomotor Mode – imagining and taking-up of realistic social roles, animals,
etc. in play and moving around as if they are already a fully-grown individual with a purpose.
PC: Initiative VS Guilt – if they are starting to select things on their own and pursue their
own goals “with a purpose” then they develop Initiative, but if they begin to repress certain
goals according to their conscience (usually taboo goals such as having sex with mother or
leaving home) then they develop Guilt. For example, too much Initiative could lead to a Lack
of Moral Principles and too much Guilt could lead to a personality that is Compulsively
Moralistic or Overy Inhibited.
BS: Purpose – to have an end goal that is the reason for doing something.
CP: Inhibition – repressing certain things that are not culturally or morally acceptable.
 School Age – (approx. 6-12 or 13 years of age) is a time of expansion of social world and
instructing of children in the ways of society, thus not necessarily formal or literate
schooling.
PM: Latency Mode – learning how the world works – its culture, technology, etc. –
effectively diverting their attention from the sexual tendencies.
PC: Industry VS Inferiority – if they do things well (industriousness) in the social context
and in cooperation with others then they develop a sense of Industry, but if their work is
insufficient and their participation is deemed inadequate for the group then they develop a
sense of Inferiority. For example, too much Industry could lead to Overconfidence or
Entitlement and too much Inferiority could lead to Low Self-Esteem
BS: Competence – the confidence to use one’s abilities to surmount problems.
CP: Inertia – the regression to a lower developmental level of actuation, participation, etc.
 Adolescence – (approx. puberty to young adulthood) is a time of gaining a firm sense of ego
identity by trying out new roles, a time of trial and error.
 PM: Puberty Mode – where there is genital maturation and social latency in terms of
delaying or postponing marriage, sex, or relationships.
PC: Identity VS Identity Confusion – if they successfully identify their role or position in
society in terms of their sexuality, ideology, and occupation, among others, they develop an
Identity, but if they will have a prolonged and intensified dilemma on what they really want
or a strong resistance from tradition, religion, or societal standards then they will develop
Identity Confusion. For example, too much Identity could lead to Rebellion or Defiance and
too much Identity Confusion could lead to Aimlessness or Diffidence,
BS: Fidelity – faith in one’s ideology.
CP: Role Repudiation – inability to synthesize various self-images into an identity workable
with society.
 Young Adulthood – (approx. 19-30 years of age) is a time of acquiring intimacy
PM: Genitality Mode – where there is mutual trust and a stable sharing of sexual
satisfactions with a loved person. Genitality is the chief psychosexual accomplishment of
young adulthood and exists only in intimate relationships.
PC: Intimacy VS Isolation – if they find a partner with whom mutual trust is upheld then
they develop intimacy, but if they are incapacitated in taking chances with someone then they
develop Isolation. For example, too much Intimacy could lead to a lack of Independence
(Diminished Ego Identity) and too much Isolation could lead to Apathy.
BS: Love – a mature devotion to one another.
CP: Exclusivity – being apart from the other/s.
 Adulthood – (approx. 31-60) a time of cementing oneself in society and assuming
responsibility.
PM: Procreativity Mode – perpetuating the species, assuming care for own offspring and
that of others, and working productively to transmit culture and wealth from one generation
to the next.
PC: Generativity VS Stagnation – if they procreate (not necessarily just bearing children)
then they attain Generativity, but if they are too self-absorbed then they attain Stagnation. For
example, too much Generativity could lead to Fatigue and too much Stagnation could lead to
Extinction.
BS: Care – a widening commitment to take care of the persons, the products, and the ideas
one has learned to care for.
CP: Rejectivity – the unwillingness to take care of certain persons or groups.
 Old Age – (approx. 60 to end of life) a time of both joy, playfulness, and wonder, and
senility, depression, and despair.
PM: Generalized Sensuality Mode – where people are enjoying a variety of things such as
physical sensations, appreciation for life, traditions, grandchildren, and roles of the opposite
gender (e.g., the man becomes more nurturant towards wife and his wife becomes more
assertive than her husband).
PC: Integrity VS Despair – if they maintain a dominant feeling of wholeness then they
develop Integrity, but if they are overcome with losing familiar aspects of their existence
then they develop Despair. For example, too much Integrity could lead to Denial and too
much Despair could lead to an undue Surrender.
BS: Wisdom – informed and detached concern with life itself in the face of death itself.
People with detached concern do not lack concern, but rather they exhibit an active but
dispassionate interest.
CP: Disdain – a reaction of feeling and seeing others in an increasing state of being finished,
confused, helpless.
21. Cognitive Development by Piaget
 Jean Piaget – combine zoology and epistemology to form what he called as genetic epistemology
where observation and scientific inquiry is used to map-out the development of children. He views
people, particularly children, as Constructivist, meaning that they act on novel objects and events
and thereby gain some understanding of their essential features.
 Cognitive Stage Theory – by Jean Piaget, reintroduced the concept of scientific inquiry into mental
states
 Three Interrelated Processes that Permits Cognitive Growth According to Piaget:
 Organization – is the tendency to create categories. For example, if a child sees a dove and
an eagle, she will gradually notice that both have multiple things in common, eventually
labeling them as birds.
 Schemas – are complex cognitive structures that is the term used for those groups
formed in the process of Organization.
 Adaptation – is the process of adjusting to the demands of the environment; is how children
handle new information in light of what they already know. This occurs through two
complementary processes:
 Assimilation – taking in new information and incorporating it into existing cognitive
structures.
 Accommodation – adjusting one’s cognitive structures to fit the new information.
 Equilibration – the tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements, that is, a
balance between assimilation and accommodation. Children want what they understand of
the world to match what they observe around them. But this is not the case in most things.
Airplanes fly but they are not birds. This creates “Disequilibrium”, which is uncomfortable.
It is for this very reason why accommodation should take place.
 Disequilibrium – an uncomfortable motivational state that pushes children into the
process of Adaptation via Accommodation.
If Organization is how information/experiences are grouped, and Adaptation is how
information/experiences are modified, then Equilibration is how information/experiences are
always sought to be balanced (or more simply, why they should be balanced). The difference
between Adaptation and Equilibration is that Adaptation is more concerned with how the
process is done while Equilibration is more concerned with why the process is done.
Basically, you can only achieve Equilibration by doing the process of Adaptation.
 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
 Sensorimotor Stage – (birth to 2 years of age) a time when infants coordinate their sensory
inputs and motor capabilities, forming behavioral schemes that permit them to act on and to
get to know their environment Three important aspects of this stage are Problem-Solving
Skills (or Means/Ends Activities), Imitation, and the growth of the Object Concept. The
substages of Sensorimotor Stage are under the Problem-Solving Skills.
 Development of Problem-Solving Abilities – (birth to 2 years of age)
 Reflex Activity – (birth to 1 month of age) is a substage of reflex activity
where infants’ actions are still confined to exercising innate reflexes and
assimilating new objects into these reflexes. For example, sucking on nipples,
then blankets, then toys, and so on).
 Primary Circular Reactions – (1-4 months of age) is a substage where the
first nonreflexive schemes are seen; are simple repetitive acts centered in the
infant’s own body; “primary” because they are the first motor habits to
appear, and “circular” because they are repetitive. For example, making
cooing sounds and thumb sucking.
  Secondary Circular Reactions – (4-8 months of age) is a substage where
infants discover that they can make interesting things happen beyond their
own body for the first time and is likely to be repeated for the pleasure they
bring. However, these action by the infant are not fully intentional, because
the interesting result the external objects produces are discovered by chance
and was not a purposeful goal the actions was performed. For example,
discovering that squeezing a rubber duck makes a squeaking sound.
 Coordination of Secondary Reactions – (8-12 months of age) is a substage
where infants begin to coordinate two or more actions to achieve simple
objectives, these represent the earliest form of goal-directed behavior and
thus true problem-solving, true intentional actions. For example, lifting a
cushion with one hand while using the other to place the rubber duck under it
to produce a sound. The lifting of the cushion, in itself, is not pleasurable, but
this is proof that the infant is starting to understand that coordination between
these two actions is vital for a greater purpose, a means to an end.
 Tertiary Circular Reactions – (12-18 months of age) is a substage where an
infant begins active experimentation or trial-and-error schemes in order to
invent new methods or reproducing interesting results. For example, an infant
who had originally squeezed a rubber duck in Secondary Circular Reactions
and put a rubber duck under a cushion to squeeze it that way in Coordination
of Secondary Reactions, may now do it again and again under the cushion
(reproduce interesting results) or try throwing it, stomping on it, etc. (invent
new methods).
 Symbolic Problem Solving – (18-24 months of age) the crowning
achievement of the Sensorimotor Stage; is a substage where infants begin to
internalize their behavioral schemes to construct mental symbols, or images,
that they can then use to guide future conducts. Simple speaking, they now
imagine first what to do and what will likely happen if they do it, before
physically doing it. Because of this, it is already beyond trial-and-error or
experimentation, it is in the realm of internal and symbolic visualization. For
example, a toddler seated far from the bread on the other side of the table
realizes that she cannot reach it, but when she saw a stick beside her, she
imagined that it could be used to get the bread as an extension of here hand.
 Development of Imitation – the child’s action of using someone or something as a
model which Piaget proposed to appear in 8-12 months of age. For example, when a
child sees a person touching his forehead, she would also touch her forehead, though
imprecise and slow.
 Deferred Imitation – imitation that is done by reproducing the behavior of an
absent model which Piaget proposed to appear in 18-24 months of age, though
other scholars propose as early as 6 months of age. For example, a child
seeing another child stomping in reaction to displeasure today imitates the
same stomping reaction the day after even if the original model is no longer
there.
 Development of Object Permanence – the idea that objects continue to exist when
they are no longer visible or detectable through the other senses.
Piaget proposed that 1-4 months of age infants will not search for objects that
are hidden from view. For example, when a shiny object an infant was initially
 attracted to is put under a cloth, they will not search for it and will quickly lose
interest as if it does not exist anymore because they cannot see it.
Piaget proposed that 4-8 months of age infants will search for the object if
they are partially seen or seen from a semi-transparent cloth, but will still not search
completely concealed objects even if they saw where it was put.
Piaget proposed that 8-12 months of age infants develop object
permanence/object concept but are still imperfect in a way that they will search for
the object where they found it previously rather than where they saw it last. For
example, a child who successfully retrieved an object from complete concealment
under cloth A the first time around, and even in the second time around, will continue
to search for it in cloth A even if that child already saw it being transferred (visible
displacements) in cloth B the third time around.
Piaget proposed that 12-18 months of age children almost completely perfects
their object permanence by searching for the object where they saw it last, if it was a
visible displacement, but still fall short if it is an invisible displacement. They
understand visible displacement but seem to fall short with invisible displacements.
For example, a child who last saw the object in cloth B will now look for it there even
if previous experiences were that he consecutively found the object in cloth A.
However, if cloth B with the object under it is both placed under the table, and the
object is dropped there, upon the return of that cloth. the child will continue to look
for the object in that cloth and becomes confused, without considering to look for the
object that could have possibly fell under the table when she could not have seen it
(invisible displacement).
Piaget proposed that 18-24 months of age toddlers are already capable of
mentally representing such invisible displacements and using these mental inferences
to guide their search for objects that have disappeared. They fully understand that
objects have a permanence about them and take great pride at locating their objects in
sophisticated games of hide and seek.
 Preoperational Stage – (2-7 years of age) a time marked by the appearance of the (1)
symbolic function
 Symbolic Function – the ability to make one thing – a word or an object – stand for,
or represent, something else. It is a representational insight, a knowledge that an
entity can stand for something other than itself. Language for example, is the most
common, two different words mean two different things, but two words combined
could mean a whole new thing.
 Symbolic Play – commonly known as Pretend Play, where toddlers pretend to be
people they are not (e.g., mommy, superheroes) and use things found in the house as
something else (i.e., when a shoebox is used as a boat).
 Deficits in Preoperational Thinking:
 Animism – a mistake of attributing life and lifelike qualities to inanimate
objects. For example, the child may say that the clouds are crying during a
downpour.
 Egocentrism – a tendency to view the world from one’s own perspective and
to have difficulty recognizing another person’s point of view. For example, a
child who is talking with his auntie on the telephone, when asked what he
would be wearing for later, would answer “this”. Obviously, his aunt cannot
see the “this” the child was referring to because they were just talking via the
 telephone, but the child thinks his aunt sees what he sees or knows what he is
referring to.
 Failure at Dual Encoding – that children up to 3-6 years of age cannot
distinguish appearance from reality because they fall short in representing an
object in more than one way at a time. Children struggle to construct
simultaneous mental representations of an object that looks like something
other than what it really is. For example, children would correctly identify a
cat (live one), but would say that it has now become a dog when a realistic
picture of a dog’s head is strapped on the cat’s head. They would even say that
from meowing, it would now sound like barking. Children fail to
simultaneously process the information that (1) it is still a cat with (2) just a
dog’s picture strapped on its head which does not change the fact that it is still
a cat.
 Failure at Conservation – they do not yet realize that certain properties of
objects such as volume, mass, or number remain unchanged even when the
objects appearance or containers are altered or changed. For example, children
would say that the volume of 1 liter of water put in a tall but thin container
decreased when it was transferred in a short but wide container. In reality, it is
still the same 1 liter. Another example would be that children would say that 1
liter water of a tall glass has more volume than 1 liter water of a wide glass.
Piaget proposed that this failure at conservation is due to the lack of two
cognitive operations:
 Lack of Decentration – lack of the ability to concentrate on more than
one aspect of a problem simultaneously. For example, children are unable
to simultaneously consider both height and width in the changing of the
water into another container. Only thinking of height, for example, would
make it look like the volume is lesser in a shorter (but wider) container.
 Lack of Reversibility – lack of the ability to mentally undo or negate an
action. For example, children fail to reverse what he or she has seen before
the water was transferred, which, if he had, would bring the realization
that it was still the same amount of water from before (given that nothing
was spilled).
 Theory of Mind (TOM) – coined by Premack and Woodruff; develops during the
preoperational period; refers to children’s developing concepts of mental activity – an
understanding of how the human mind works and a knowledge that human are
cognitive beings whose mental states are not always shared with or accessible to
others. Adults understand that our behavior and the behavior of others is based on
what we know or believe, and what we want or desire. Children 4-5 years of age are
believed to already possess a theory of mind, the opposite of egocentrism. For
example:
“Jorge puts some chocolate in a blue cupboard and goes out to play. In
his absence, his mother moves the chocolate to the green cupboard.
When Jorge returns, he wants his chocolate. Where does he look for it?”
Three-year-olds would say that Jorge will look in the green cupboard. As adults, we
know that though we have information that it is in the green cupboard, from the point
of view of Jorge who did not have idea that his mother moved the chocolate, Jorge
will likely look for it directly in the blue cupboard. This is because we already have
that type of “Mind”.
  Concrete Operational Stage – (7-11 years of age) a time when children rapidly acquire
cognitive operations and apply these important new skills when thinking about objects and
events that they have experienced (they have seen, or that exist in a physical world). A
cognitive operation is an internal mental activity that enables children to modify and
reorganize their images and symbols to reach a logical conclusion. This is exactly the reason
why most cultures start formal education at about 6-7 years of age. Examples of Concrete
Operational Thought: Conservation and Relational Logic.
 Conservation – children can now understand that certain properties of objects such
as volume, mass, or number remain unchanged even when the objects appearance or
containers are altered or changed.
 Relational Logic – is understanding of quantitative relations such as mental
seriations and transitivity.
 Mental Seriation – the ability to mentally arrange items along a quantifiable
dimension such as height or weight. For example, children are now able to
analyze and act on an instruction saying “arrange yourselves from shortest to
tallest person”.
 Transitivity – a concept which describes the necessary relations among
elements in a series. For example, if Ana is taller than Fathma, and Fathma is
taller than Sisi, who is taller between Ana and Sisi? Children in Concrete
Operational Thought are able to answer correctly based on their mental
analysis that Ana is taller.
 Formal Operational Stage – (11 years of age and beyond) a time when people are no longer
bound to reason logically only the objects, situations, or events that are real or imaginable, or
the factual and observable, but also those hypothetical processes and events that may have no
basis in reality. People are able to do mental actions on ideas and propositions. For example,
abstract signifiers such as those found in Algebra namely the x, the y, and the z.
 Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning – is a combination of deductive reasoning and
hypothetical thinking. The two are combined because Concrete-Operational thinkers
can also do deductive reasoning with enough given facts that are observable; but what
sets them apart from Fromal Operational thinkers is the ability to create hypothesis, or
things that may not be real but are possible, can possibly happen, or could have
possibly happen.
 Deductive Reasoning – which entails reasoning from the general to the
specific.
 Inductive Reasoning – is the type of thinking that scientists display, where
hypotheses are generated and then systematically tested in experiments.
22. Moral Development by Kohlberg
 Lawrence Kohlberg – believed that the moral growth of children develops if they face moral
dilemmas as it widens their thinking and helps them in progressing from one level to other levels of
moral development.
 Moral Development – refers to the development of children’s behavior and attitude towards people
in society, according to the various social and cultural values, norms, and laws. This is composed of
Three Levels of Moral Reasoning that could not be skipped, and each individual developed his or
her moral development by mastering each level in the sequence, and their moral development was
closely linked to their cognitive development.
 Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Development
“Heinz’s wife was diagnosed with a rare type of deadly cancer, and there was only one
drug available in the market that could save her life. It was a kind of radium that a
pharmacist had recently invented. The pharmacist reserved all the rights of
manufacturing this drug, he decided to sell this drug at a very high price than its actual
amount, in fact, he was charging ten times higher ($2000) than its original amount
($200). Heinz did not have that much amount, so he decided to take the help of everyone
he knew, but he managed to gather $1000 only. Heinz went to that pharmacist and
explained to him the situation of his wife and told the pharmacists to sell the drug at a
cheaper price, or he’ll pay the remaining $1000 later. Heinz begged a lot, but all went
in vain. The pharmacist denied it straight away and told him that he wanted to make a
profit because he invented the drug. Heinz had less time as his wife was near death and
needed the drug. Later, out of desperation, Heinz decided to break into the pharmacist’s
shop to steal the drug.”
-Heinz's Dilemma Story of Kohlberg's Moral Development
Theory

 Pre-Conventional Level – (approx. birth to 9 years of age) at this level, the moral decision-
making abilities of children are somewhat largely influenced by external factors, they have
not themselves developed their personal code of moral principles. Rules imposed by
authority figures are conformed to in order to avoid punishment or receive rewards. This
perspective involves the idea that what is right is what one can get away with or what is
personally satisfying. Level 1 has two stages.
 Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation – “Avoiding Punishment”; moral
reasoning is based on direct consequences.

Detailed Explanation: obedience to rules and punishments for breaking the rules
determine the morality of the children. For example, using the story of Heinz above,
the children, at stage 1, will think that Heinz should not steal the drug because
stealing is against the law, and he should avoid being imprisoned, they won’t
consider the fact that his wife is near to death.

 Stage 2: Individualism-Exchange Orientation – “Self Interest”; actions are seen in

terms of self-serving rewards or equitable justice rather than moral value.

Detailed Explanation: children account for each individual points of view and judge
actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children
argued that the best course of action was the choice that best served Heinz’s needs.
Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's
own interests. In terms of our example above, they may reason in an Exchange
Orientation: “Heinz may think that it is right to take the drug, but the pharmacist
would not.” Or in an Individualism Orientation: “Heinz should not take the drug to
preserve his personal integrity”. They fail to consider the welfare of his wife.

 Conventional Level – (approx. 10 years of age to adulthood) at this stage, children focus on
being accepted by society and maintaining good relationships with others; conformity to
social rules remains important to the individual. However, the emphasis shifts from self-
interest to relationships with other people and social systems. The individual strives to
support rules that are set forth by others such as parents, peers, and the government in order
 to win their approval or to maintain social order. It is seen that most adults remain at the
conventional morality stage and do not progress towards the next or the final stage of moral
development.
 Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationship – “Good Boy – Good Girl Attitude”;
good behavior is about living up to social expectations and roles.

Detailed Explanation: children/people are concerned about their public image and
want to be seen as a good person in society. Their behavior and moral decisions are
as per the values, norms, and approval of society, as determined by the majority. The
moral behavior of people at stage 3 is mainly dependent on the mentality “what they
think about me?” The people at this stage mainly follow general trends and norms
that are followed by the majority of the population. In Heinz’s dilemma for example,
people, at this stage, will say that Heinz did not do anything wrong because he had
good intentions, he is a good person who saved his wife’s life. Though this is the
case, the statement is for societal approval not for genuine concern for Heinz and his
wife.

 Stage 4: System-Maintaining Orientation – “Law and Order Morality”; moral

reasoning considers societal laws.

Detailed Explanation: social rules and laws determine behavior. The individual now
takes into consideration a larger perspective, that of societal laws. Moral decision
making becomes more than consideration of close ties to others. The individual
believes that rules and laws maintain social order that is worth preserving; they
judge different situations by considering the collective view of society or the
utilitarian greater good. For example, although Heinz wants to save his wife’s life,
stealing the drug is against the law, and he should obey the law because other people
also might not obey the law if they will think that they have valid reasons to break
them.

 Post-Conventional Level – is the last stage of moral development, and it is also known as
the principal level of morality. At this level, People believe that individuals are part of
society, but they also have their separate entities. If the rule is good at the society’s level that
does not mean that it is also good for the particular individual. They argue that social rules or
norms are important in society, but that does not mean they cannot question those rules,
instead, they believe in disobeying certain rules that they think are unjust or are not in
accordance with their own principles. At this stage, an individual’s morality is not based on
society’s perspective, instead, his morality is based on the abstract principles or rules that can
be applied to every situation from the individual level to the society.
 Stage 5: Social Contract Situation and Individual Rights – “Social Contract”; laws
and rules are seen as social agreements that can be changed when necessary.

Detailed Explanation: where people believe that norms should be followed only if
they make sense to them and serves the well-being of both society and the individual.
The rules and norms that are set by the society are for the goodwill of the people, but
if they are not in the interest of the individuals, and they only consider the welfare of
the society as a whole, then, according to stage 5 people, these laws should be
modified/amended accordingly. For example, people at stage 5 will argue that Heinz
 should steal the drug because laws can be unjust, and you have to consider the whole
situation.

 Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation – “Universal Principles”; moral

reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and justice.

Detailed Explanation: people at this stage follow their own moral rules or principles,
these principles may or may not be in accordance with the law. They believe in
following basic human rights such as the right to life, liberty, freedom, free speech,
and justice, and they won’t hesitate to go against society’s laws to defend these
principles even if they are going to face any criticism or legal action. For example,
people at stage 6 will argue that Heinz could take the drug without paying because
life is more important than the property/money.

23. Ecological Model by Bronfenbrenner

 Urie Bronfenbrenner – sees the person or child not just as an outcome of development, the child is
an active shaper of development and the child does not exist in isolation.
 Bioecological Theory – a model of ring systems with the person in the middle.
 Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory Model
 Microsystem – everyday environment of home, work, school, or neighborhood.
 Mesosystem – interlocking influence of microsystems. Because of mesosystem interactions,
environments in which a child does not directly participate may nonetheless influence him or
her. For example, linkages between school and home such as parent-teacher conference.
 Exosystem – interaction between a microsystem and an outside system or institution. For
example, government policies and laws for parental leave can affect a child.
 Macrosystem – consists of overarching cultural patterns, such as dominant beliefs,
ideologies, and economic and political systems. For example, political systems such as
democracy or dictatorship.
 Chronosystem – represents the dimension of time. This includes changes throughout time as
when a new child is born or parental divorce occurs, or changes in place of residence,
parent’s employment, as well as larger events such as wars, ideological shifts, or economic
cycles.
24. Sociocultural Theory by Vygotsky
 Lev Vygotsky – developed a theory about how our social interactions influence our cognitive
development; proposed that intellectual development is closely tied to their culture; he believed that
growth is not as universal as Piaget proposed; he believed that Language is the root of all learning.
He proposed that we should evaluate development from the perspective of four interrelated levels in
interaction with children’s environment:
 Ontogenetic Development – changes because of development of the individual over his or
her lifetime.
 Microgenetic Development – changes that occur over brief periods of time.
 Phylogenetic Development – changes over evolutionary time.
 Sociohistorical Development – changes occurring in one’s culture and the values, norms,
and technologies such a history has generated.
 Social Development Theory – also called Sociocultural Theory; asserts that a child’s cognitive
development and learning ability can be guided and mediated by their social interactions. The theory
suggests that children internalize and learn from the beliefs and attitudes that they witness around
 them, and culture plays an important role in shaping cognitive development and therefore that this
development varied across cultures.
 The Concept of the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) – through the interaction of this person
and the children, the children are guided. More Knowledgeable Other could be anyone with a greater
understanding of the task or concept that the child is trying to complete or learn. Most often, this
would be a parent, caregiver or teacher, but it could also be a peer or mentor, or a computer program.
 The Concept of Zone of Proximal Development – the difference between what a learner can
accomplish independently and what he or she can accomplish with the guidance and encouragement
of a more skilled partner. This can be broken down into Three Distinct Stages/Levels:
 Scaffolding – is the tendency of more expert participants to carefully tailor the support they
provide to the novice learner’s current situation so that he can profit from that support and
increase his understanding of a problem; a method of guided learning that helps a student
learn by pairing them with an educator. The educator should have greater experience with the
task or process than the student, but they should also have an understanding of the level that
the student is at and how they can address this level. Techniques for instructional scaffolding
might include using visual aids (such as diagrams), providing examples, working one-on-one
with the student and providing feedback. The aim of scaffolding is to create an environment
in which the student feels comfortable asking questions until they can perform the skill
without any help.
 Tools of Intellectual Adaptation – refers to the problem-solving strategies or rules and
ways of thinking that children internalize by observing and interacting with more
knowledgeable members of society. For example, how the numbers are read in English from
1-9 and then these primary numbers are used for higher numbers by just pairing the numbers
with the second digit number starting 21, 22, 23, …, 29, 31-39, and so on.
The Zone of Proximal Development can be broken down into Three Distinct Stages/Levels:
 Tasks a Learner can Accomplish Without Assistance – this refers to tasks that the learner
can perform independently. If the learner has reached this stage, the teacher or mentor will
need to increase the level of difficulty of the task in order to facilitate further learning.
 Tasks a Learner can Accomplish With Assistance – this is referred to as their zone of
proximal development. In this stage, the learner needs the guidance of a more knowledgeable
other to help them complete the task.
 Tasks a Learner cannot Accomplish With Assistance – this refers to tasks that the learner
cannot do, even with the guidance of a more knowledgeable person. If the learner's ability
falls within this range, the level of difficulty may need to be decreased to accommodate their
skillset.
 Four Elementary Mental Functions – are innate abilities we are born with. These abilities are then
developed into higher mental functions through social interaction with our community.
 Attention
 Sensation
 Perception
 Memory
 Three Stages/Forms of Language:
 Social Speech – communication between children and others (usually from the age of 2).
 Private Speech – private speech that is directed to the self but has not yet been internalized
(usually from the age of 3).
 Silent Inner Speech – a child’s internal monologue (usually from the age of 7).
25. Attachment Theory of Psychological Birth by Margaret Mahler
 Margaret Mahler – she disagreed with Klein (Object Relations Theorist) on the notion that infants
incorporate the good breast and other objects into their ego. She is primarily concerned with the
Psychological Birth of an individual that takes place in the first 3 years of life.
 Psychological Birth – a process where the child becomes an individual separate from his or her
primary caregiver, an accomplishment that leads ultimately to a sense of identity. To achieve
Psychological Birth and individuation, a child proceeds through a series of Three Major
Developmental Stages and Four Substages.
 Mahler’s Stages of Psychological Birth
 Normal Autism Stage – (approx. birth to 3-4 weeks of age) a time when the infant is like an
egg, where she is able to satisfy its nutritional needs autistically (without regard to external
reality) because her food supply is enclosed in her shell. In other words, a newborn infant
satisfied its various needs within the all-powerful protective orbit of a mother’s care. The
infant feels omnipotent because everything is provided to her. This stage is an “objectless
stage”, a time when infants naturally search for the mother’s breast.
 Normal Symbiosis Stage – (approx. 4-5 weeks to 4-5 months of age) a time when infants
begin to realize that they cannot yet satisfy their own needs, so they recognize their primary
caregivers and seek a symbiotic relationship with them. The egg has cracked (not yet fully
hatched) but a psychological membrane arises that still protects the newborn. The infant now
feels that she and her mother are, together, omnipotent, a dual unity within one common
boundary. This is not a true symbiosis, however, for the infant needs the mother but the
mother really does not need the infant, but sill, when the infant cues to the mother of hunger,
the mother feeds her. Object Relations have not yet begun for in this stage, mother and others
are still “preobjects”.
 Separation-Individuation Stage – (approx. 4-5 months to 30-40 months of age) a time
when children become psychologically separated from their mothers, achieve individuation,
and begin to develop feelings of personal identity. They fully hatch. Children no longer have
a sense of dual unity, surrender the thinking of omnipotence and face, for the first time, their
vulnerability to external threats.
 Differentiation Substage – (approx. 5 months to 7-10 months of age) marked by a
bodily breaking-away from the mother-infant symbiotic orbit. Analogous to hatching
of an egg. Infants now start to expand to a world outside her and her mother by
inspecting strangers.
 Practicing Substage – (approx. 7-10 months to 15-16 months of age) marked by
infants distinguishing their body from their mother’s. They begin to move away from
their mothers by crawling or walking. At first, they do not want to lose sight of their
mothers but eventually explore the fascinating new world alone.
 Rapprochement Substage – (approx. 16 months to 25 months of age) marked by
children’s desire to bring their mother and themselves back together, both physically
and psychologically, and because this does not always successfully happen, they
undergo a Rapprochement Crisis where they fight dramatically with their mother.
Though during this time children can walk easily and thus can walk back to their
mothers easily, they are more likely to show Separation Anxiety here than the
previous stage because, like their walking, their cognitive understanding of being
apart from their mother have also developed. Because of this, they devise various
ploys to regain their mother by sharing with their mother every new acquisition of
skill and every new experience.
 Libidinal Object Constancy Substage – (approx. 36 months or 3 years of age)
marked by children’s development of constant inner representation of their mother so
 that they can tolerate being physically separate from her – a sense of Object
Constancy. This is also a time where they should consolidate their Individuality in
order to function without their mother and to develop other object relationships.
Development of Object Constance and Individuation is not always achieved, leading
to future developmental problems and regression to this unresolved stage.
26. Attachment Theory of Strange Situation by Mary Ainsworth
 Mary Dinsmore Salter Ainsworth – influenced by Bowlby’s theory.
 Strange Situation – is a technique for measuring the type of attachment style that exists between
caregiver and infant. This procedure consists of a 20-minute laboratory session in which a mother
and infant are initially alone in a playroom. Then a stranger comes into the room, and after a few
minutes the stranger begins a brief interaction with the infant. The mother then goes away for two
separate 2-minute periods. During the first period, the infant is left alone with the stranger; during
the second period, the infant is left completely alone. The critical behavior is how the infant reacts
when the mother returns; this behavior is the basis of the attachment style rating. Ainsworth and her
associates found Three Attachment Style Rating.
 Ainsworth’s Attachment Styles
 Secure Attachment Style – when their mother returns, infants are happy and enthusiastic
and initiate contact. For example, they will go over to their mother and want to be held.
 Anxious-Resistant Attachment Style – an insecure attachment where infants lack the ability
to engage in effective play and exploration; here, infants are ambivalent; when their mother
leaves the room, they become unusually upset, and when their mother returns, they seek
contact with her but reject attempts at being soothed. They give conflicted messages. For
example, they seek contact with their mother, but upon being held, they squirm to be put
down or throw away toys that their mother has offered them.
 Anxious-Avoidant Attachment Style – is also an insecure attachment where infants lack the
ability to engage in effective play and exploration; when the mother leaves, infants stay calm,
they accept the stranger, and, when their mother returns, they ignore and avoid her.
27. Identity Formation Theory by Marcia
 James Marcia – expanded Erikson’s theory; described identity formation during adolescence as
involving both exploration and commitment with respect to ideologies and occupations (e.g.,
religion, politics, career, relationships, gender roles, etc.).
 Identity Formation Theory – posits that identity development begins when individuals identify
with role models who provide them with options to explore for whom they can become. As identity
development progresses, adolescents are expected to make choices and commit to options within the
confines of their social contexts. In some cases, options are not provided or are limited, and the
individual will fail to commit or will commit without the opportunity to explore various options.
 Marcia’s Identity Statuses
 Identity Confusion/Diffusion – a state that occurs when adolescents neither explore nor
commit to any identities. The individual does not have firm commitments regarding the
issues in question and is not making progress toward them. Those who persist in this identity
may drift aimlessly with little connection to those around them or have little sense of purpose
in life.
 Foreclosure – a state that occurs when an individual commits to an identity without
exploring options. The individual has not engaged in any identity experimentation and has
established an identity based on the choices or values of others. Some parents may make
these decisions for their children and do not grant the teen the opportunity to make choices.
In other instances, teens may strongly identify with parents and others in their life and wish
to follow in their footsteps.
  Moratorium – a state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet
made commitments. The individual is exploring various choices but has not yet made a clear
commitment to any of them. This can be an anxious and emotionally tense time period as the
adolescent experiments with different roles and explores various beliefs. Nothing is certain
and there are many questions, but few answers.
 Identity Achievement – a state attained by individuals who have explored different options,
discovered their purpose, and have made identity commitments are in a state of identity
achievement. The individual has attained a coherent and committed identity based on
personal decisions. This is a long process and is not often achieved by the end of
adolescence.
28. Evolutionary Theory of Development by Wilson
 Edward Osborne Wilson
 Evolutionary/Sociobiological Theory – follows a perspective that focuses on evolutionary and
biological bases of behavior. Highly influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution, it draws on
findings of anthropology, ecology, genetics, ethology, and evolutionary psychology to explain the
adaptive, or survival, value of behavior for an individual or species.
 Natural Selection – the differential survival and reproduction of different variants of members of a
species, and is the tool the natural world uses to shape evolutionary processes. While it is commonly
described as “survival of the fittest” the key here is actually in the “reproductive success”, for those
individuals with more “fit” characteristics pass on those traits to future generations while others die
out.
 Ethology – is the study of the adaptive behaviors of the animal species in the natural context.
 Two Basic Forms of Cooperative Behavior in Human Altruism:
 Hard-Core Altruism – directed for the benefit of others with no reward for the individual
originating from kin selection.
 Soft-Core Altruism – is ultimately selfish because the altruist expects reciprocation for
society for himself or his closest relatives.
29. Learning Theory of Behaviorism/Classical Conditioning by John Watson
 John B. Watson – proposed that nurture is everything and one can become as anything with the
right environmental stimulus regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and
race of his ancestors.
 Behaviorism – rested on the belief that conclusions about human development and functioning
should be based on observations of overt behavior rather than on speculations about unobservable
cognitive and emotional processes.
 Classical Conditioning – a simple form of learning in which a stimulus that initially had no effect
on the individual (a Neutral Stimulus) comes to elicit a response through its association with a
stimulus that already elicits the response.
 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – an unlearned stimulus.
 Unconditioned Response (UCR) – an automatic, unlearned, natural response.
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – a learned stimulus.
 Conditioned Response (CR) – a learned response
For example, Food, the unconditioned stimulus, stimulates a dog’s Salivation, the unconditioned
response (natural response to food). If a Bell is ringed every time there is Food, this ringing of the
Bell eventually becomes a stimulus that will cause Salivation. Thus, gradually, the Bell becomes the
conditioned stimulus in place of the Food, and the Salivation, then an unconditioned response, now
becomes a conditioned response. Even if there will be no Food presented (originally the cause of
salivation), once the Bell rings, it, alone, can already stimulate Salivation.
 Another example, a Loud Bang, the unconditioned stimulus, stimulates a baby’s Fear, the
unconditioned response (natural response to a loud bang). If a White Rat is presented every time
there is a Loud Bang, this White Rat eventually becomes a stimulus that will cause Fear. Thus,
gradually, the White Rat becomes the conditioned stimulus in place of the Loud Bang, and the Fear,
then an unconditioned response, now becomes a conditioned response. Even if there will be no Loud
Bang presented (originally the cause of Fear), once the White Rat comes, it, alone, can already
stimulate Fear.
Based on these examples above, the process of Classical Conditioning is as follows:
 Preconditioning Phase – both Neutral Stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus are each
presented one at a time. This should set the record that the Neutral Stimulus (Bell or White
Rat) initially does not elicit a response, and the Unconditioned Stimulus (Food or Loud
Bang) elicits an Unconditioned Response (Salivation or Fear).
 Conditioning Phase – both Neutral Stimulus (Bell or White Rat) and Unconditioned
Stimulus (Food or Loud Bang) are presented together. The transitioning happens here.
 Postconditioning Phase – the Neutral Stimulus (Bell or White Rat) fully becomes the
Conditioned Stimulus (Bell or White Rat) and is presented alone. This elicits the now
Conditioned Response (Salivation or Fear), formerly the Unconditioned Response.
30. Learning Theory of Operant Conditioning by Burrhus Frederic Skinner
 B.F. Skinner – a behaviorism theorist who further advanced Watson’s basic view, but Skinner
thinks that the environment does not rule unlike Watson. Along with Bandura, Skinner believes that
people choose, build, and change their environments, they are not just shaped by them.
 Operant Conditioning – in which a learner’s behavior becomes either more or less probable
depending on the consequences it produces. The basic principle behind operant conditioning makes
sense: People tend to repeat behaviors that have desirable consequences and cut down on behaviors
that have undesirable consequences.
 Consequence – is either Reinforcement or Punishment. The outcome of something.
 Punishment – suppresses a behavior. For example, hitting or grounding you from going out
of the house.
 Positive Punishment – occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is applied or added to the
situation following a behavior. For example, you are spanked for misbehaving or a
cashier is criticized for coming up short of cash at the end of the day.
 Negative Punishment – occurs when a desirable stimulus is removed following the
behavior. For example, a child loses the privilege of watching TV or the amount the
cashier was short is deducted from her pay.
 Reinforcement – strengthens a behavior. For example, rewarding a gift or taking-away a
penalty.
 Positive Reinforcement – is when something pleasant or desirable has been added to
the situation in order to strengthen the behavior. For example, every time you do your
homework, your parents give you your favorite food like ice cream.
 Negative Reinforcement – is when something unpleasant or undesirable has been
removed from the situation in order to strengthen behavior. Note that this is not
punishment nor does it imply something negative, the negative here means something
is taken-out. For example, if you do your homework, you would not have to do the
dishes or if you do your homework, your parents erase the grounding they imposed
yesterday.
31. Learning Theory of Social Learning by Albert Bandura
 Albert Bandura – claims that humans are cognitive beings whose active processing of information
playa a critical role in their learning, behavior, and development. He wants his position to be called
Social Cognitive Theory rather than Social Learning Theory to emphasize that though he agrees with
some learning theory of behaviorisms, his theory is different in a way that it considers the
complexity of human cognition, that it is more than just at the mercy of consequences. Along with
Skinner, Bandura believes that people choose, build, and change their environments, they are not just
shaped by them.
 Human Agency – ways in which people deliberately exercise cognitive control over themselves,
their environments, and their lives. From the time they are infants recognizing that they can make
things happen in their worlds, people form intentions, foresee what will happen, evaluate and
regulate their actions as they pursue plans, and reflect on their functioning.
 Observational Learning – learning by observing the behavior of other people (a model).
 Latent Learning – learning occurs but is not evident in behavior.
 Vicarious Reinforcement – a process in which learners become more or less likely to
perform a behavior based on whether consequences experienced by the model they observe
are reinforcing or punishing.
 Self-Efficacy – the belief that one can effectively produce desired outcomes in that area. Whether
you undertake an action such as going on a diet or studying for a test and whether you succeed
depend greatly on whether you have a sense of self-efficacy with respect to that behavior.
 Triadic Reciprocal Causation – that person factors (cognitive, affective, and biological events)
affect behavior which, in turn, affects the environment, and the environment affects the person
factors, and vice versa.
32. DEVELOPMENTAL PRINCIPLES
 Dimensions of Personality
 Determinism VS Free Choice – a more philosophical dimension; is personality determined
by forces people cannot control (already determined) or can people choose to be what they
wish to be; or partially controlled and partially free?
 Pessimism VS Optimism – are people doomed to live miserable lives or can they grow to be
psychologically healthy and happy?
 Causality VS Teleology – are people’s behavior a function of their past experiences or a
function of their future goals or purposes?
 Conscious VS Unconscious – do unconscious forces influence people to act or are people
ordinarily aware of their actions?
 Biological VS Social Influences – is personality development determined by heredity or
determined by socioenvironmental forces?
 Uniqueness VS Similarities – is personality developmental path common to all or relative
depending on the individual or culture?
 Principles of Development
 Continuity – development is a continuous process from conception to death, it is run by the
power of change.
 Sequentiality – development for each individual, though exhibiting different changes,
follows a common pattern of what comes before and what comes after, with one stage
leading to the next (a same sequence of change).
 Maturation and Learning – development is composed of milestones in maturity and
learning; maturation refers to the threshold of change that facilitates the sequential
characteristic of biological growth and development while learning is a result of varied
experiences.
  Differentiality – the tempo of development is not even for each person and not the same rate
among persons, genders, or race. There are periods of great intensity, of equilibrium, of
imbalance, and of plateau and may occur at any level or between levels.
 Personal – development and growth are personal matters; each person is unique and should
be permitted to develop in a way that accommodates this uniqueness with not much of
unrealistic expectation.
 Internality – development and growth come from within; the environment and people may
encourage or hinder the development but the very force that pushed a child to grow is inside
him or her
 Generality-Specificity – a directional principle of all areas of growth; general activities
precede specific activities.
 Simplicity-Complexity – a directional principle of all areas of growth; development occurs
in such a way that relatively simpler tasks or problems are naturally done or surmounted first
before relatively more difficult tasks and problems.
 Cephalocaudal – a directional principle of physical growth; development proceeds from
head downwards. The head region starts growth first, and then other organs. The head gains
control first in infants, then the other limbs.
 Proximodistal – a directional principle of physical growth; development proceeds from the
center of the body outward. The spinal region develops first, and then the other regions. The
arms develop first before the hand, and the hand before the fingers; likewise, the feet before
the toes.
33. PRENATAL STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT
Definition of Terms
Tasks - These are the things that the person, in that particular developmental level,
should do. For example, improving ones’ own strength, forming one’s own
strength, increasing one’s own strength, developing…, etc. These are action
words that are currently being performed for that level. Both Tasks and Issues
are subdivided into Physical, Cognitive, and Socioemotional aspects.
Issues - These are the things that the person, in that particular development level, is
facing in his or her tasks that does not help with his or her development,
therefore, negatively affects the person if not dealt with. For example, in early
childhood, diminished appetite that is not due to any normal limitations, is an
issue. Both Tasks and Issues are subdivided into Physical, Cognitive, and
Socioemotional aspects.
Challenges - These are the things that the person, in that particular development level, is
facing in his or her tasks that are not necessarily negative, for the undergoing of
such hurdles are important in honing the person and preparing him or her for
higher forms of challenges. Issues only bring negative effects if not addressed,
but challenges bring fortification when surmounted and do not necessarily have
a negative effect if not dealt with. For example, diminished appetite due to
physical limitation of a small digestive system. This is not an issue because it is
normal, but is a challenge that despite the small amount of food that can be
eaten, one should compensate by eating frequently more than just the three-
meals-a-day of adults.
Milestone - These are the first full or complete achievement of a person of some quality
(e.g., gender identity) across his or her lifespan, and (1) is attributed to that
particular level where that quality is first fully realized (e.g., gender identity is a
 milestone of adolescence) and (2) is still attributed to that particular level
regardless if it persists to other levels (e.g., even if gender identity persists until
death, it is still a milestone of adolescence where it was first fully realized). For
example, of number (1), the development of gender identity starts at early
childhood but it is not considered a milestone on that level because it is not fully
realized until about adolescence, but even so, this is just a rough estimate that
gender identity is fully realized at adolescence, for some or even many people
may still search for their gender identity until middle adulthood or beyond. For
example, of number (2), when the person achieved gender identity in
adolescence, it would no longer be listed as a milestone in the succeeding levels
even if it is more expressed there. Milestone is what one gets successfully and
positively ending a task, eliminating issues, and surmounting challenges.
- The milestones enshrined under the levels hereafter are either indefinite like
gender identity, abstract thinking, or formal schooling [meaning that it can
possibly happen or it can be possibly attained from any stage of life], or definite
like handedness (a milestone, definitely appearing, in early childhood), or
menstruation and menopause, or social play (which we know that even infants
get to play with mother and father) [meaning that it happens or is uniformly
attained at that stage, level or age].

34. Prenatal Stage Hereditary Issues

 Genetic Abnormalities
 Dominant and Recessive Inheritance of Defects – dominant genes that carry an
abnormality (“bad” gene) is likely to be expressed than recessive gene that carry an
abnormality. If one parent has one dominant bad gene and one recessive good gene and the
other parent has two recessive good genes, the resulting probability that the child would have
the abnormality is 50/50; thus, one dominant gene is equal to two recessive gene. Inheritance
of defects factors in if the bad gene is carried by a dominant or recessive
 Sex-Linked Inheritance of Defects – males are generally more prone to inherit and express
a bad gene than females simply because males are XY while females are XX. If the X in
males carry a bad gene, they do not have a possibly uncontaminated back-up copy of it,
unlike for females who have another X copy.
 Chromosomal Abnormalities
 Down Syndrome – the most common chromosomal abnormality, is also called trisomy-21
because it is characterized in more than 90 percent of cases by an extra 21st chromosome.
 Sex Chromosome Abnormalities – a group of chromosomal abnormalities that is based on
Sex; these are: XYY, XXX (triple X), XXY (Klinefelter, commonly called sterility), XO
(Turner, no menstruation and webbed neck), and Fragile X (the most commonly inherited
form of mental retardation).
35. Prenatal Stage Environmental Issues
 Maternal Factors
 Nutrition and Maternal Weight
 Malnutrition
 Physical Activity and Work
 Drug Intake
 Maternal Illness
 Maternal Anxiety, Stress, and Depression
 Maternal Age
 Outside Environmental Hazards
  Paternal Factors
 Smoking
 Paternal Age
36. Prenatal Stage Developmental Issues
 Prenatal Stage Physical Issues
 Vulnerability to Environmental Influences
 Prenatal Stage Cognitive Issues
 Prenatal Stage Socio-Emotional Issues
37. Prenatal Stage Challenges
 Fertilization – the first challenges of the prenatal stage and, therefore, all stages, and is
characterized by the successful meeting of the sperm and egg cell.
 Germinal Stage Challenges
 Cell Differentiation
 Implantation
 Developing the Placenta and Umbilical Cord
 Embryonic Stage Challenges
 Organogenesis
 Fetal Stage Challenges
 Bone Cell Development
 Swallowing
 Developing Senses
38. CHILDHOOD STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT
39. Early Childhood Stage (3 to 6 years of age)
 Early Childhood Stage Developmental Tasks
 Early Childhood Stage Physical Tasks
 Growth Steadying – is a physical task of the early childhood that is biologically
automatic which causes consistent stable growth making the kid’s appearance
slenderer and proportions become more adultlike.
 Brain Developing – is a physical task of the early childhood that is biologically
automatic, and with interaction of the environment. Here, the brain is about 90% of
adult weight.
 Improving One’s Own Strength
 Improving One’s Own Gross Motor Skills – is a physical task of the early
childhood which involves running and jumping using large muscles
 Improving One’s Own Fine Motor Skills – is a physical task of the early childhood
which involves buttoning shirts and drawing pictures using eye-hand and small-
muscle coordination.
 Systems of Action Developing – is a physical task of the early childhood which
involves kids continually merging abilities they already have with those that they are
acquiring in order to produce more complex capabilities.
 Early Childhood Stage Cognitive Tasks
 Understanding Others’ Point of View
 Improvement of Memory and Language
 Using Symbols – (Piaget) is a cognitive task of the early childhood which involves
children representing something by memory or that something represents another
thing. For example, a kid using pencil cases to park buses in diagonal form like what
he saw at the terminal.
  Understanding of Identities – (Piaget) is a cognitive task of the early childhood
which involves children becoming aware that superficial alterations do not change the
nature of things. For example, a child recognizes that even though his teacher dressed
like a pirate he is still the teacher behind that costume.
 Understanding of Cause and Effect – (Piaget) is a cognitive task of the early
childhood which involves children knowing that events have causes. For example, a
kid went to check who kicked a ball behind the tree when he saw it roll towards him.
 Understanding of Number – (Piaget) is a cognitive task of the early childhood
which involves children understanding quantities and counting. For example, a kid
sharing her candies ensuring that her two friends get the same amount.
 Classifying – (Piaget) is a cognitive task of the early childhood which involves
children organizing objects, people, and events into meaningful categories. For
example, a kid arranging her shell collections into two piles: big ones and small ones.
 Fast Mapping – (Vygotsky) is a cognitive task of early childhood that arises when
children pick up an approximate meaning of a new word after hearing it only once or
twice in a conversation.
 Private and Social Speech
 Early Childhood Stage Socio-Emotional Tasks
 Gender Development
 Forming Self-Concept
 Forming Self-Esteem
 Developing Gender Identity
 Social Play
 Understanding of Emotions
 Increasing Independence
 Increasing Initiative
 Increasing Self-control
 Increasing Altruism
 Early Childhood Stage Developmental Issues
 Early Childhood Stage Physical Issues
 Sleep Problems – is a physical issue of early childhood that arises because of various
factors such as accidental activation of the brain’s motor system, by incomplete
arousal from a deep sleep, by disordered breathing, or by restless leg movements.
This disturbance tends to run in families and is closely associated with separation
anxiety. Extreme forms are night terrors, sleepwalking, nightmares, enuresis, etc.
 Diminished Appetite
 Obesity
 Undernutrition
 Thumbsucking – is a physical issue of early childhood that arises when this natural
act is performed even when the permanent teeth is already emerging, thereby
damaging the proper growth of the teeth.
 Tooth Decay – is a physical issue of early childhood that arises from
overconsumption of sweets coupled with the lack of regular dental care.
 Death to Accidental Injuries
 Early Childhood Stage Cognitive Issues
 Egocentric Thinking – (Piaget) is a cognitive issue of early childhood that arises
when children are unable to differentiate the self from others and thus cannot assume
an understanding of other perspectives. This exist across the lifespan to some
 reasonable degree, but early childhood kids are especially like this even when a third-
party observer may opine that it is unreasonable to do so.
 Transductive Reasoning – (Piaget) is a cognitive issue of early childhood that arises
when children see causes where none exist, they do not use deductive or inductive
reasoning. For example, a kid thinks that he caused his sister’s sickness because he
was mean to her yesterday.
 Animism – (Piaget) is a cognitive issue of early childhood that arises when children
attribute life to objects not alive. For example, the kid thinks that the car is hungry
and wants some gas to eat.
 Cognitive Immaturity – is a cognitive issue of early childhood that arises from some
illogical ideas about the world.
 Early Childhood Stage Socio-Emotional Issues
 Abnormal Aggression to Others
 Abnormal Fearfulness from Others
 Learned Helplessness – is a socioemotional issue of early childhood that arises when
children attribute to their deficiencies which they believe they are unable to change,
and thus will not even try.
 Early Childhood Stage Challenges
 Physical Limitations – is an early childhood challenge that arise because of a relatively
weak degree of strength, and so, their bodies are incapable of doing things that are beyond
their physical limits such as lifting very heavy objects, sustaining grip, maintaining balance,
eating more food, sleeping for longer periods, among others. These may be limitations, but
these are not necessarily negative, for these are things that one should undergo and
subsequently surmount in order to proceed to higher ordeals.
 Seeing Others’ Point of View – is an early childhood challenge that arise because of kids
egocentric thinking, and so, a challenge for them to see the views of others, especially that it
becomes a milestone for opening other values pertinent to the functions of humans as very
social beings.
 Socialization with Others – is an early childhood challenge that arise because of the
expansion of socialization from family to friends; the family is still the focus of social life for
kids in early childhood but there arises a challenge when the times comes that the kid
accommodates new friends and realize that they can become important too.
 Early Childhood Stage Milestones
 Handedness (definite) – the preference for using one hand over the other.
 Preschool or Kindergarten Experience (definite)
 Self-Esteem (indefinite)
 Empathy – (Piaget)
 Theory of Mind – (Piaget)
40. Middle Childhood Stage (6 to 11 years of age)
 Middle Childhood Stage Developmental Tasks
 Middle Childhood Stage Physical Tasks
 Growth Slowing – a physical task that is biologically automatic in middle childhood
that causes the growth of kids in this stage to relatively slow down.
 Improving Athletic Skills
 Middle Childhood Stage Cognitive Tasks
 Developing Logical Thinking
  Studying – is a cognitive task in middle childhood that results from children’s
entrance to formal schooling; this activity takes on a more central role for a more
successful educational career, and thus this becomes a cognitive task for them.
 Middle Childhood Stage Socio-Emotional Tasks
 Coregulating – is a socio-emotional task in middle childhood that is characterized by
a gradual shift in control from parent to child.
 Middle Childhood Stage Developmental Issues
 Middle Childhood Stage Physical Issues
 Respiratory Illnesses – is a physical issue in middle childhood that involves
difficulties in the lungs and in breathing. However common, health is generally better
in this stage than at any other time across the lifespan.
 Middle Childhood Stage Cognitive Issues
 Unfacilitated Special Educational Needs – is a physical issue in middle childhood
that arises from the misaligned educational needs of kids; some kids may show signs
of beyond normal educational needs, they may be too smart or too below what is
expected of them. Either way, this becomes an issue if they continue to traverse an
educational path that does not suit them in the first place, for in this, their needs are
not met and the design of the educational system may not align with their different
abilities.
 Middle Childhood Stage Socio-Emotional Issues
 Low Self-Esteem – is a physical issue in middle childhood that arises from the
negative effects of distorted self-concept; because self-concept becomes more
complex in middle childhood coupled with peers taking a central role in socialization,
this may negatively affect self-esteem.
 Middle Childhood Stage Challenges
 Maintaining Positive Socialization with Family – is a challenge in middle childhood that
calls for the child to foster a balance between family and friends; because kids in Middle
Childhood have their peers take a central role in socialization, and no longer their family,
conflict may arise when family impose rules or decisions that clash with the ideas of the kid
and his or her peers.
 Middle Childhood Stage Milestones
 Formal Schooling (indefinite)
 Coregulation (indefinite) – a milestone in middle childhood where the shift in control from
parents to child comes to a balanced state where both parties have a sense of mutual or
respective control over things.
41. ADOLESCENCE STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT
42. Adolescence (11 to 20 years of age)
 Adolescence Stage Developmental Tasks
 Adolescence Stage Physical Tasks
 Growth Hastening – a physical task in adolescence that is biologically automatic
which causes the person’s physical growth and other changes to be rapid and
profound.
 Developing Adult-like Physique
 Adolescence Stage Cognitive Tasks
 Developing Abstract Thinking
 Developing Scientific Thinking
 Preparing for College or Vocation
 Adolescence Stage Socio-Emotional Tasks
  Searching Gender Identity
 Searching Sexual Identity
 Adolescence Stage Developmental Issues
 Adolescence Stage Physical Issues
 Major Health Risks – this issue in adolescence is a group of health-related problems
that arise from the person’s behavior such as eating disorders and drug abuse.
 Adolescence Stage Cognitive Issues
 Persistent Immature Thinking
 Adolescence Stage Socio-Emotional Issues
 Negative Influence from Peer Groups
 Adolescence Stage Challenges
 Body Adjustments – puberty brings about changes in the body, especially for women, but
both genders in this stage typically produce body odors, grow pubic hairs, grow larger
muscles, fats, and bones, and thus they are challenged to adjust with what they wear and their
hygiene, they buy deodorants, new clothes like bras and more fit shirts, razor blades for men,
etc.
 Cultural, Religious, or Traditional Misalignments – people at this stage are constantly
challenged by the standards set before they were even born, and these standards are highly
considered in their decision-making process of what to wear, what gender to engage with,
and so on, and these standards do not always align with our own beliefs and needs, and thus,
because we live in a society with other people who collectively and over-time set those
standards, this conflict creates a constant challenge.
 Adolescence Stage Milestones
 Reproductive Maturity (definite) – is brought about by puberty where hormonal changes
brings changes in physical appearance and, for women, monthly menstrual cycles.
 Fully Realized Gender Identity (indefinite)
 Fully Realized Sexual Identity (indefinite)
43. ADULTHOOD STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT
44. Emerging and Young Adulthood Stage (20 to 40 years of age)
 Young Adulthood Stage Developmental Tasks
 Young Adulthood Stage Physical Tasks
 Growth Peaking – is a physical task in young adulthood that is biologically
automatic which is characterized by the reaching of the highest capacity of growth for
a human, and then declines slightly after.
 Child Bearing and Rearing – is an optional physical task in young adulthood and
beyond (for as far as possible) that is characterized by pregnancy, conception of, and
caring for a child.
 Young Adulthood Stage Cognitive Tasks
 Developing Complex Moral Judgments
 Choosing Careers – is a cognitive task in young adulthood that involves making
choices in educational career or occupational careers. At this point, this may be
choosing a course, or choosing a graduate study, or choosing a work or business,
usually after a period of exploration.
 Young Adulthood Stage Socio-Emotional Tasks
 Establishing Personal Lifestyle – a socio-emotional task in young adulthood that
involves being independent in terms of how you should live your life; a time where
one may separate from one’s parents, this may be that one is living in a separate
house or at a separate city; a time when one washes his or her dishes clothes and
 clean his or her own house, pay the bills, go to the hospital, and sleep and wake
anytime.
 Establishing Intimate Relationships – a socio-emotional task in young adulthood
that involves being in a romantic relationship with someone and shares with him or
her mutual feeling and common things, and may even lead to marriage or a family
with kids. These are not necessarily lasting.
 Young Adulthood Stage Developmental Issues
 Young Adulthood Stage Physical Issues
 Unhealthy Lifestyle – is a physical issue in young adulthood that is characterized by
the unhealthy type of work, food, or daily routine that one does every day that
negatively impacts health.
 Young Adulthood Stage Cognitive Issues
 Career Misalignment – is a cognitive issue in young adulthood where the career
path that was initially chosen turns out to be the best one, and this may lead to burn
out, lack of motivation, or hopelessness.
 Young Adulthood Stage Socio-Emotional Issues
 Rejection – is a socio-emotional issue in young adulthood that may be experienced
by those who has tried to be with someone but did not receive reciprocity.
 Isolation – is a socio-emotional issue in young adulthood that may be experienced by
those who are feeling lonely without a constant companion as in a romantic
relationship.
 Marital Discord – is a socio-emotional issue in young adulthood experienced by
married couples or even live-in couples whereby misunderstandings result to conflict
usually associated with anger and distaste.
 Young Adulthood Stage Challenges
 Independence – is a challenge in young adulthood where all life choices and decisions are in
one’s hands.
 Commitment – is a challenge in young adulthood where loyalty to and consistency with a
person or relationships are at stake, not necessarily with a spouse, but also with kids, business
partners, work, and graduate school demands, among others.
 Young Adulthood Stage Milestones
 Educational Choices (definite)
 Occupational Choices (definite)
 Parenting (indefinite)
45. Middle Adulthood Stage (40 to 65 years of age)
 Middle Adulthood Stage Developmental Tasks
 Middle Adulthood Stage Physical Tasks
 Menopause – a physical task in middle adulthood that is biologically automatic and
is characterized by the end of menstrual cycle for women.
 Middle Adulthood Stage Cognitive Tasks
 Mental Abilities Peaking – is a cognitive task in middle adulthood where the mental
faculties are at its height, including expertise and practical problem-solving skills.
 Earning Powers Peaking – is a cognitive task in middle adulthood where the
mindset of earning and gaining are one of the priorities, it may be as a result of
survival, as a result of ensuring the future, or as a result of wanting to gain more.
 Middle Adulthood Stage Socio-Emotional Tasks
 Interpersonal Networking – is a socio-emotional task in middle adulthood that is
usually coupled with one’s earning power, business power, or political power, and
 involves having an interconnected web of connections from different spheres of life
whereby one can benefit from.
 Parting with Children – is a socio-emotional task in middle adulthood that involves
launching one’s children to their respective husbands or wives to settle on their own
separate homes.
 Middle Adulthood Stage Developmental Issues
 Middle Adulthood Stage Physical Issues
 Deterioration – a physical issue beginning in middle adulthood that is characterized
by diminishing sensory abilities, stamina, and strength.
 Middle Adulthood Stage Cognitive Issues
 Career Changing – a cognitive issue in middle adulthood that involves the decision-
making to change career in life.
 Midlife Crisis – a cognitive issue in middle adulthood that is characterized by a
period of transition in life where someone struggles with their identity and self-
confidence.
 Burnout – is a socio-emotional issue in middle adulthood that is characterized by
exhaustion, feelings of purposelessness, hopelessness, or lack of motivation
especially with regards to work.
 Middle Adulthood Stage Socio-Emotional Issues
 Interpersonal Conflicts
 Parenting Stress
 Middle Adulthood Stage Challenges
 Middle Adulthood Stage Milestones
 Financial Stability
 Career Success
46. Late Adulthood Stage
 Late Adulthood Stage Developmental Tasks
 Late Adulthood Stage Physical Tasks
 Focusing on Personal Chores – is a group of physical tasks in late adulthood where
people who are advanced in age are concentrating on doing the chores that they need
personally such as in hygiene or chores that are in their immediate home such as
sweeping the floor.
 Saving Money – is a physical task in late adulthood where the person saves up
money, either by accumulation from preretirement wages or by businesses, or by gifts
to them from their children or others. The person does this for whatever purpose, but
usually for the spending of his or her own burial.
 Late Adulthood Stage Cognitive Tasks
 Coping with Impending Death
 Late Adulthood Stage Socio-Emotional Tasks
 Coping with Loss
 Late Adulthood Stage Developmental Issues
 Late Adulthood Stage Physical Issues
 General Health Declining
 Physical Abilities Declining
 Late Adulthood Stage Cognitive Issues
 Reaction Time Slowing
 Alertness Deteriorating
 Intelligence Deteriorating
  Memory Deteriorating
 Late Adulthood Stage Socio-Emotional Issues
 Loss of Old Familiar Faces – a socioemotional issue in late adulthood that is
brought about by the declining number of people that the person knows form his or
her younger years such as parents, friends, and siblings.
 Late Adulthood Stage Challenges
 Compensation – is a challenge in late adulthood where people find new ways to do things,
to think of things, or to remember things as a result of the decline and deterioration of their
physical, mental, and socioemotional faculties.
 Time Allocation – is a challenge in late adulthood where people find new ways to spend the
time that has been left vacant after retirement or after their everyday work are cut out for
them by the younger members of the family.
 Late Adulthood Stage Milestones
 Old Age – is a milestone achieved only in late adulthood.
 Retirement – is a milestone in late adulthood signified by the end of working either from
being a corporate worker or from one’s own business.
47. DEATH AND BEREAVEMENT
48. Grief – emotional response experienced in the early phases of bereavement.
49. Bereavement – loss, due to death, of someone to whom one feels close and the process of adjustment to the
loss.
50. Challenges of Coping Faced (applicable both to the dead/dying and to the ones left behind)
 Kubler-Ross Stages of Coming to Terms with Death
 Denial – “this cannot be happening to me”
 Anger – “why me?”
 Bargaining – bargaining for extra time “if I can only live to see my daughter married, I
won’t ask for anything more”
 Depression
 Acceptance
 The Classic Grief Work Model
 Shock and Disbelief – this stage is the immediate feeling of being lost and confused, leading
to initial numbness that gives way to overwhelming feelings of sadness and frequent crying.
This first stage may last for several weeks, especially after a sudden or unexpected death.
 Preoccupation with the Memory of the Dead Person – this stage, which may last 6 months
to 2 years or so, and the survivor tries to come to terms with the death but cannot yet accept
it.
 Resolution – this stage comes when the bereaved person renews interest in every day
activities. Memories of the dead person bring fond memories mingled with sadness instead of
sharp pain and longing.
 Grieving: Multiple Variations
 Recovery Pattern – the mourner goes from high to low distress.
 Delayed Grief Pattern – there may be moderate or elevated initial grief, and symptoms
gradually worsen over time.
 Chronic Grief Pattern – the mourner remains distressed for a long time.
 Resilience Pattern – the mourner shows a low and gradually diminishing level of grief in
response to the death of a loved one.
51. Critical Issues Related to Death and Bereavement
 In Terms of Feelings Felt or Actions Being Done:
  Under 3 Years of Age: Sadness, Fearfulness, Loss of Appetite, Failure to Thrive, Sleep
Disturbance, Social Withdrawal, Developmental Delay, Irritability, Excessive Crying,
Increased Dependency, and Loss of Speech.
 3 to 5 Years of Age: Increased Activity, Constipation, Soiling, Bed-wetting. Anger and
Temper, Tantrums, Out-of-Control Behavior, Nightmares, and Crying Spells.
 School-Age Children: Deterioration of School Performance due to Loss of Concentration,
Interest, and Motivation, Crying Spells, Lying, Stealing, Nervousness, Abdominal Pain,
Headaches, Listlessness, and Fatigue.
 Adolescents: Depression, Somatic Complaint, Delinquent Behavior, Promiscuity, Suicide
Attempts, and Dropping Out of School.
 Adulthood: Frustration, Anger, Counting/Imagining Remaining Years. Awareness of being
Net-In-Line to Die, Making Wills and wishes, Planning Funerals, Giving-up or Pushing
Harder, Adopting Healthier Lifestyle, Struggling with Illness, and Finding Comfort in Faith
and Religion.
 In Terms of the Type of Loss:
 Surviving a Spouse – issues with this type of loss include physiological issues such as
headaches, loss of appetite, chest pain, etc.; mental issues such as longing and depression
(depending on the quality of the marital relationship); social issues such as loss of
companionship and support which may soon lead to the spouse soon following to the grave;
and, practical issues such as lack of financial stability and economic strain.
 Losing a Parent in Adulthood – issues with this type of loss include stress, conflict between
siblings, and intensifying or severing of relationship between siblings.
 Losing a Child – issues with this type of loss include strengthening or weakening of marital
relationship, poor health, mental health problems, and stress that may hasten own death.
 Mourning a Miscarriage – issues with this type of loss include grief, depression, guilt,
isolation, sadness, and breaking-up with the spouse.
52. Issues Involved in Decisions about Death
 Suicide – this is a decisional issue that arises when the person decides and actually accomplishes
ending is or her own life. This act usually happens even without physical problems or impending
death. Even with an impending death due to disease (e.g., cancer), it is usually committed in
isolation, or in a place where help cannot reach. This becomes an issue between the person’s needs
and the religious prohibitions being set or the society’s interest in preserving life.
 Hastening Death – this is a decisional issue that arises when the option to make the dying process
faster is being advised by a professional as the best course of action because, medically speaking, a
brain-dead person will never wake-up. This usually arises when the person is already brain-dead but
the heart is still beating. A clash between religious belief and medical fact/medical recommendation
occurs. This begs the question “Is life found within an active brain or a beating heart?”.
 Euthanasia – is a decisional issue that is (1) different from suicide in that it is only done
because of impending death (e.g., last stage of cancer), and (2) a variant of Hastening Death
just that Euthanasia is a more specific course of action (though the issue is the same – a clash
between religious belief/societal idea of life-preservation and medical recommendation).
However, the decision to opt for Euthanasia in Hastening Death is also possible.
 Passive Euthanasia – involves withholding or discounting treatment that might
extend the life of a terminally ill patient such as medication, life-support systems, and
feeding tubes. This is generally legal.
 Active Euthanasia – involves action taken directly or deliberately to shorten a life.
This is commonly called “mercy killing”. This is generally illegal.
 Advance Directive – a document made by a mentally competent person before
incapacitation that contains the instructions about when and how to discontinue futile
medical care. This can take the form of Living Will or Durable Power of Attorney.
 Living Will – may contain specific provisions with regard to circumstances in which
treatment should be discontinued, what extraordinary measures, if any, should be
taken to prolong life, and what kind of pain management is desired. The person may
also sign and permit donating his or her own organs for organ transplants.
 Durable Power of Attorney – which appoints another person to make decisions if
the maker of the document becomes incompetent to do so.
53. TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS
 Perspectives on Nature and Nurture
 Role of Heredity and Environment – Understanding (2)
 Influence of Heredity – Applying (2)
 Characteristics that pertain to Heredity and Environment – Remembering (1)
 Research Methods in Developmental Psychology and Ethical Considerations
 Ethical Considerations in Various Research Methods – Remembering (2)
 Research Designs in Human Development – Remembering (2)
 Differentiate Cross Sectional and Longitudinal Studies – Applying (1)
 Developmental Theories
 Psychosexual Theory by Freud – Evaluating (3)
 Psychosocial Theory by Erikson – Applying (2), Evaluating (2)
 Cognitive Development by Piaget – Applying (3)
 Moral Development by Kohlberg – Analyzing (2)
 Ecological Model by Bronfenbrenner – Applying (2)
 Sociocultural Theory by Vygotsky – Applying (2)
 Attachment Theory by Ainsworth and Mahler – Applying (3)
 Identity Formation Theory by Marcia – Applying (2)
 Learning Theories, Behaviorism, Social Learning – Analyzing (2)
 Evolutionary Theory of Development by Wilson – Analyzing (2)
 Developmental Principles
 Developmental Principles in the Study of Life-Span Development – Understanding (2),
Analyzing (3)
 Prenatal Stage of Development
 Critical Issues Related to Influence of Heredity and Environment – Understanding (3)
 Developmental Issues Related to Physical, Cognitive, Socio-Emotional Development –
Applying (5)
 Challenges Faced – Understanding (3 in all, Prenatal and Childhood)
 Differentiate Challenges Faced – Analyzing (5 in all, Prenatal, Childhood, Adolescence,
and Adulthood)
 Childhood Stage of Development
 Developmental Tasks in Physical, Cognitive, Socio-Emotional Developmental –
Understanding (5 in all, Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood), Analyzing (5 in all,
Childhood and Adolescence)
 Developmental Issues Related to Physical, Cognitive, Socio-Emotional Development –
Evaluate (5 in all, Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood)
 Expected Developmental Milestones – Remembering (6 in all, Childhood, Adolescence,
and Adulthood), Applying (6 in all, Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood)
 Challenges Faced – Understanding (3 in all, Prenatal and Childhood)
 Differentiate Challenges Faced – Analyzing (5 in all, Prenatal, Childhood, Adolescence,
and Adulthood)
 Adolescence Stage of Development
 Developmental Tasks in Physical, Cognitive, Socio-Emotional Developmental –
Understanding (5 in all, Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood), Analyzing (5 in all,
Childhood and Adolescence)
  Developmental Issues Related to Physical, Cognitive, Socio-Emotional Development –
Evaluate (5 in all, Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood)
 Expected Developmental Milestones – Remembering (6 in all, Childhood, Adolescence,
and Adulthood), Applying (6 in all, Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood)
 Challenges Faced – Applying (5 in all, Adolescence and Adulthood)
 Differentiate Challenges Faced – Analyzing (5 in all, Prenatal, Childhood, Adolescence,
and Adulthood)
 Adulthood Stage of Development
 Developmental Tasks in Physical, Cognitive, Socio-Emotional Development –
Understanding (5 in all, Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood), Applying (5)
 Developmental Issues Related to Physical, Cognitive, Socio-Emotional Development –
Evaluate (5 in all, Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood)
 Expected Developmental Milestones – Remembering (6 in all, Childhood, Adolescence,
and Adulthood), Applying (6 in all, Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood)
 Challenges Faced – Applying (5 in all, Adolescence and Adulthood)
 Differentiate Challenges Faced – Analyzing (5 in all, Prenatal, Childhood, Adolescence,
and Adulthood)
 Death and Bereavement
 Challenges of Coping Faced – Remembering (2)
 Critical Issues Related to Death and Bereavement – Remembering (2)
 Issues Involved in Decisions about Death – Applying (3)

DATE STARTED: October 28, 2023

DATE FINISHED: December 25, 2023

Glory and Honor to Him who Lives in me!