GENERAL CHEMISTRY II

QUARTER 3
MODULE 1

INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
- Forces that hold atoms together withn
a molecule

TYPES OF INTRA FORCES ATTRACTION

 Ionic bond – complete transfer of
valence electrons between atoms

 Covalent bond – formed between

atoms that have similar
electronegativities (the afiinity/desire
for electrons)

 Nonpolar covalent bond – w/ very

similar electronegativities
 Polar covalent bond – slightly
different electronegativities

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION

- Forces exist between molecules
- Much weaker
- Determine the physical properties of
molecules

 Dipole-dipole interactions – positive to

negative end of polar molecules
 Ion-Dipole Interactions – results from
electrostatic attraction, ion and a
neutral molecule that has dipole, most
found in solutions
 Hydrogen Bonding – strongest
hydrogen atom bonded to oxygen,
nitrogen, fluorine atom (FON)
 London Dispersion Forces – weakest,
exist between all types of molecules,
more electrons stronger LDP
QUARTER 4

1
Acids and Bases filtered and the supernatant is cooled to room
temperature before it can be used.
ACID DISSOCIATION CONSTANT
The demonstration is done by placing about 20
Hydrogen ion is the positive
mL of the camote tops extract in a beaker. To
An ion is the negative charge
this solution, samples of acidic or basic
Strong (dissociate completely)– more H+ more
solutions are added alternately to demonstrate
split up of HA
reversible color changes. You may use vinegar
Weak (only few or one will dissociate)- only few
or calamansi extract for the acidic solutions. For
H+ will get as a strong acid
the basic solutions, you may use household
bleach, “liquid sosa” or soap solution.
BASE STRONG OR WEAK
NaOH – Na is positive
OH is negative
The more hydroxide ions the stronger the base With the idea of reversibility.

For the blue bottle experiment, the forward

EXAMPLES FOR EQUILIBRIUM
process occurs when the bottle was shaken and
the solution inside turns blue. After standing
A “blue bottle” is a rubber/cork-stoppered test-
undisturbed, the solution turns colorless again
tube half-filled with a colorless liquid that turns
which indicates that the solution returned to its
blue when shaken. Upon standing of the blue
initial state, hence the occurrence of the
solution undisturbed, it becomes colorless
reverse process.
again. The process can be repeated several
times. For the camote tops extract indicator
experiment, the reversibility of the color
Dissolve 1 g NaOH and 1.67 g glucose in 50 mL changes of the indicator if a base and an acid
distilled water. To this solution, add a previously are added alternately to the extract.
prepared solution of 0.008 g methylene blue in
8 mL ethanol. The blue solution will turn
colorless after about a minute.
City of San Francisco in California, USA.
GOLDEN GATE BRIDGE
Camote tops extract changes color depending
on the acidity or basicity of the solution. It turns Assuming the rate (say number of cars per
purple or red when it is acidic and yellow when hour) at which cars enter the city is the same as
basic. The idea of a reversible process may be the rate at which the cars leave the city, then
illustrated by observing color changes upon the two opposing processes are in balance. This
adding an acid or a base to the camote tops also means that there is a constant number of
extract. cars inside the city.

Camote tops extract is prepared by boiling red

camote tops in water. The resulting mixture is

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A state of balance is also referred to as a state aA + bB —> cC + Dd
of equilibrium. In a reversible reaction, when
the reactants start to form the products, the (the lower case letters represent the
products would then start to reform the stoichiometric coefficients of the reactants and
reactants. products.)

The two opposing processes happen at different

rates but a certain point in the reaction will be The equilibrium constant, K, is the numerical
reached where the rates of the forward and value that is obtained when equilibrium
backward reactions are the same. This is the concentrations are substituted to the
state of chemical equilibrium. equilibrium constant expression.
In a state of chemical equilibrium, since the rate
of product formation is equal to the rate of the
reformation of the reactants, then the If K >> 1 (large K value), the equilibrium lies to
concentrations of the reactants and products the right and the products predominate in the
remain becomes constant. equilibrium mixture.

If K << 1 (small K value), the equilibrium lies to

the left and the reactants predominate in the
The state of chemical equilibrium is a highly equilibrium mixture.
dynamic state. This means that though there
are no change in the composition of the In what direction will the reaction proceed in
reaction mixture and no visible changes taking order to attain the equilibrium?
place, the particles are continuously reacting.
If Q = K , then the system is already at
Also, a system at chemical equilibrium can be
equilibrium;
easily disturbed by changes in the reaction
conditions. If Q > K, reaction proceeds in the backward
direction until equilibrium is attained;

If Q < K, reaction proceeds in the forward

CONCEPT OF EQUILIBRIUM
direction until equilibrium is attained.
Many chemical reactions do not proceed nto
just one direction or proceed essentially to
completion. These are called reversible
reactions.

REVERSIBLE REACTION
CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3 –
In reversible reactions, the reactants are not
completely converted into products and some
of the products may be converted back into
reactants.

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LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE If pH > 7, the solution is acidic

If pH = 7, the solution is neutral

Increasing the concentration of a substance in If pH < 7, the solution is basic

an equilibrium mixture displaces the
equilibrium in the direction which consumes
some of the added material. Conversely, IMPORTANCE OF PH
decreasing the concentration of a substance
favors the reaction which produces it. Human Survival

Human body works within the pH range of 7.0

to 7.8. Living organisms can survive only in a
In the context of the Le Chatelier’s principle, the narrow range of pH.
stress referred here is the change in
concentration. Large amount of acids are being released in the
stomach every time you eat. It helps in the
When the concentration of either a reactant or digestion of food
a product is increased, the equilibrium shifts
into the direction that would consume that without harming the stomach. Tooth decay
added component. If the concentration is starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than
decreased, then the equilibrium shifts into the 5.5. Tooth enamel,
direction that replenishes the lost component.
made up of calcium phosphate, is corroded
when the pH in the mouth is below 5.5.

Water, like the hammer, can serve two

purposes: as a proton donor and as proton
Plants and Animal Survival
acceptor.
When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is
called acid rain. When acid rain flows into the
The stronger the acid, the weaker the rivers, it lowers the pH
conjugate base. The weaker the acid, the
of the river water. Aquatic life cannot survive in
stronger the conjugate base.
acidic water.

Acid rain has indirect effects on plants. It

If [H+] > 0.0000001 M < [OH-] 1x10-7 the weakens the trees by damaging their leaves,
solution is acidic limiting the nutrients

If [OH-] > 0.0000001 M <or [OH-] 1x10-7 the available to them, or poisoning them with toxic
solution is basic substances slowly released from the soil. Trees
affected by acid

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rain do not grow as quickly as usual, their leaves doesn’t tell us the extent of ionization, or
and needles turn brown and fall off when they concentration of the ions in the solution. For
should be green example, corrosiveness is a function of the
properties of that acid, as well as its
and healthy. concentration. We cannot conclude that a
strong acid is more dangerous than a weak acid.
Hydroflouric acid is a weak acid, but it is
Soil Acidity extremely dangerous. As shown in the video
and in other references, hydroflouric acid is
Plants require a specific pH range for their
capable of eating through glass and flesh.
healthy growth. Soil pH should be maintained at
>5.5. Acidic soil

prevents or limits root development. Plants

grown in acidic soil cannot absorb water and
nutrients, are stunted,

STRING WEAK ACID/BASES

The proton is highlighted in red in the equation

HA + H2O. After mixing, the proton can go to
either the H2O molecule or stick with A-.

There are two possibilities for this reaction:

1. If H2O is a strong base it will get the proton

and the reaction will yield high concentration of
H3O+ and A-

2. If A- has a stronger attraction to the proton

(low tendency to lose a proton), we say that it is
a weak acid, then the reaction will yield low
concentration of H3O+ and A-

WEAK DOESN’T MEAN WEAK

The terms "strong" and "weak" do not relate to

how corrosive or caustic a subtance is. The term
“weak” simply means that a particular
acid/base doesn’t ionize completely in water. It